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Advanced Quantum Field Theory: Examples 2

Solution prepared by K. Yamamoto & P. Zhao

1. Note that (a) is the Legendre transform of W (b), just as the Hamiltonian H(q, p) is the Legendre
transform of the Lagrangian L(q, q).
Recall that from L(q, q)
we can define the conjugate momentum p =
L
. We then define the Hamiltonian H(q, p) = qp
L(q, q)
and remove q in favor of p. Then the Euler q
dp
dq
L
H
H
Lagrange equation dt = q is equivalent to Hamiltons equations dp
dt = q ,
dt = p .
We follow the same procedure for (a) and W (b), which are related

 (b) = ba (c.f. H +L = qp).


 by (a)+W
Differentiating with respect to a and using the relation

W
b

= a c.f. p =

L
q

, we find



W b
b

H
+
=
a + b =
= b c.f. q =
.
a
b a
a
a
p
Thus W 00 =

a
b
and 00 =
. Denote the components of W 00 and 00 by Wij and ij , respectively. Then
b
a
(W 00 00 )ij = Wik kj =

ai bk
ai
=
= ij = W 00 00 = 1.
bk aj
aj

It is easy to see that

aj

= W 00 .
=
= Wij
=
bi
bi aj
aj
b
a
For a potential with only quartic potential, we find using the trick from example sheet 1 question 5:
eW (b) =
=
=
=




 
(2)n/2
1

dn x eS+bx =
exp
b A1 b
exp V
b
2
det A



n/2

(2)
1

A1
e(V (x)+bx)
exp
2
x
x
det A
x=0




(2)n/2
1 1
1 1 1
1
1
2

1 + Aij i j + Aij Akl i j k l +


1 + bi xi Vijkl xi xj xk xl + (bi xi ) +
2
8
4!
2
det A
xi =0


n/2
(2)
1
1
1
1
1 1
1
1 2
2

(Vijkl A1
1 + bi A1
ij bj Vijkl Aij Akl + (bi Aij bj ) +
ij Akl ) +
2
8
8
128
det A


(2)n/2

1 + + + + + ,
det A

where we assign to the source term b. We find the expansion for W (b) by taking the logarithm and noting
1
1
log(1 + x) = x x2 + x3 ,
2
3

n
1
1
2
W (b) = log(2) log det A + + + + + ( + + ) +
2
2
2



= C + + +
+

+ ,

C=

n
1
log(2) log det A.
2
2

Thus only connected diagrams survive. To find the expansion for (a), first compute
ai =

1 1
1 1


1 1
1 1
1 1
W (b) = A1
ij bj Aij Vjklm Akl Amn bn + Aij Vjklm Akl Amn Vnopq Aop Aqs bq + = + + + .
bi
2
4

Then we use the relation (a) = bi ai W (b) to find


1
1
1
1 1 1
1
1 1
1
1 1
1 1
(a) = C+ bi A1
ij bj + Vijkl Aij Akl bi Aij Vjklm Akl Amn bn + bi Aij Vjklm Akl Amn Vnopq Aop Aqs bs +
2
8
4
8
1
Finally, we need to express everything in terms of ai by substituting bi = Aij aj + Vijkl A1
jk al +
2
1
1
1
1
1
(a) = C + ai Aij aj + Vijkl A1

/ +
/

/ + ,
ij Akl + ai Vijkl Ajk al + = /
2
8
4
1

where denotes the source term a and / denotes amputated legs without a propagator A1 . We see that
diagrams with internal propagators get cancelled. For example, there is no
/

/ corresponding to

1
1
1
1
1
1
the 18 ai Vijkl A1
jk Alm Vmnop Ano ap term because there is a factor of 8 from 2 bi Aij bj , minus a factor of 4 from
1
1 1
1
1 1
1
1
1
1 1
4 bi Aij Vjklm Akl Amn bn , which cancels with the factor of 8 from 8 bi Aij Vjklm Akl Amn Vnopq Aop Aqs bs .
Hence only 1PI diagrams remain, i.e. diagrams that cannot be disjoined by cutting one internal propagator.
2. We need a relation


