General Surgical Emergencies

General Surgical Emergencies
S Devaji Rao MS MNAMS FICS

Teaching Faculty
National Board of Examinations
Senior Consultant in General Surgery
Surgical Gastroenterology and Surgical Oncology
St Isabels Hospital, Mylapore, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
Chennai Meenakshi Multispecialty Hospital Ltd, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
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First Edition : 2012
ISBN978-93-5025-961-0
Printed at
Dedicated to
My teachers
My parents
Uma Bai and Siva Rao
My beloved wife
Kalpana
My daughters
Bhavna and Kirthana
Preface
Many textbooks are available dealing with the details of emergency surgical conditions. Not many are available
dealing exclusively with the emergency conditions, especially those related to surgery. Not that every patient
coming to the casualty at odd hours with an acute symptom has a life-threatening emergency, but it becomes
necessary to comfort the patient at the first instant, followed by a quick diagnosis of the clinical condition. It
is also imperative that the impending emergency should be identified by the clinician, so that a catastrophe
is avoided. The classical example of such confusing situation is the acute pancreatitis. This can present with
a variety of symptoms which will not give a lead towards diagnosis, but the whole clinical picture establishes
after some time, and takes the patient through a very tough morbid situation, and may also end in death.
This concise book has been designed in such a way that the common emergency conditions are detailed
to the extent so that surgical students or the casualty doctors or young surgeons may not miss the diagnosis.
It cannot replace the many well-established textbooks, but it gives sufficient information for a clinician to
manage the emergency.
Color photographs are useful add-ons to these chapters, which will make the reader remember the
information for a long time.
Every new doctor who is resident in the casualty and the intensive care unit will face with a variety of
clinical problems, and I hope the handbook will come handy.
I also hope that I have hit the required details at the right level for the young surgeons.
S Devaji Rao
Acknowledgments
I sincerely thank Professor SM Balaji, Professor J Cornelius, Dr Gayathri, Dr M Kanagavel, Dr Kirthana Rao,
Professor N Mohan, Dr R Narasimhan, Professor MG Rajamanickam, Professor R Rajaraman, Professor N
Sekar, Dr K Sridhar, Professor V Srinivasan, Dr V Thulasiraman, Dr Usha Dorairajan, Professor PS Venkatesh
Rao and Dr S Vijayaraghavan, who contributed their clinical photographs, from their personal collections. My
special thanks to my friends Dr Mani Veeraraghavan for the endoscopy photographs and Dr V Ganesan for
the ultrasound photographs. Most of the CT and MRI pictures were procured from Bharat Scans, Chennai,
Tamil Nadu, India, and I sincerely thank Dr R Emmanuel for providing them.
My special thanks to my daughters Dr Bhavna for going through the script and making corrections, and
Dr Kirthana for drawing the diagrams.
My very special thanks goes to my wife Kalpana for the tolerance during the preparation of this manual.
Contents
SECTION TWO: ASSESSMENT
2. Assessment of Surgical Emergencies
7
Make the Patient Lie Down
Comfortably
7
Elicit a Quick History
8
Make a Thorough Clinical
Examination
8
Come to a Quick Working Clinical
Diagnosis
10
Ask for Essential Meaningful
Investigations
10
Admit the Patient where Thought
to be Required
11
Put the Patient in Intensive Care
Whenever Required
11
Collect Investigation Reports at
the Earliest
11
Start Emergency Treatment
11
Ask for Expert Opinions
12
4. Shock
Hypovolemic Shock
Treatment of Hypovolemic Shock
Septic Shock
Symptoms and Signs
Pathogenesis
Treatment
Anaphylactic Shock
Incidence and Etiology
Pathogenesis
Symptoms and Signs
Treatment
Cardiogenic Shock
Neurogenic Shock
Pathogenesis
Treatment
5. Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome
Pathogenesis
Clinical Presentation
Relevant Investigations
Treatment
17
17
18
18
18
18
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
21
21
21
21
21
22
SECTION THREE: CRITICAL CARE

3. Critically Ill Patient and Critical Care
Cardiac Support
Respiratory Support
Inotropic Support
SECTION FOUR: TRAUMA

6. Polytrauma
Introduction
Preparation
Prehospital Communication
25
25
25
25
SECTION ONE: INTRODUCTION

1. Introduction
15
15
15
16
GENERAL SURGICAL EMERGENCIES
xii
Trauma Reception Team

26
Receiving the Patient
27
Primary Survey and Resuscitation 27
Airway and Cervical Spine Control 27
Breathing
28
Circulation and Hemorrhage
Control
29
Recognition and Assessment
of Hypovolemia
29
Fluid Resuscitation
30
Disability
30
Exposure
30
Secondary Survey
30
Clinical Evaluation
31
Eliciting History
31
Physical Examination
31
Scalp
31
Neurological State
31
Base of Skull
31
Neck
32
Eyes
32
Face
32
Thorax
32
Abdomen
33
Extremities
33
Definitive Care
33
7. Head Injuries
34
Brain Injury
34
Fractures of Skull
36
Symptoms and Signs
36
CSF Fistulae
39
Scalp Injuries
39
8. Facial Injuries
41
Fractures of Midfacial Skeleton
41
Fractures of Mandible
42
43
45
Treatment
45
9. Spine and Spinal Cord Injuries
46
Injuries to Bony and Ligamentous
Spine
46
46
Symptoms
46
Signs
47
47
Treatment
48
Injuries of the Spinal Cord
48
48
Symptoms and Signs
48
49
Treatment
49
10. Thoracic Injuries
50
Rib Fractures
50
50
Symptoms
50
Signs
51
51
Treatment
51
Flail Chest
53
53
Symptom
54
Sign
54
54
Treatment
54
Sternal Fracture
54
54
Symptom
54
Sign
55
55
Treatment
55
Pneumothorax
55
55
Symptoms
Signs
Treatment
Surgical Emphysema
Pathogenesis
Symptoms and Signs
Treatment
Hemothorax
Symptoms
Signs
Treatment
Pulmonary Contusion/laceration
Symptoms and Signs
Treatment
Injuries of Thoracic Aorta
Symptom
Signs
Treatment
Injuries of Myocardium
Symptoms
Signs
Treatment
Esophageal Injuries
Symptoms
56
56
56
58
58
58
59
59
59
59
59
59
60
60
60
61
61
61
61
61
62
62
62
63
63
63
64
64
64
64
64
65
65
65
65
65
Signs
Treatment
Diaphragmatic Injuries
Symptoms and Signs
Treatment
11. Abdominal Injuries
Closed Injuries
Open Injuries
Symptoms and Signs
Injuries of Liver
Symptoms and Signs
Treatment
Injuries of Spleen
Symptoms
Signs
Treatment
Injuries of Mesentery
Symptoms
Sign
Treatment
Injuries of Duodenum
Symptoms and Signs
Treatment
Injuries of Small Intestine
65 xiii
65
66
66
66
67
67
67
68
68
69
69
69
69
70
70
70
72
72
72
72
73
74
74
74
74
75
75
75
75
75
75
75
76
76
76
CONTENTS
xiv
Treatment
Injuries of Large Intestine
Symptoms
Signs
Treatment
Abdominal Compartment Syndrome
Pathogenesis
Symptom
Signs
Treatment
12. Urological Injuries

Renal Injuries
Symptom
Signs
Treatment
Ureteric Injuries
Symptom and Sign
Relevant Investigation
Treatment
Urinary Bladder Injuries
Symptoms
Signs
Treatment
Urethral Injuries
76
76
77
77
77
77
77
77
77
78
78
78
78
78
78
78
79
79
79
79
79
80
80
80
80
81
82
82
82
82
83
83
83
84
84
84
Symptom
Sign
Treatment
13. Male Genital Injuries
Injuries of Penile Skin
Symptom
Sign
Treatment
Foreign Bodies in Penile Urethra
Symptoms and Signs
Treatment
Scrotal Laceration
Symptom
Signs
Treatment
14. Female Genital Injuries
Coital Injuries
Symptom
Signs
Treatment
Injuries during Childbirth
Treatment
15. Hand Injuries
84
84
84
85
86
86
86
86
86
86
86
87
87
87
88
88
88
88
89
89
89
89
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
91
91
91
91
91
92
92
92
96
96
SECTION FIVE: ORGANS AND SYSTEMS

