13.

Thermal Properties

Thermal equilibrium : When a hot object is in thermal contact with a cold object,
heat energy flows between them. More heat flows from the hot object to the cold
object than that flows from the cold object to the hot one. There is a net transfer of
heat energy from the hot to the cold object. As such the temperature of the hot
object drops and the temperature of the cold object rises. Eventually the
temperatures of the two become the same. The objects are said to be in thermal
equilibrium. In this situation, there is no net transfer of heat energy between the
objects. However heat does not stop flowing between them. What happens is the
amount of heat flowing from say object A to B is equal to the amount of heat
flowing from object B to A.
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

Heat is defined as the transfer of energy across the boundary between two
contacting objects due to a temperature difference between the two objects.
Different objects require different amounts of heat to raise the temperature
of a given mass of the objects to certain number of degrees.
The heat capacity of an object is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of the object by 1 kelvin or 1 . The SI unit of heat capacity
is J K-1. But J

-1

is also acceptable. In equation form this definition

Q
becomes heat capacity= T

or Q=heat capacity T

where Q is

the amount of heat energy supplied and T is the temperature rise.

 The term specific heat capacity, c, refers to the heat capacity per unit mass.
-1

-1

The SI unit is J kg K and in equation form is

c=

heat capacity
,
m

where m

is the mass of the object. The proper definition of specific heat capacity, c, is
therefore is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass
of a material by 1 kelvin or 1 . The combination of the two equations
gives

Q=mc T

From above, it can be seen that heat capacity = mc JK-1.

Example 1
A piece of copper mass 0.55 kg is heated from 57.0 to 100.0 . What is
(i) the heat capacity of the copper? (ii) the increase in the internal energy of the
copper?
(Specific heat capacity of copper = 400 J kg-1 K-1)
Solution
(i)

heat capacity of copper mass = mc = 0.55 400 = 220 J K-1

(ii)

the increase in the internal energy of copper

= U =

Q=heat capcity T

= 220 ( 100.057.0 ) = 9460 J.

Example 2
A block of copper of mass 0.50 kg at an initial temperature of 77 is placed in
0.40 kg of water at 30 . At thermal equilibrium, the temperature of the
2

mixture is 35 . Find the amount of heat (i) lost by the copper block, (ii)
gained by the water.
(Specific heat capacities: water = 4200 J kg-1 K-1; copper = 400 J kg-1 K-1)
Solution
(i)

heat lost by copper block = mc T = 0.50 400 (77 35) = 8400

J
(ii)

heat gained by water =

mc T

= 0.40 4200 (35 30) = 8400 J

Note: heat energy lost by copper = heat energy gained by water

Hence, energy is conserved
SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT

Heat energy is involved when phase/state of matter changes. When solid

becomes liquid, heat energy must be supplied to do work to overcome the
strong intermolecular attractive force among the molecules in solid.
Likewise, when liquid becomes vapour, heat energy is supplied to the liquid
to do work to (i) set the molecules further apart and (ii) overcome the
atmospheric pressure. Thus, there is no change in the temperature during
phase change.
The specific latent heat of fusion, L, of a material is the amount of heat
required to change a unit mass of the material from solid to liquid at its
melting point.
The SI unit is J kg-1. In equation form

L=

Q
m

or

Q=mL

The specific latent heat of vaporization, L, of a material is the amount of

heat required to change a unit mass of the material from liquid to vapour at
its boiling point.
3

The SI unit is J kg-1. Hence evaporation ( a slow process of vaporization

without external heat supply) causes cooling effect. Why?
For a given material, the specific latent heat of vaporization is greater than
its specific latent heat of fusion. Why?
When the phase change is from vapour to liquid or from liquid to solid, heat
must be removed from the material.
The following graph shows the variation of temperature with time of a
material when it changes from solid to liquid and then to vapour.

temperature

boiling point
melting point

P Q

Time

During the interval PQ, the material is in solid form and heat is needed to raise its
temperature to the melting point. When melting takes place in the instant Q there is
no change in the temperature and the material is in the form of a mixture of solid
and liquid. After all the solid has melted at the instant R, temperature starts to rise
again. During the interval RS, the material is in the form of liquid. When the
temperature reaches the boiling point at the instant S, liquid starts to become
vapour. Hence, during the interval ST there is a mixture of liquid and vapour.

Finally at the instant T, all liquid has become vapour. If heat is continued to supply
to the vapour, the temperature rises further.