Z
J(y)

[] =
dd y
(y) + J(y) d (x y)
W [J]
(x)
(x)
(x)
Z
Z
J(y) W [J]
J(z) W [J]
= J(x) + dd y
dd z
= J(x),
(x) (y)
(x) J(z)

which is derived by the definitions and chain rule. Using this formula we have
Z
Z
Z

(z) J(y)
J(y)
dd z G2 (x, z)2 (z, y) = dd z
W [J]
[] = dd z
=
= d (x y). (1)
J(x) J(z)
(z) (y)
J(x) (z)
J(x)
Its also easy to show that


Z
Z
Z

d (y)
d
i
= i d y
= d y i
W [J]
= dd y G2 (x, y)
.
J(x)
J(x) (y)
J(x) J(y)
(y)
(y)
The last part is slightly more tricky. First we evaluate a quantity
Z

G2 (x2 , x3 ) =
dd y2
G2 (x2 , y2 ) d (y2 x3 )
(y1 )
(y1 )


ZZ

d
d
=
d y2 d y3
G2 (x2 , y2 ) 2 (y2 , y3 )G2 (y3 , x3 ).
(y1 )
In the second line we used the relation (1). Performing partial integration, the r.h.s. is rewritten as
 ZZ


d
d
r.h.s. =

d y2 d y3 G2 (x2 , y2 )2 (y2 , y3 )G2 (y3 , x3 )


(y1 )
ZZ
ZZ
2 (y2 , y3 )
G2 (x3 , y3 )
d
d
+
d y2 d y3 G2 (x2 , y2 )
G2 (y3 , x3 ) +
dd y2 dd y3 G2 (x2 , y2 )2 (y2 , y3 )
.
(y1 )
(y1 )
But using (1) again, we see that the first term cancels the third one. Thus we get
ZZ

G2 (x2 , x3 ) =
dd y2 dd y3 G2 (x2 , y2 )G2 (x3 , y3 )3 (y1 , y2 , y3 ).
(y1 )
Now its straightforward to show that
G3 (x1 , x2 , x3 )

G2 (x2 , x3 ) = dd y1 G2 (x1 , y1 )
G2 (x2 , x3 )
i
J(x1 )
(y1 )
ZZZ
=
dd y1 dd y2 dd y3 G2 (x1 , y1 )G2 (x2 , y2 )G2 (x3 , y3 )3 (y1 , y2 , y3 ).

1
3. Consider the change of variables i0 = i k Bik
,

i = i k B ik such that d0 = d,

d = d. Then

1
1
1
i Bij j0 = (i k Bki
)Bij (j l Bjl
) = i Bij j + j j + i i j Bjk
k .
1

1
Note that B ik = Bki
because B is hermitian. The generating functional is
Z Y
Z Y
n
n
0
0
1
1
di di0 exp(i Bij j0 ) exp( i Bij
k ) = det B exp( i Bij
j ).
di di exp(i Bij j + i i + i i ) =
i=1

i=1

The correlation function of two Grassmann variables is



Z Y
Z Y
n
n

1
1


hi j i =
di di i j exp(i Bij j ) =
di di
exp(i Bij j + i i + i i )

det B
det
B

j
i
i=1
i=1
==0



1
=
exp( i Bij j )
= Bij
.
i j
==0
2

0
4. Consider the change of variables i0 = i A1
ik k such that di = di . Then
1
1
i0 Aij j0 = (i A1
ik k )Aij (j Ajl l ) = i Aij j + j j i i + Aik k i .