16. Oral Cavity
Acute Odontogenic Infections

Pathogenesis
Symptoms and Signs
Treatment
99
99
99
99
100
100
100
17. Head and Neck

Acute Suppurative Sialadenitis

Treatment
Ludwigs Angina

Pathogenesis
Symptoms
Signs
Treatment
101
101
101
101
103
103
103
103
103
103
103
103
104
18. Thorax
Acute Mediastinitis

Treatment
Acute Pleuritis

Symptom
Sign
105
105
105
105
105
106
106
106
106
106
Treatment
Pleural Effusion

Symptom
Signs
Treatment
Acute Empyema Thoracis

Symptom
Signs
Treatment
Spontaneous Pneumothorax

Symptom
Sign
Treatment
Foreign Bodies in the Respiratory Tract

Pathogenesis
Symptoms
Signs
Treatment
Suppurative or Aspiration Pneumonia

Pathogenesis
Symptoms
Sign
Treatment
Hospital Acquired Pneumonia

107 xv
107
107
107
107
107
108
109
109
109
110
110
110
110
110
110
110
111
111
111
112
112
112
112
112
112
113
113
113
113
114
114
114
114
115
115
CONTENTS
Treatment
xvi
Symptoms
Signs
Treatment
Acute Lung Abscess

Symptoms
Sign
Treatment
Pulmonary Embolism

Symptoms and Signs
Treatment
115
115
115
115
115
115
116
116
116
116
116
116
116
117
117
19. Breast
118

Breast Hematoma
Symptoms
Sign
Treatment
Acute Breast Abscess

Symptoms
Signs
Treatment
118
118
118
118
118
118
119
119
119
119
119
119
20. Spine
120

Degenerative Diseases of Disk
and Facet Joints
120
120
Symptoms and Signs
120
121
Treatment
121
Spondylolisthesis

Symptom
Signs
Treatment
21. Gastroenterology
Acute Abdomen

Introduction
Pain
Vomiting
Acute Upper Abdominal Pain
Abdomen
Treatment Plan
Acute Lower Abdominal Pain
Treatment Plan
Acute Liver Abscess

Pathogenesis
Symptoms
Signs
Differential Diagnosis
Treatment
Acute Cholecystitis

Pathogenesis
Complications
Symptoms
Signs
Treatment
Acute Cholangitis

122
122
122
122
123
123
124
124
124
125
128
130
131
133
134
134
138
138
138
138
138
139
139
139
140
140
140
140
140
140
141
141
141
142
143
143
143
143
144
144
146
146
146
146
146
147
148
148
148
148
148
148
149
149
149
150
150
150
151
153
154
154
154
154
155
157
159
159
159
159
159
159
Treatment
Acute Colonic Diverticulitis

Pathogenesis
Symptoms
Signs
Treatment
Acute Meckels Diverticulitis

Symptom
Sign
Treatment
Acute Solitary Cecal Diverticulitis

Symptom
Sign
Treatment
Acute Ulcerative Colitis

Symptoms
Signs
Treatment
Acute Intestinal Obstruction

Symptoms
Signs
Treatment
Gallstone Ileus

Symptoms
159 xvii
160
160
160
160
161
161
161
162
162
162
163
163
163
163
164
164
164
164
164
164
164
164
164
165
165
165
165
166
166
167
167
168
168
168
169
CONTENTS
Pathogenesis
Symptoms
Signs
Treatment
Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis

Treatment
Splenic Abscess

Pathogenesis
Symptoms
Sign
Treatment
Acute Hemorrhagic Pancreatitis

Pathogenesis
Symptoms
Signs
Treatment
Acute Appendicitis

Pathogenesis
Symptoms
Signs
Treatment
Acute Mesenteric Lymphadenitis

Pathogenesis
Symptoms
Signs
xviii
Signs
Treatment
Acute Intussusception

Symptoms
Signs
Treatment
Swallowed Foreign Bodies

Symptoms
Signs
Treatment
Perforated Bowel Pathologies

Treatment
Intestinal Strictures

Symptoms
Signs
Treatment
Bands and Adhesions

Symptoms and Signs
Treatment
Enteroliths/Food Bolus

Symptoms and Signs
Treatment
169
169
169
170
170
171
172
172
173
173
173
173
173
173
173
174
175
175
177
177
177
177
177
177
177
178
178
178
178
178
179
179
179
179
179
Volvulus

179
Sigmoid Volvulus
179
179
Pathogenesis
179
Symptoms
179
Signs
180
180
Treatment
180
Cecal Volvulus
180
180
181
181
Treatment
181
Midgut Volvulus
181
181
Symptom
181
Signs
181
181
Treatment
181
Gastric Volvulus
182
182
Symptoms
182
Sign
182
182
Treatment
182

Intestinal Obstruction due to Herniae
(Internal and External)
182
182
Symptoms
183
Sign
183
183
Treatment
183
Paralytic Ileus

183
183
Symptoms
184
Past History
194 xix
Family History
194
Clinical Examination
194
Abdomen
195
Differential Diagnosis by Clinical
History and Examination
195
196
Treatment
198
Surgical Treatment
198
CONTENTS
Sign
184
184
Treatment
185
Torsion of Mesenteric Cyst

185
185
Pathogenesis
186
Symptom
186
Signs
186
186
Treatment
186
Torsion of Omentum

186
186
Pathogenesis
186
Symptoms
187
Signs
187
187
Treatment
187

Colics
187
187
Clinical Features
188
Symptoms
188
Signs
189
190
190
Radiology
190
Treatment Plan
190
Gastrointestinal Hemorrhage

190
Definitions
190
Types of Gastrointestinal
Hemorrhages
191
Hematemesis and Melena
192
Melena
192
Hematochezia 192
Eliciting History
193
Hematochezia
193
22. Anorectum
Acute Anal Fissure

Pathogenesis
Symptoms
Signs
Treatment
Anorectal Abscess

Pathogenesis
Symptoms
Signs
Treatment
Hemorrhoids

Symptoms
Signs
Treatment
Perianal Hematoma

Pathogenesis
Symptoms
Sign
199
199
199
199
199
200
201
201
201
201
202
202
202
203
203
203
203
203
204
205
205
206
206
206
206
206
xx
Treatment
Prolapse of Rectum

Pathogenesis
Symptoms
Signs
Treatment
23. Vascular System
Acute Limb Ischemia

Symptoms
Signs
Acute Intestinal Ischemia

Treatment
Leaking or Dissecting Aortic Aneurysm

Treatment
24. Urology
Acute Retention of Urine

Definition
Symptoms
Signs
Treatment
Hematuria

Definition
207
207
207
207
207
207
207
208
208
209
209
209
210
210
211
211
211
211
212
212
212
212
212
213
213
214
214
214
214
214
214
215
215
215
215
215
Symptoms
Signs
Treatment
Renal Colic

Treatment
Ureteric Colic

Symptom
Treatment
Acute Urethritis

Symptoms
Sign
Treatment
Acute Prostatitis

Symptom
Sign
Treatment
Acute Prostatic Abscess

Symptom
Sign
Treatment
216
216
216
217
217
218
218
218
218
218
219
220
220
220
220
220
220
221
221
221
221
221
221
221
221
221
222
222
222
25. Male Genitalia

Acute Scrotal Pain

Definition
Causes of Acute Scrotal Pain
Symptoms
Past History
Signs
223
223
223
223
224
224
224
Treatment
Pyocele