Example 3
A 20 g piece of ice at 0 is added to 300 g of water at 15 , Find the
temperature of the mixture after all the ice has melted.
(specific latent heat of ice = 3.34 105 J kg-1; specific heat capacity of water =
4.2 103 J kg-1 K-1)

Solution
Let the final common temperature be T
Heat gained by ice and cold water = 0.02 3.34 105 + 0.02 4.2 103

(T 0)
Heat lost by warm water = 0.3 4.2 103 (15 - T)
By conservation of energy:
0.3 4.2 103 (15 - T) = 0.02 3.34 105 + 0.02 4.2

103 T
T = 9.1

INTERNAL ENERGY/THERMAL ENERGY

The internal energy of a system consists of the kinetic energy of the

molecules due to their motions as well as the potential energy due to inter5

atomic and inter-molecular forces. For an ideal gas, there is no potential

energy. Why? Therefore the internal energy of an ideal gas is entirely the
kinetic energy of the molecules. Internal energy does not depend on the
pressure and volume of the gas. Instead it depends on .. of the gas. The
3

internal energy of the system can be calculated by 2 NkT for a monatomic

gas (N is the ..
).
Heat and work are two different ways of transferring energy to or from the
system to cause change to the internal energy.
For a real gas the internal energy cannot be calculated by a single formula.
However the change in the internal energy can be determined from the first
law of thermodynamics. If the internal energy increases, the change is
positive. If the change is negative then the internal energy decreases.
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Thermodynamics is the study of processes involving the transfer of heat and

the doing of work. ( or is the study of how energy can be transferred
between a system and its surroundings) The internal energy of a system can
only change by exchanging energy with the surroundings, either by doing
work or by heating.
If the change in the internal energy in the system is denoted as U , the
heat energy supplied to the system as Q and the work done by the
surroundings on the system as W , then by conservation of energy.
U =Q+W

This relationship is also known as the first law of thermodynamics.

Sign convention:
6

Consider
the

case where
there is no
work done

on the system or by the system: if heat goes into the system, Q is

positive; internal energy increases; if heat leaves the system, Q is
negative and internal energy decreases. What happens to the
temperature of the gas?
Consider the case where there is no heat supplied to or removed from
the system: if work is done on the system, W is positive, the
internal energy increases; if work is done by the system on the
surroundings, W is negative, and the internal energy decreases.
What happens to the temperature of the gas?
Remarks: When a gas expands it does work on the environment; when its volume
is forced to decrease, work is done on it.
Work done by a gas = area under the p-V graph.
If p is constant, work done by the gas = constant pressure change in volume
p ( V 2V 1 )

=
7

Various types of thermodynamics processes/changes to a gas

isothermal process (Boyles law)
(temperature constant):
Therefore U =0

so Q = W

i.e. heat added to the system causes the

system expand, doing work on to the
surroundings or W = Q i.e. the
work done on the system is converted into heat which leaves the system
Isobaric process (Charles law) (constant pressure): When heat is added or
removed from an ideal gas at constant pressure, volume varies directlyproportionally to its temperature. As the heated gas expands, its temperature
must increase. This temperature increase means that the internal energy of
the gas increases, since U T . When heat is added to or removed from
a gas under isobaric conditions, the gass internal energy changes and the gas

expands or contracts, doing negative

or positive work by the gas.
W = p(V2 V1)
Isometric process (Pressure law)
(constant volume): No work is done
since the area under the curve is zero.
If heat is added it must go completely
into increasing the internal energy
and therefore its temperature.
U =Q

Adiabatic Process means no heat is

transferred into or out of the system:
all three thermodynamic quantities
(p, V, T) change (gas law). If the
pressure on a gas is reduced, the gas
expands i.e. the gas does work on the
surroundings. Hence, W < 0,
However since no heat flows into the gas, the work done by the gas in
expansion is at the expense of the gass internal energy. Therefore U
must be negative. Since the internal energy and thus the temperature both
decrease, such an expansion is a cooling process.
U
= W
[note: to ensure no heat is transferred in or out from the system, effectively
for adiabatic process (i) the wall of the gas container must be thick;
(ii) the process must be carried out rapidly]
9

Example 4
An ideal gas trapped in a cylinder with a frictionless movable piston is heated by
supplying 100 J of heat to it. It expands from a volume of 300 cm3 to 500 cm3 at a
constant pressure of 1 105 Pa. What is the net change in the internal energy of
the gas?

Solution
Heat supplied to the gas, Q = +100 J
Work done by the gas on the surroundings = constant pressure change
in volume.
W

= (1 105 (500 300) 10-6 ) = 20 J

Using the First law of Thermodynamics, U =Q+W = 100J 20J = 80 J

The internal energy increases by 80 J ( temperature rises)

Example 5

10

Using

U =Q+W

for process PQR,

= 50 20 = 30 J

for process PSR, 30 = 40 + W

therefore work done to the gas

hence, work done by the gas is 10 J

i.e. the gas expands

11

= 10 J