and
Z

d exp

1
i Aij j + i i
2

Z
=

n 0

d exp







1
1 0
1
1
1
0
Aij j exp
i Aij j = det A exp
i Aij j .
2 i
2
2

The correlation function of two Grassmann variables is






Z
Z

1
1
1
1

dn i j exp
dn
hi j i =
i Aij j =
exp
i Aij j + i i
2
i j
2
det A
det A
=0







1
1

1
1

=
=
exp
i A1
1 + i A1
=
A1
(i A1
=
ij j
ij j
ji j i Aij
ij ) = Aij .
i j
2

2
2

i
j
i
i
=0
Under the change of variables 0 = + 0 ,

 Z
Z
Z
Z
f
dn 0 (0 00 )f (0 ) = dn ()f (+0 ) = dn 1 n f (0 ) +
(0 )i + = dn 1 n f (0 ),
i
Z
where in the last equality we used i2 = 0 for any Grassmann variable. Since dn 1 n = 1, we have
Z

dn ( 0 )f () = f (0 ).

5. Because , are Grassman variables, we only have terms like , in the following integrals
Z
Z
Z

H
H
dd e h|e
|i = dd (1 + )(h0| + h1|)e
(|0i + |1i) = dd (h0|eH |0i + h1|eH |1i) = tr eH .
Z
Z
Z

dd e |ih| = dd (1 + )(|0i + |1i)(h0| + h1|) = dd (|0ih0| + |1ih1|) = (|0ih0| + |1ih1|) = 1.


Let = (N + 1) and N +1 = , N +1 = , then
Z
tr (eH ) = dN +1 dN +1 eN +1 N +1 hN +1 |e(N +1)H | N +1 i.
H | N +1 i and apply the previous
H eH 1e
We write hN +1 |e(N +1)H | N +1 i as hN +1 |eH 1e
result,
Z
Z
hN +1 |eH dN dN eN N |N ihN |eH eH d1 d1 e1 1 |1 ih1 |eH | N +1 i.
We can then move all the di di ei i to the left to get
!
Z NY
N
+1
+1
X
H
tr (e
)=
di di exp
i i hN +1 |eH |N i h2 |eH |1 ih1 |eH | N +1 i.
i=1

i=1

Now we use hi |eH |j i exp((1 )i j ) to write


"
#
Z NY
+1
N
X

H
tr (e
)=
di di exp N +1 N +1
i i + (1 + )i+1 i + (1 )1 N +1
i=1

Z NY
+1

i=1

di di exp (i Bij j ) = det B,

i=1

1
1 + 

where B is the (N + 1) (N + 1) matrix defined by B =


..

0
0
3

0
1
1 + 
..
.

...
...
...
..
.

0
0
0
..
.

0
0

...
...

1
1 + 

1 
0

.. .
.

0
1



1
0
To find the determinant of B, first define the N N matrix AN recursively as A2 =
, A3 =
1 +  1



1
0
0
1
0
1
1 +  1
and AN = 1 + 
. Similarly, B2 = 1 + 
0
, B3 =
AN 1
0
1 + 
0
0 1 + 
0

1 + 
1
0
1 +  1 0

and BN =
. We can readily calculate det AN = 1 and
0
1 + 
1
0
BN 1
0
0
1 + 
BN = (1 + )N . By expanding along the top row of B, we find

det B = det AN + (1)N (1 ) det BN = 1 + (1 )N +1 = 1 + 1

N +1

N +1

1 + e as N .

6. Define the generating functional as



 Z

Z
1

Z[J, , ] = DDD
exp i dd x
4 + D + g J
2
where the definitions of the operators are 4 + m2 , D ( ) + . We introduced mass
of the fermion . In the lecture note, the convention for Feynman propagators is as follows;
4(x) 4F (x y) = (x y),

D(x) SF (x y) = (x y).