Definition
Symptom
Signs
Treatment
Idiopathic Scrotal Edema

Pathogenesis
Symptom
Signs
Treatment
Acute Scrotal Abscess

Symptoms
Sign
Treatment
Fourniers Gangrene

Symptoms
Signs
Treatment
Acute Filarial Scrotum

Treatment
Fracture Penis

Symptoms and Signs
231 xxi
231
231
231
232
232
232
232
232
232
232
232
232
233
233
233
233
233
233
233
233
234
234
234
235
235
235
235
236
236
236
236
236
237
237
237
CONTENTS
On Palpation
225
225
225
Treatment
226
Torsion of Testis

226
226
Pathogenesis
226
Symptoms
226
Signs
227
227
Torsion of Appendages of Testis

228
228
Pathogenesis
228
Symptom
228
Signs
228
228
Treatment
228
Acute Epididymo-orchitis

229
229
Pathogenesis
229
Symptom
229
Signs
229
229
Treatment
229
Traumatic Orchitis

230
230
230
230
Treatment
230
Hematocele

230
Definition
230
230
Symptoms
230
Signs
231
xxii
Treatment
Paraphimosis

Symptoms
Sign
Treatment
Priapism

Treatment
238
238
238
238
238
238
238
238
239
239
240
240
240
26. Hernias
Complicated Hernias

Definition
Anatomy of the Hernial Sac
Complications
Symptoms
Signs
Treatment
241
241
241
242
242
243
244
244
244
27. Gynecology
Acute Torsion of Ovarian Cyst

Pathogenesis
Symptom
Signs
Treatment
Acute Salpingitis

Pathogenesis
Symptoms
Signs
245
245
245
245
245
245
245
246
246
246
246
246
247
Treatment
Rupture of Lutein Cyst

Treatment
28. Pediatrics

Pathogenesis
Symptoms
Signs
Treatment
Congenital Pyloric Stenosis

Pathogenesis
Symptoms
Signs
Treatment
Necrotizing Enterocolitis

Pathogenesis
Symptoms
Signs
Treatment
Tracheoesophageal Fistula

Pathogenesis
Symptoms
Signs
Treatment
247
247
247
247
247
247
247
248
248
248
248
248
249
249
249
250
250
250
250
250
250
250
250
250
251
251
251
251
251
251
251
251
252
252
252
252
30. Skin and Subcutaneous Tissues

Hematoma

Symptom
Sign
Treatment
Erysipelas

Symptoms
Investigations
Treatment
Furuncle

Symptom
Signs
257
257
257
257
257
257
257
258
258
258
259
259
259
259
259
260
260 xxiii
Treatment
260
Cellulitis

260
260
Pathogenesis
260
Symptoms
261
Signs
261
261
Treatment
261

Acute Pyogenic Abscess
261
261
Symptoms
262
Sign
262
262
Treatment
262
Carbuncle

262
262
Symptom
263
Signs
263
263
Treatment
263

Burns
263
Definition
263
Pathogenesis
264
Clinical Features
264
Metabolic Effects of Burns
267
268
Preliminaries Before Examination 268
Inspection
271
General Examination
272
Systemic Examination
272
272
Treatment
273

Necrotizing Fasciitis
274
274
Pathogenesis
274
CONTENTS
29. Lymphatic System

253
Acute Lymphangitis

253
253
253
254
Treatment
254
Acute Viral and Bacterial Lymphadenitis 254

254
Symptoms
254
Signs
254
255
Treatment
255
Acute Filarial Lymphangitis and

Lymphadenitis
255
255
Symptoms
255
Signs
255
255
Treatment 256
xxiv
Symptom
274
Sign
274
274
Treatment
274

SECTION SIX: SPECIAL PROCEDURES
AND SITUATIONS
31. Emergency Surgical Procedures
277

Pericardial Aspiration
277
Materials Required
277
Procedure
277
Complications
278

Intubation of Trachea
279
Materials Required
279
Procedure
279
Complication of Endotracheal
Intubation
280

Percutaneous Tracheostomy
280
Advantages of Tracheostomy
280
Indications
280
Contraindications
281
Materials Needed for Percutaneous
Tracheostomy
281
Procedure
281
Complications
282
Cricothyroidotomy/Minitracheostomy 282

Indications
282
Contraindications
283
Materials Required
283
Procedure
284
Complications
284
Insertion of Chest Drains

Indications
Type of Drain
Site of Drain
Materials Required
Procedures
Passing a Nasogastric Tube

Indications
Contraindications
Materials Required
Procedure
Peritoneal Tap

Materials Required
Procedure
284
284
285
285
286
286
287
287
289
289
289
289
289
291
32. Preparing the Patient for

Emergency Surgery
292
General Measures
292
Investigations Support
292
Situations which Need Special
Attention
293
33. Antibiotics
294
Antibiotics and Emergency Surgery

294
Which Emergency Surgical
Procedure should have
Antibiotic Prophylaxis ?
294
34. Death
Breaking the News
296
296
Index
299
Section I
Introduction
1. Introduction
Introduction
Emergencies are defined as the clinical situations which require urgent care. Not necessarily they should have
a life-threatening pathology, but even a simple innocuous pathology can create an emergency situation, such
as a passing calculus in the ureter can cause such a pain which will upset the patient, the relatives and friends,
and warrant emergency care and also confuse the attending doctor till he makes a final diagnosis.
Clinical diagnosis of such emergencies may be difficult in some patients forcing the clinician to run
through all the investigations to make the final diagnosis. A well informed medical student or a young surgeon
will take it right, will not upset himself, comfort the patient and go through the clinical examination and
administer the right treatment.
In some emergencies like hemorrhagic conditions, history taking cannot be done in detail due to paucity
of time, and the treatment should get initiated at the earliest, probably in the intensive care unit. Failure
to recognize and manage such critical illnesses, may lead to pathophysiological changes leading to multiple
organ dysfunction. In such a situation, intensive care plays a very important role. The role of intensive care
includes:
Resuscitation and stabilization
Optimization to prevent organ failure
Decision regarding complex surgery
Support of failing organs
Recognition of futility.
In well developed hospitals, the critical care is managed at two levels, namely, intensive care units (ICU)
and high dependency units (HDU), only the availability of ventilators in the ICU differentiating the both. In
the ICU, some patients may require one patient one nurse combination.
Critically ill patients can be classified according to the level of medical and nursing care needed.
Level 0: Patients who can be managed by ward based care
Level 1: Patients who can be managed by ward based care with advise or support from the critical care
team
Level 2: Patients requiring more advanced levels of monitoring or intervention, such as management of
single failing organ system
Level 3: Patients requiring advanced respiratory support and management of multiple organ failure.
For a good outcome, the first step is to make a proper diagnosis, followed by the necessary investigations
and sensible management.
SECTION I INTRODUCTION
Section II
Assessment
2.
Assessment of Surgical Emergencies
Assessment of
Surgical Emergencies
As soon as the patient is wheeled into the hospital or the casualty, it is required to determine whether the
patients condition warrants emergency care or not. Though there are parameters which help to determine
this, many times, experience matters. For example, a patient with acute pancreatitis may not look very sick
after an episode of acute abdominal pain. The following measures will help determine the seriousness of the
patient.
1. Make the patient lie down comfortably.
2. Elicit a quick history.
3. Make a thorough clinical examination.
4. Come to a quick working clinical diagnosis.
5. Ask for essential meaningful investigations.
6. Admit the patient where thought to be required.
7. Put the patient in intensive care whenever required.
8. Collect investigation reports at the earliest.
9. Start emergency treatment.
10. Ask for expert opinions.
MAKE THE PATIENT LIE DOWN COMFORTABLY

It is necessary to make the patient lie down, as a walk in patient may collapse suddenly (e.g. septic shock,
hemorrhagic shock).
SECTION II ASSESSMENT
ELICIT A QUICK HISTORY

A good history will establish the diagnosis in majority of cases.
However, when the patient is too sick, a quick questioning is only possible. They are:
A allergies
M medications
P previous medical history, pregnancy
L Last meal
E Events leading to admission.
If possible, and if there is enough time, full history should be elicited in the following:
Chief complaint
History of present illness
Previous history of present complaint
Past medical history
History of drug intake and allergies
Social and personal history
Family history
History of immunization.
Make a Thorough Clinical Examination

General Examination
Skin
Pallor (e.g. anemia)
Yellow discoloration (e.g. jaundice)
Bluish discoloration (e.g. cyanosis)
Pigmentation (e.g. von Recklinghausens disease)
Eruptions (e.g. macule, papule, vesicle, bulla, etc.)
Nodules (e.g. Heberdens nodes of osteoarthrosis)
Visible veins (e.g. visible neck veins of cardiac overload, caput medusae of portal hypertension).
Eyes
Orbital region
Prominence of eyeballs (e.g. exophthalmos of thyrotoxicosis)
Sunken eyeballs (e.g. dehydration)
Eyelids
Halitosis (Bad breath) may be due to poor oral hygiene or even oral pathologies, e.g. oral cancers or
bronchopulmonary pathologies like lung abscesses.
CHAPTER 2 ASSESSMENT OF SURGICAL EMERGENCIES
Puffiness (e.g. trauma, renal pathology)

Color (e.g. black eye of head injuries)
Conjunctivae
Color (e.g. pale in anemics)
Sclera
Color (e.g. yellow in jaundiced patients)
Cornea and iris
Opacities and ulcers (e.g. trauma, infections)
Pupils
Size, shape, symmetry and reaction to light (e.g. changes in cranial nerve lesions)
Oral cavity
Lips
Color and texture (e.g. cracked lips of exposure to extreme cold)
Pigmentation (e.g. telangiectasia)
Gums
Color (e.g. blue line of lead poisoning)
Texture (e.g. inflammation due to gingivitis)
Pigmentation (e.g. hemorrhages due to leukemia)
Teeth
Color and pigmentation (e.g. mottled yellow color of fluorosis)
Number and health status of the teeth (e.g. Hutchinsons teeth of congenital syphilis)
Tongue
Color (e.g. blue color of central cyanosis)
Texture (e.g. smooth tongue of vitamin B12 deficiency)
Ulcer (e.g. aphthous ulcers)
Altered movements (e.g. hypoglossal nerve palsy)
Hard palate and soft palate
Color (e.g. anemia)
Cleft (e.g. cleft palate)
Ulcer (e.g. malignancy).
10
Hands and feet

Hands of the patient should be examined carefully, like
Shape of the hands (e.g. characteristic shape of Dupuytrens contracture, tetany)
State of the joints (e.g. deformed joints of rheumatoid arthritis)
Shape and color and deformity fingers (e.g. clubbing or nicotine staining of chronic smokers)
Nails (e.g. koilonychia of iron-deficiency anemia)
Abnormal movements of fingers (e.g. tremors of thyrotoxicosis)
Feet of the patient are generally tucked under the bedclothes and their examination should not be
forgotten. Examination may reveal
Edema, unilateral (e.g. filarial leg) and bilateral (e.g. hypoproteinemia)
Skin changes (e.g. pigmentation or ulcers due to ischemia)
Ulcers (e.g. trophic ulcers)
Look for (jaundice, anemia, cyanosis, clubbing, oedema, lymphadenopathy JACCOL)
Vitals (pulse, respiration, blood pressure)
Peripheral examination (warm/cool, capillary refill)
Jugular venous pressure
Mental test score or GCS (Glasgow Coma Scale), if the patient appears confused or impaired consciousness).
Site of interest
Other systems.
Come to a Quick Working Clinical Diagnosis

A quick working clinical diagnosis should come to the mind of the clinical examiner
He should also keep the various differential diagnosis in mind, so that diagnosis can be revised at anytime,
without bias.
Ask for Essential Meaningful Investigations

It is essential to ask only for meaningful investigations
If investigation packages are available in the hospital, it is worthwhile to ask for it which may include the
required investigations also
If asking for this package will delay the results, it is appropriate to ask for the relevant ones first, followed
by the rest.
The radiological tests should include:

Chest X-ray (erect)
Abdominal X-ray (supine and erect)
Ultrasound scan
CT.
Admit the Patient where Thought to be Required

No time should be wasted in deciding where to admit the patient. The best bed available is the best choice.
Put the Patient in Intensive Care Whenever Required

When in doubt about the seriousness, admit the patient in the intensive care.
Collect Investigation Reports at the Earliest

In the commotion during the emergency, it is not unusual to forget to collect the reports. The clinician should
stay composed, and should remember to collect all the reports, which will help in the management.
Start Emergency Treatment

It is always wise to start an intravenous line for control of lifeline. The choice of fluid depends on the
situation (e.g. normal saline in diabetics, glucose solutions in hypertensives, plasma expanders in shocked
patients)
Antibiotics may be needed if infective pathology is suspected
Oxygen by nasal mask is a safe additive
Urethral catheterization and hourly output determination is necessary.
11
CHAPTER 2 ASSESSMENT OF SURGICAL EMERGENCIES
The blood tests in general should include:

Complete blood count (CBC)
Urea, creatinine and electrolytes
Blood sugar (random)
Serum amylase, lipase
Liver function tests
Coagulation profile
Blood grouping and Rh typing
Arterial blood gas analysis (ABG).
12
Start emergency treatment if required even in the casualty, and history taking can be followed later
While examining a patient in emergency, site of interest should be examined first to save time so that appropriate
treatment is started.
Ask for Expert Opinions

It is always necessary to obtain expert opinions to manage the situation
Multiple opinions may be necessary, but it should not hurt the sentiments of the experts involved
Intravenous fluids (rate and nature) and antibiotics will vary according to the laboratory reports and
revised diagnosis
Colloids may be necessary and should be adequately given at appropriate times
The average daily water requirements for adult are 30 to 35 ml/kg + 500 ml/day/degree of pyrexia (above
37oC)
Normal adult requirements for electrolytes are 1 mmol/kg each of Na, K, Cl
Normal fluid requirements for children depend on weight
<10 kg : 100 ml/kg/day
10 to 20 kg : 1 liter + 50 ml/kg/day
>20 kg : 1.5 liters + 25 ml/kg/day.
Section III
Critical Care
3.
Critically Ill Patient and Critical Care
4. Shock
5.
Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome
Critically Ill Patient

and Critical Care
A critically ill patient requires high level monitoring, especially when circulatory/respiratory support is
required, or if more than one organ is failing. The intensive care is started early enough to be able to reverse
the condition.
CARDIAC SUPPORT
It depends on the Hb, perfusion pressure, ventilation and gas exchange. For this to be achieved, the following
are required:
Arterial lines (beat to beat BP indication, easy access for arterial blood sampling)
Central venous pressure monitoring (measures intravascular volume, and the right heart preload)
Pulmonary artery catheterization (measures cardiac output, ensures optimal fluid resuscitation and helps
in the use of vasoactive drugs).