In terms of Fourier components, we have


Z
4F (x y) =

dd p
1
eip(xy) ,
d
2
(2) p + m2 i

Z
SF (x y) =

dd p i p ip(xy)
e
.
(2)d p2 + 2 i

The boundary conditions are taken into account by the choice of the sign in front of  and the choice of
the contour. Note that 4F is symmetric in x and y while SF is neither symmetric nor antisymmetric. That
means the direction of propagation is significant for fermion propagators. By using these notations and
completing the square, we may rewrite it into the form

 Z
Z
R

0 D 0 )
0
0
0 i dd x( 12 0 40 +
d

Z[J, , ] =
D D D e
exp g d x
J(x) (x) (x)
 Z


1

d
d
exp i d xd y
J(x)4F (x y)J(y) + (x)SF (x y) (y) .
(2)
2
The correspondence between fields and derivatives is
(x) i

, (x) i
, (x) i
.
J(x)
(x)
(x)

R
R
1
Also note that 41 J(x) = dd y4F (x y)J(y), D
(x) = dd ySF (x y) (y).
First we consider two-point function for scalar field. By definition
Z
R d 1

h(x1 )(x2 )i Z[0]


DDD
(x1 )(x2 )ei d x( 2 4+ D +g )


Z
R

D +g
J )
i dd x( 12 4+
1

= Z[0]
i
i
DDDe
.
J(x1 )
J(x2 )
We would like to make use of the formula (2). But the first factor in (2) is not exactly identical to Z[0] which
should include the contribution from the interaction term. Here we first calculate the quantity
Z
R d 1

Zfree
DDD
(x1 )(x2 )ei d x( 2 4+ D +g )
(3)
 Z


=
exp g dd x
J(x1 ) J(x2 )
J(x) (x) (x)
 Z


1

exp i dd xdd y
J(x)4F (x y)J(y) + (x)SF (x y) (y)
2
J,,
=0

with understanding that the terms corresponding to vacuum bubbles must be eliminated by hand. Up to
second order in g,


Z

g2

(3) =
1+
dd wdd z
J(x1 ) J(x2 )
2
J(w) J(z) (w) (w) (z) (z)
 Z


1

+O(g 4 )
exp i dd xdd y
J(x)4F (x y)J(y) + (x)SF (x y) (y)
2
J,,
=0
where we took into account that odd number of J derivatives will vanish by virtue of J = 0. Now we can
manipulate bosonic part and fermionic part separately. Bosonic part is
 Z


1

exp i dd xdd y J(x)4F (x y)J(y)
J(x1 ) J(x2 ) J(w) J(z)
2
J,,
=0


Z
Z

=
i4F (w z) dd x4F (z x)J(x) dd y4F (w y)J(y)
J(x1 ) J(x2 )
 Z

1

exp i dd xdd y J(x)4F (x y)J(y)
2
J,,
=0
= 4F (w z)4F (x1 x2 ) 4F (z x2 )4F (w x1 ) 4F (z x1 )4F (w x2 ).
Similarly for fermionic part, we have


 Z

d
d
exp i d xd y (x)SF (x y) (y)
(w) (w) (z) (z)
J,,
=0

 Z
 Z


iSF (0) + i dd ySF (z y) (y)


i dd x
(x)SF (x z)
(w) (w)
 Z


d
d
exp i d xd y (x)SF (x y) (y)
J,,
=0

=
=

iSF (0) (iSF (0)) +


2
(trSF (0)) + tr[SF (w

SF (w

z)SF (z

w)

z)SF (z w)].

Note that both bosonic and fermionic parts are symmetric under interchange of w and z. Therefore we get
the answer as follows;
h(x1 )(x2 )i = i4F (x1 x2 )
Z
g2
+
4F (x1 x2 ) dd wdd z tr[SF (w z)SF (z w)]4F (w z)
2
Z
g2
4F (x1 x2 ) dd wdd z(trSF (0))2 4F (w z)

2
Z
2
+ g
dd wdd z4F (z x2 )4F (w x1 )tr[SF (w z)SF (z w)]
Z
g 2 dd wdd z4F (z x2 )4F (w x1 )(trSF (0))2

(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)

+ O(g 4 ).
The lines (4) and (5) involve vacuum bubbles and should be removed. Although (7) is also disconnected,
we can not eliminate it because of the external legs. This type of diagram is called tadpole and will be
eliminated by renormalization. The sign in front of the line (6) would have been minus if s were bosonic
fields. Comparing (6) and (7) we can see the difference in sign cannot be accommodated by Feynman rules
(both terms have the same number and type of propagators and vertices). Therefore we need an additional
rule that an extra minus sign for each fermion loop.