CVP monitoring indicates only the right heart filling or preload, is not a reliable measure of left ventricular
preload. Pulmonary artery catheterization is useful for monitoring the left ventricular filling.
RESPIRATORY SUPPORT
Respiratory support is needed when respiratory failure occurs, due to inadequate exchange of oxygen or CO2
to meet metabolic needs, which is determined by the lack of improvement with oxygen therapy or the patient
is tiring with an increasing pCO2. The methods by which respiratory support can be given are:
SECTION III CRITICAL CARE
16
Continuous positive airways pressure (CPAP) in a spontaneously breathing patient. This is indicated
when:
The patient is tiring with rising pCO2
The patient is unable to maintain their own airway
Noninvasive ventilation is contraindicated
Need for endotracheal suction
Noninvasive positive pressure ventilation (NIPPV) is an alternative via a face mask.
INOTROPIC SUPPORT
This is needed when the patient is not able to maintain the blood pressure and urine output, by normal
crystalloid support. Different inotropic agents are used in various circumstances:
Noradrenaline: Dose 0.01 to 0.4 mcg/kg/min IV infusion acts on a -receptor causing vasoconstriction,
1
in sepsis increases the renal blood flow and enhance urine production
Adrenaline: Dose 0.01 to 0.30 mcg/kg/min IV infusion
In low doses: Acts on b-receptors (causes increase in heart rate and contraction)
In high doses: Acts on a-receptors (causes increased peripheral resistance)
Dobutamine: Dose 1 to 25 mcg/kg/min via central veinpredominantly acts on b (increases the heart
1
rate and force of contraction) and also on b2- and a1-receptors (decreases peripheral and pulmonary
vascular resistance)
Dopamine: Acts directly on a, b and dopaminergic receptors and indirectly by releasing noradrenaline
Low dose: 0.5 to 2.5 mcg/kg/min (renal doseincreases renal and mesenteric blood flow. renal flow
results in GFR and renal sodium excretion)
Moderate dose: 2.5 to 10 mcg/kg/min (cardiac dosestimulates b1-receptors causing myocardial
contractility, stroke volume and cardiac output)
High dose: >10 mcg/kg/min (cardiac plusstimulates a-receptors causing SVR, renal blood flow
and potential for arrhythmias
Dopexamine: Dose 0.25 to 0.5 mcg/kg/mina synthetic analog of dopamine with b activity with no
1
a activity.
Shock
Shock is defined as inadequate organ perfusion and tissue oxygenation.

It is classified as:
Hypovolemic shock
Septic shock
Anaphylactic shock
Cardiogenic shock
Neurogenic shock.
HYPOVOLEMIC SHOCK
This occurs due to loss of intravascular volume (blood or fluid), which results in activation of sympathetic
nervous system, which causes tachycardia and vasoconstriction of skin, muscle and GI system, so that blood
is directed to vital organs, e.g. brain, heart, etc.
The vasoconstriction of renal and splanchnic circulation causes renal failure, GI sloughing and
hemorrhage. When shock persists, the perfusion of brain suffers causing confusion and aggression. The
hyperventilation causes respiratory alkalosis, which is overtaken by metabolic acidosis due to poor tissue
perfusion and anaerobic metabolism. The hypovolemic shock is classified depending on various factors
(Table 4.1).
18
Table 4.1: Classification of hypovolemic shock

Class
Blood loss
Pulse rate
(per min)
Blood pressure
Urine output
(ml/hr)
Resp rate
(per min)
Consciousness
level
Treatment
<15% (up to 750 ml)
60100
No change
>30
<20
No change
Crystalloid/colloid
II
1530% (750 1500

ml)
>100
Pulse pressure
reduced
2030
2030
Anxious
Crystalloid/colloid
III
3040% (1500 2000

ml)
>120
BP fall
515
3040
Confused
Blood
IV
>40% (>2000 ml)
>140
BP significant
fall
Anuria
>40
Lethargic
Blood
Treatment of Hypovolemic Shock

Control of hemorrhage
Restoration of fluid volume.
A fluid challenge of 1 to 2 liters should be given for adults and 20 ml/kg for children
Rapid restoration of pulse and BP indicates a loss of <20 percent
If the response is transient in spite of resuscitation, it is beter to intervene surgically.
SEPTIC SHOCK
Shock occurring due to severe sepsis called systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS).
Symptoms and Signs

Heart rate (>90/min)
Temperature (>38 or 36)
Repiratory rate (>20/min)
Leukocyte count (>12000/cmm)
Note: In the absence of infection, SIRS can be said to exist when two of the above criteria.
Pathogenesis
This results due to severe infection and inflammation, mediated by acute phace cytokines, which have a
generalized effect distant to the site of original insult. Leukocytes adhere to endothelial cells via adhesion
molecules leading to changes in vascular permeability and edema.
Treatment
19
Resuscitation
Identification of the source of sepsis
Treatment of focus of sepsis (antibiotics/drainage of pus)
Critical care management
Fluids
Oxygen administration
Vasopressors
Steroids
Activated protein C
Hemofiltration.
CHAPTER 4 SHOCK
ANAPHYLACTIC SHOCK
This is a hypersensitivity reaction.
The usual causes are:
Drugs
Blood transfusion
Radiological contrast.
Pathogenesis
It is mediated by immunoglobulin E (IgE).
Symptoms and Signs

Urticarial rash
Wheeze due to bronchospasm
Tachycardia
Fainting
Rhonchi
Hypotension.
20
Treatment
Stop the cause if found

Airway management and oxygen
IV access and fluids
Adrenaline (1 ml in 1:1000 IM)
Antihistamine (IV)
Bronchodilators.
CARDIOGENIC SHOCK
Occurs due to pump failure, commonly after myocardial infarction.
NEUROGENIC SHOCK
Occurs after spinal cord injury.
Pathogenesis
Occurs due to disruption of autonomic nervous system control over vasoconstriction, which results in a
decrease in peripheral vascular resistance and blood pressure, with resultant bradycardia. Temperature control
may also be lost.
Treatment
Ventilation
Fluid management
Inotrope support.
Acute Respiratory
Distress Syndrome

Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) indicates the acute diffuse pulmonary inflammatory response
to either direct or indirect insults from extrapulmonary pathology
Directvia airway or injury to chest (e.g. aspiration, toxic gases, pneumonia)
Indirectblood-borne insults (e.g. sepsis, polytrauma, severe burns, drugs)
Frequently associated with multiple organ (kidney, liver, intestines) dysfunction.
Pathogenesis
Pathogenesis is complex
There is transudation of fluid in the lungs, thickening of alveolar capillaries resulting in ventilation/
perfusion mismatch. The pulmonary artery wedge pressure remains normal, distinguishing it from
pulmonary edema.
They are not specific, but share many things with other pulmonary pathologies.
Blood gas analysis (PaO2 / FiO2 of less than 200 mm Hg)
Chest X-ray shows bilateral diffuse infiltrates
Pulmonary artery wedge pressure (less than 15 mm Hg).
22
Treatment
Current treatment is supportive and no specific therapy exists to modulate the sequence of events of ARDS:
Monitoring
Monitoring of all vitals
Ventilatory management
Mechanical ventilation to permit adequate oxygen uptake
Nonventilatory management
Treatment of underlying risk factors
Enteral feeding
Maintenance of hemodynamic stability and cardiac output.
Section IV
Trauma
6. Polytrauma
11. Abdominal Injuries
7.
Head Injuries
12. Urological Injuries
8.
Facial Injuries
13. Male Genital Injuries
9.
Spine and Spinal Cord Injuries
14. Female Genital Injuries
10. Thoracic Injuries
15. Hand Injuries
Polytrauma
INTRODUCTION
Management of a patient with polytrauma depends on proper and systematic clinical evaluation, which
identifies immediate and potentially life-threatening conditions before the limb threatening ones, but does
not omit the latter. This usually starts with a call from ambulance control.
The first couple of hours following injury are critical, as the patient is very vulnerable. This critical time
period is called golden hour, which is usually spent in the place of accident or in the emergency department,
making this period extremely crucial.
The trauma life support program consists of:
Preparation
Primary survey and resuscitation
Secondary survey
Continuous monitoring and evaluation.
PREPARATION
Prehospital Communication
A warning from the ambulance control ideally from the scene of accident provides essential information so
that receiving personnel are ready to receive the patient of trauma, which provides assessment and treatment
without delay. The essential prehospital information are:
Nature of injury
Mechanism of injury
26
SECTION IV TRAUMA
Number, age and sex of the casualties

Consciousness level of the casualties
Airway, breathing and circulatory status of casualties
Treatment provided
Estimated time of arrival
Treatment options required.
TRAUMA RECEPTION TEAM

The make-up of this team varies between hospitals depending upon the resources and the time of the day. The
trauma team should consist of:
Trained medical personnel
Supportive trained paramedical personnel
A team leader who should assign specific tasks to each person.
The trauma reception team undertakes the following tasks:
Team Leader

Coordinates the tasks assigned to the team members

Questions ambulance personnel
Assimilates clinical findings
Determines investigations in order of priority
Liaises with relatives and provide information to trauma team
Liaises with specialists who are called.
Team Members

Manage the airway

Clear the secretions and intubate if necessary
Manage circulation
Establish infusion line quickly
Takes blood for investigations
Supportive measures
Connect to monitors
Urinary catheterization
Jugular vein catheterization where necessary.
Receiving the Patient
27
Primary Survey and Resuscitation

The activities listed below are carried out simultaneously if there are enough personnel, if not should be done
in alphabetical order (ABCDE).
Airway and cervical spine control
Breathing
Circulation and hemorrhage control
Disability
Exposure.
Airway and Cervical Spine Control

A cervical spine injury should be assumed if the patient has been the victim of significant blunt trauma or if
the mechanism of injury indicates that the cervical region may have been damaged. One member of the team
needs manually to immobilize the cervical spine while talking to the patient which also assesses the airway.
FIG. 6.1: Patient with polytrauma
CHAPTER 6 POLYTRAUMA
Receiving and transferring the patient (Fig. 6.1) is very crucial and requires five people to do the job, which
should be a well practiced procedure in order to protect the spinal cord if it is intact, and to prevent further
injury if it is already compromised. During the transfer, the patients head and neck are stabilized by one
member of the team, three others lift from the side and the fifth member replaces the ambulance trolley with
the resuscitation trolley.
SECTION IV TRAUMA
28
If the patient is able to give a logical answer in a normal voice, the airway is assumed to be patent and the
brain adequately perfused.
If the patient gives an impaired or fails to reply, the airway could be obstructed, and immediate measures
should be taken:
A simple chin lift will help in relieving the obstructing soft tissue usually the tongue
Saliva, blood, vomitus, tooth or other foreign bodies should be removed
Suction through rigid suction tube is necessary to remove secretions
In patients who vomit and regurgitate, head end of the bed should be dropped 20 degrees, allowing
the secretions to drip down and facilitate removal by suction
A nasogastric tube may be inserted to aspirate the stomach contents and prevent further vomiting.
When it is established that the airway is clear and patent, 100 percent oxygen is provided via mask or
by endotracheal intubation. Pulse oxymeter is connected to maintain good SaO2, if needed with ventilatory
support.
The neck should be examined for the following five signs which could indicate the presence of immediately
life-threatening thoracic conditions (Table 6.1).
When below given signs in Table 6.1 are checked, the neck may be immobilized with appropriate collar if
the patient is not restless, in a restless patient, semi-rigid collar is accepted.
All the multiple injured patients, particularly those who have injuries above the clavicle or a change in level of
consciousness, should be treated as though they have a cervical spine injury, until it is ruled out.
Breathing
The clinical examination of chest consists of:
Inspection
Marks and wounds
Respiratory rate
Inspiratory effort
Symmetry of chest movements
Table 6.1: Signs of life-threatening thoracic conditions
Signs
Conditions
1.
Swellings and wounds
Vascular and airway injury
2.
Distended neck veins
Cardiac tamponade, tension pneumothorax
3.
Tracheal deviation
Tension pneumothorax
4.
Subcutaneous emphysema
Pneumomediastinum
5.
Laryngeal crepitus
Fracture of laryngeal cartilage
The respiratory rate and effort are sensitive indicators of underlying lung pathology, and requires to be monitored
and recorded at frequent intervals.
Circulation and Hemorrhage Control

Bleeding can result due to:
Fractures of long bones
Vascular injuries
Soft tissue injuries
Application of pressure is the best way of management of hemorrhage, as tourniquets increase intraluminal
pressure of the vessels, distal ischemia and tissue necrosis. Application of tourniquet is undertaken in select
situations, and when used the time of application of tourniquet has to be noted so that neighboring soft tissue
is not jeopardized.
Recognition and Assessment of Hypovolemia

The assessment of hypovolemia has to be done in a systematic manner:
Skin color, clamminess and capillary refilling
Vital signs heart rate, blood pressure and pulse volume
Consciousness level
Isolated determinations of above parameters is unreliable as various organs try compensate at early stages,
especially at extremes of age.
Common sites of occult bleeding are:

Chest
Abdomen and retroperitoneum
Pelvis
Long bone fractures
External bleed into splints and dressings.
29
Percussion
Assess ventilation at the periphery
Auscultation
Assess defects in air movement.
30
Fluid Resuscitation
SECTION IV TRAUMA
Once any overt bleeding is controlled, it is necessary to maintain the circulatory volume. This is done by
administering a warm crystalloid followed by blood transfusions, maintaining the radial pulse and blood
pressure. This administration of fluids is done by peripheral venous cannulation, and when not possible done
through central venous catheterization.

Vital signs return to normal after less than 2 liters of fluid are administered, when the lost blood is less than 20
percent of the blood volume
Transient responders who are actively bleeding or recommence bleeding during the resuscitation, and the
improved vital signs deteriorate indicating loss of over 30 percent of the blood volume
Little or no response indicates that the loss is more than 40 percent or no hypovolemia.
Disability
Disabilities when occur in a patient with trauma shows seriousness. It can occur in:
Hypoxia
Hypovolemia
Hypoglycemia
Increased intracranial pressure.
Exposure
The patients clothes have to be removed by cutting through the seams so that there is minimal patient
movement. All clothes are removed only after adequate intravenous access is established, as a rapid removal
of tight trousers can precipitate sudden hypotension due to the loss of the tamponade effect in a hypovolemic
patient.
Once stripped, trauma victims should be kept warm with blankets when not being examined. Now the
patient is rolled on and the spine examined from base of skull to the coccyx, with a rectal examination.
What to look for during rectal examination in a trauma victim:
Is the sphincter tone present?
Is the rectal wall breached?
Is the prostate in a normal position?
Is there blood on the examiners finger?
SECONDARY SURVEY
Once the immediately life-threatening conditions are recognized and treated, the whole of the patient
is assessed. This requires head to toe, front to back assessment along with detailed medical history and
appropriate investigations.
If the patient deteriorates at any stage, the airway, breathing and circulation must be immediately re-assessed as
described in the primary survey.
Eliciting History
The history is elicited quickly and in concise manner, concentrating on:
Nature of injury
Mechanism of injury
Treatment provided
Medical history.
The physical examination should be done in a systematic manner.
Scalp
The scalp is examined for:
Lacerations
Swellings
Depressions
The examination is carried out by inspection and palpation (by running the fingers on the scalp).

It should be remembered to examine the occipital region, which is usually missed out
Blind probing should be avoided as it may further damage the underlying structures
In children, bleeding from scalp lacerations can cause hypotension and efforts to stop bleeding (application of
pressure, applying self-retaining retractors) have to be taken immediately.
Neurological State
The neurological state of the patient by the Glasgow Coma Score, the papillary responses and the presence of
lateralizing signs should be assessed. This examination should be done frequently so that any deterioration is
detected early.
Base of Skull
Since the skull base lies along a diagonal line running from the mastoid to the eye, the signs of a fracture in
this region are also found along this line.
CLINICAL EVALUATION
31
32 Signs of a base of skull fracture
Bruising over the mastoid (Battles sign)

Pandas eyes
Blood and CSF rhinorrhea
Blood and CSF otorrhea
Hemotympanum
Scleral hemorrhage with no posterior margin
Subhyoid hemorrhage.
SECTION IV TRAUMA
Battles sign and Pandas eyes appear after about 12 to 36 hours, and is not a reliable sign in a resuscitation room.
CSF rhinorrhea may be missed as it is invariably mixed with blood.
Neck
If any deformity is found, it is necessary to splint the neck preferably with a collar.
Eyes
Hemorrhage
Foreign bodies (including contact lenses)
Papillary response and corneal reflexes (in unconscious patient)
Visual acuity (in conscious patient).
Face
The face is examined by systematic inspection and palpation, and look for:
Fractures of midface
Fractures of mandible
Missing or lost teeth.