Now lets consider fermionic propagator. Again we evaluate the quantity


Z
R d 1

Zfree
DDD
1 (x1 )2 (x2 )ei d x( 2 4+ D +g )



 Z


d
= i
i
exp g d x
1 (x1 )
(x2 )
J(x) (x) (x)
 Z

 2
1

d
d
exp i d xd y
J(x)4F (x y)J(y) + (x)SF (x y) (y)
2
J,,
=0


Z

g2

d
d
d wd z
=
1+
1 (x1 ) 2 (x2 )
2
J(w) J(z) (w) (w) (z) (z)
 Z


1

+O(g 4 ).
exp i dd xdd y
J(x)4F (x y)J(y) + (x)SF (x y) (y)
2
J,,
=0

(8)

Bosonic part is easy. Fermionic part proceeds as follows;


 Z


d
d
exp i d xd y (x)SF (x y) (y)
1(x1) 2(x2) (w) (w) (z) (z)
J,,
=0
Z
Z

=
[SF (0) dd ySF (w y) (y) + SF (w z) dd ySF (z y) (y)
1(x1) 2(x2) (w)
 Z

Z
Z

d
d
d

+ d x
(x)SF (x z) d ySF (z y) (y) i d uSF (w u) (u) ]
 Z


d
d
exp i d xd y (x)SF (x y) (y)
J,,
=0

[SF (0)SF (0) + SF (w z)SF (z w)


1 (x1 ) 2 (x2 )
Z
Z
+i dd x (x)SF (x z)SF (z w) dd ySF (w y) (y)
Z
i dd xdd y (x)SF (x z)SF (z y) (y)SF (0)
 Z

Z

d
SF (0) d y SF (w y) (y) i d x (x)SF (x w)
 Z

Z
+SF (w z) dd y SF (z y) (y) i dd x (x)SF (x w) ]

 Z

exp i dd xdd y (x)SF (x y) (y)
J,,
=0

2 1
2
= iSF (x2 x1 ) trSF (0) + tr[SF (w z)SF (z w)]

+iSF2 (x2 z)SF (z w)SF1 (w x1 ) itrSF (0)SF2 (x2 z)SF1 (z x1 )


itrSF (0)SF2 (x2 w)SF1 (w x1 ) + iSF (w z)SF2 (x2 w)SF1 (z x1 ).
Finally we can write down the propagator as
h1 (x1 )2 (x2 )i = iSF2 1 (x2 x1 )
Z
g 2 2 1
2
+
S
(x2 x1 ) (trSF (0))
dd wdd z4F (w z)
2 F
Z
g 2 2 1

S
(x2 x1 ) dd wdd z tr [SF (w z)SF (z w)] 4F (w z)
2 F
Z
+ g 2 dd wdd zSF2 (x2 z)SF (z w)SF1 (w x1 )4F (w z)
Z
2
g
dd wdd z trSF (0)SF2 (x2 z)SF1 (z x1 )4F (w z)
+

O(g 4 )

(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)

where we used the symmetry between w and z. Again (9) and (10) must be removed because they contain
vacuum diagrams. The line (12) were to have plus sign if s are bosons. So the minus sign rule for a
fermion loop applies here too.
6

Now we can read off Feynman rules from these expressions. Noting that for fermions


h0|2 (x2 )1 (x1 )|0i (x01 > x02 )
h0|T{2 (x2 )1 (x1 )}|0i =
h0|1 (x1 )2 (x2 )|0i (x01 < x02 )
(cf. Peskin and Schroeder), we have the Feynman rules as follows;
i4F (x y)

iSF (x y)

Z
ig

dd z

Divided by symmetry factor.


Extra minus sign for each fermion loop.

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