Midface fractures may be associated with fractures of base of skull

Mandibular fractures can cause airway obstruction due to loss of stability of tongue.
Thorax
The thorax is examined for
Fractures of clavicles and ribs
Crepitus (e.g. surgical emphysema)
Movements of chest (e.g. flail chest).
Abdomen
Extremities
The limbs are examined in the traditional manner of inspection, palpation and active and passive movement.
The fractures should be assessed and the blood loss estimated
Distal loss of arterial pulsation may be due to profound shock or arterial injury.
DEFINITIVE CARE
Once the patient is adequately assessed and successfully resuscitated, he is moved to the next stage for definitive
care, but they are vulnerable during transfers as monitoring becomes difficult during this time.
Before transfer, it is necessary to:
Close an open wound with sterile pads
Correct the deformity and splint the limb.
Note:
Intra-abdominal bleed should be suspected if the patient is hemodynamically unstable, especially if the
lower six ribs are fractured or there are marks on the abdominal surface
In unexplained hypotension, pelvic bone injuries should be suspected. Compression or distraction test is
useful
Clinical examination may not be reliable in neurologically unstable patients, and investigations like
ultrasound and CT or MRI may be needed. Diagnostic peritoneal lavage may be relied upon in certain
situations like massive hemoperitoneum.
The abdomen is examined in a very systematic manner, without forgetting to examine the pelvis and
perineum. Percussion is an ideal way to determine the injuries of liver and spleen. In penetrating injuries, if
bowel is exposed, it should be covered immediately with sterile cloth.
Urine output measurement is a good indicator in a shocked patient, and this requires catheterization for
accurate measurement. Transurethral catheterization without any difficulty may indicate that is no severe
urethral disruption. If the patient is not able to urinate, and catheterization is not possible, severe urethral
injury should be suspected, and suprapubic catheterization should be done. The signs of urethral injury in a
male are:
Bruising around the scrotum
Blood at the urethral meatus
High-riding prostate.
33
Head Injuries
Head injuries are classified into:

Brain injury
Fractures of skull
CSF fistula
Injuries of cranial nerves
Vascular injuries (rare)
Scalp injuries.
BRAIN INJURY
For the purpose of understanding the pathophysiology, brain injury is subdivided into:
Primary brain injury and
Secondary brain injury
Primary brain injury is further classified into:
Concussion brain
Diffuse axonal injury
Primary brainstem injury
Contusions and lacerations of brain
These injuries occur depending on the:
Severity of impact
Direction of impact force
35
Movement of head:
Type of injury: closed or penetrating injury. Mild force causes concussion of brain characterized by
transient loss of consciousness, Post traumatic amnesia, confused state and patient recovers completely
Severe force causes Diffuse Axonal Injury characterized by prolonged unconsciousness and neurologic
deficits
More severe force causes Primary Brain stem Injury. With extremely severe impact force, fatal injury
occurs with death at the accident spot itself
To-and-fro movement of head shakes various parts of the brain within the skull causing different
injuries: gray matter moves over white matter; subcortical white matter moves over basal ganglia;
brain surface hits against the rough floor of cranial fossa floor and sharp edges of falx and tentorium
leading to contusions of brain. When the pia-arachnoid is torn it is termed laceration.
With impact force/acceleration-deceleration force, brain moves within the cranial cavitycerebrum
moves over brainstem leading to deformation of neuronal-synaptic membranes at central reticular core.
CHAPTER 7 HEAD INJURIES
Secondary Brain Injury

Hypoxic-Ischemic injury to brain because of impaired breathing, aspiration, airway obstruction, chest
injury, cervical spine injury, hypotension, etc.
Intracranial hematomas (viz., acute extradural hematoma, acute subdural hematoma, acute intracerebral
hematoma) or expanding contusions and brain edema can cause brain shifts and increased intracranial
pressure
Metabolic abnormalities of glucose, sodium, acid-base, etc.
Acute extradural hematoma Vs Acute subdural hematoma:

Acute extradural hematoma occurs at the site of impact and hence the scalp injury or fracture skull will
give clue to the location of extradural hematoma
Bleeding is usually from the middle meningeal branches or from fracture edges
Acute subdural hematoma is 6 to 8 times more common than extradural hematoma and is often due to
acceleration and deceleration injury
Subdural hematoma can be contracoup, i.e. its location can be diagonally opposite to the site of scalp
injury. The bleeding is from the cortical veins
Due to associated severe primary brain injury, prognosis is in general poor compared to isolated extradural
hematoma.
36
FRACTURES OF SKULL
SECTION IV TRAUMA
Skull fractures are classified into:

Fractures of skull vault which can be:
Linear fracture (Fissured fracture)
Depressed fracture
Fractures of skull base which can involve:
Anterior cranial fossa
Middle cranial fossa
Posterior cranial fossa
They can be also be classified into:
Simple (or closed) fractures
Compound (or open) fractures
(depending on the absence or presence of communication to atmospheric air through breach of skin
or air containing cavities in the skull)
Fractures of skull vault will indicate the location of underlying extradural hematoma when present
Compound depressed fractures are potential source for spread of infection leading to brain abscess,
meningitis, epidural /subdural abscess
Depressed fractures of vault can lead to direct brain contusions and hematomas.

Skull fracture indicates that the force of injury was severe but does not indicate the severity of brain injury.
Symptoms and Signs

Fractures of anterior cranial fossa (Fig. 7.1) can cause:
Ecchymosis of the upper eyelids appearing after about 24 hours
Subconjuctival hemorrhage in the upper eyelid in anterior skull base fractures is pointed towards the
cornea and posterior limit will not be seen
In contrast in Black Eye where the injury is directly over orbit, the ecchymoses occur in both upper
and lower eyelids and appear within minutes of injury
The subconjuctival hemorrhages are actually conjuctival in plane and will move with conjunctiva
Cranial nerve palsies occur in fractures of the base of skull across or near the cranial nerve exit foraminae:
Fracture of temporal bone can explain 7th and 8th nerve palsies
Fracture of superior orbital fissure can explain spread of injuring force close to 3rd, 4th and 6th nerves
Fractures near jugular foramen can cause lower cranial nerve palsies
CSF rhinorrhea occurs in fractures involving cribriform plate or paranasal sinuses
37
FIG. 7.1: Fracture of anterior cranial fossa
CSF otorrhea occurs in fractures of temporal bone Eustachian tube CSF rhinorrhea. CSF leaks have the
risk of meningitis
Pulsatile proptosis in head injury can be due to carotico-cavernous fistula or more commonly comminuted
fracture of orbital roof with normal pulsation of brain being transmitted to orbit. In carotico-cavernous
fistula bruit may be present over orbit.
Note: Cranial nerve palsies can occur without skull fracture, e.g. olfactory nerve injury or optic nerve injury.
X-rays (AP, lateral and oblique views) and CT of skull (Figs 7.2A to D) are diagnostic.
Treatment
Closed depressed fractures over forehead may need elevation for cosmetic purposes
Compound fractures will need debridement to prevent brain abscess.
SECTION IV TRAUMA
38
FIG. 7.2A: CTFracture of frontal bone
FIG. 7.2B: CTFracture
FIG. 7.2C: CTFracture of frontal sinus
FIG. 7.2D: CTSubdural hematoma
CSF FISTULAE
39
Leak of CSF is caused by:

Fractures involving cribriform plate or paranasal sinuses can lead to CSF rhinorrhea
Fractures of temporal bone can lead to CSF otorrhea and through Eustachian tube CSF rhinorrhea.
Complications: Meningitis
Symptoms and Signs

Watery discharge is pathognomonic of CSF leak.
CT of paranasal sinuses after intrathecal contrast is useful.
Treatment
Lumbar pucture and CSF drainage intermittently for 10 20 days
Surgical repair is necessary if leak persists.
SCALP INJURIES
Scalp injuries indicate the sites of impact force.
They are of three types:
1. Contusions
2. Lacerations
3. Hematomas
SubpericranialConfined to an area of one cranial bone and fixed
Subaponeurotic or subgalealMore diffuse and extend beyond the margins of bones
SubcutaneousSuperficial and moves with the scalp.
Fractures beneath scalp injury in unconscious patients suggest the possibility of underlying extradural
hematoma
Scalp injury over occipital region may give clue to posterior fossa hemorrhage
The center of scalp hematomas may liquefy in the center after a few days and often give a false impression
of depressed fracture to the palpating finger.
40
Symptoms and Signs
SECTION IV TRAUMA
Bleeding from an open wound

Swelling in the head with or without external injury to the scalp.
Treatment
Immediate suturing of the wound, as the vessels are prevented from normal contraction by fixation of their
walls to fibrous stroma of scalp.
Note: When there is scalp laceration, before wound closure, depressed fracture has to be excluded clinically
under aseptic precautions.
Facial Injuries
FRACTURES OF MIDFACIAL SKELETON

The fracture of facial skeleton is usually due to direct injury
Types of fractures of midface are:
Floor of the orbit (Blowout fracture)
Zygomatic
Nasal
Maxillary [LeFort classification (Fig. 8.1)]
LeFort I (low level fracture): This is horizontal fracture above the level of the nasal floor (Guerins
fracture, floating fracture)
FIG. 8.1: Fractures of maxilla
SECTION IV TRAUMA
42
LeFort II (pyramidal or subzygomatic fracture): The fracture runs from the thin middle area of the
nasal bones down either side crossing the maxillary processes into the medial wall of each orbit
LeFort III (high transverse or suprazygomatic fracture): The fracture runs from near the frontonasal
suture transversely backwards, parallel with the base of the skull and involves the full depth of the
ethmoid, including the cribriform plate.
FRACTURES OF MANDIBLE
Fractures of the mandible (Fig. 8.2) can be divided according to the anatomical location into 8 types:
1. Dentoalveolar
2. Condylar
3. Coronoid
4. Ramus
5. Angle
6. Body
7. Parasymphysis
8. Symphysis
FIG. 8.2: Fractures of mandible
43
History
History of injury and hearing or feeling of a bone crack
The nature of impact (direct violence, indirect violence or excessive muscular contraction) should be
determined.
Symptoms
Pain and loss of function
Diplopia and enophthalmos are present in LeFort III type
But loss of function may not be a feature of impacted fracture.
FIG. 8.3A: Ecchymosis and nasal bleed in injury

of midface
FIG. 8.3B: Subconjunctival hemorrhage
CHAPTER 8 FACIAL INJURIES
The mandibular fractures can be:

Unilateral
Bilateral
Multiple
Comminuted.
44
Signs
SECTION IV TRAUMA
Tenderness of the bone on applying pressure

Swelling and ecchymosis (Fig. 8.3A)
Nasal bleed (Fig. 8.3A) and CSF rhinorrhea are common in associated base of skull fractures
Subconjuctival hemorrhage occurs in orbital bone fractures (Fig. 8.3B)
Blebs on the skin overlying the fractured site
Deformity: This is elicited by inspection, palpation and measurement. This is the most important sign of
a fracture. The deformity in case of a flat bone is either depression or elevation and in case of long bone
this is angular, lateral, longitudinal or rotatory. Hard palate is deformed in Le Fort I fracture (Fig. 8.4)
Dental alignment is lost in displaced fractures (Fig. 8.5).
FIG. 8.4: LeFort I fracture
FIG. 8.5: Displaced mandibular fracture
FIG. 8.6A: X-rayFracture of ramus of mandible
FIG. 8.6B: X-rayFracture of condyle of mandible
45
CHAPTER 8 FACIAL INJURIES
FIG. 8.6C: X-rayZygomatic fracture
FIG. 8.7: CTFracture of orbital bones
Abnormal mobility: This is present in case of impacted fractures

Crepitus: Also present in case of impacted fractures and should be elicited gently
Loss of function: For example, if the maxilla or the mandible is fractured, the patient may not be able to
masticate properly.
X-rays (Figs 8.6A to C) and CT (Fig. 8.7) are diagnostic.
Treatment
Undisplaced fractures need conservative management
Displaced fractures require surgical treatment, fixation with plates and screws (craniomaxillofascial
plating) and interdental wiring, with the aim to restore precise anatomical alignment.
Spine and Spinal

Cord Injuries
INJURIES TO BONY AND LIGAMENTOUS SPINE

When an overwhelming force strikes and compresses the spine, the bone crumbles resulting in fracture of
spine
The type of the vertebral fracture depends on the direction of injuring force and the curvature of spine at
the time of injury
With increasing force of injury, two or three columns of spine get injured leading to instability and
dislocation
Generally compression forces cause fracture while distraction forces cause ligament injury
The injuring forces can cause injury to spinal cord/root.
Symptoms
When the spinal cord is not affected, pain on movement, stiffness and tenderness are the symptoms
When the spinal cord is affected, neurological deficit occurs, depending on the level and completeness of
damage to the cord
Limb paralysis like paraplegia or quadriplegia may be the presenting symptoms
Respiratory, circulatory and urinary bladder dysfunctions may be superadded.
Signs
47
X-rays (Figs 9.1A and B), CT (Fig. 9.2) and MRI are essential to assess the extent of injury.
FIG. 9.1A: X-rayFracture of 5th sacral vertebra
FIG. 9.1B: X-rayCompression

fracture vertebra
FIG. 9.2: CT cervical spineFracture body of C3 vertebra
CHAPTER 9 SPINE AND SPINAL CORD INJURIES
Clinical examination is to determine the level and type of injury

External injuries give clue to the mechanism of injury (e.g. chin injury may indicate hyperextension
injury, occipital injury may indicate flexion-distraction injury, vertex injuries may indicate vertebral
compression).
48
Treatment
SECTION IV TRAUMA
Rest to the injured area may be sufficient with analgesic support. Many of them recover completely
Surgical decompression and stabilization are mandatory for incomplete cord injuries. Though, the
procedures are useful for bony stability in complete cord injuries, the neurologic recovery is poor.
INJURIES OF THE SPINAL CORD

During the injuries of the spinal cord, the neurons suffer primary damage on impact and are prone to
secondary injuries from hypoxia, hypotension, hematoma and swelling
When the damage is severe, spinal cord function at and below the level of the lesion is abolished
Spinal cord injuries are usually associated with injuries of vertebral column, usually fracture or fracturedislocation
The mechanisms of injury to the spinal cord /root are by:
Primary injuries: The primary injuring force itself can cause violent movement and stretching or
disruption of cord with or without abnormal bony displacements
Secondary injuries: The fractured segments of vertebrae, extruded disk, infolded ligaments and
intraspinal hematomas can cause secondary compression of cord or roots causing neurologic deficit.
Symptoms and Signs

Paralysis occurs below the level of the lesion, e.g. thoracic cord injury leads to paraplegia and cervical cord
injury leads to quadriplegia
Flaccid paralysis with no sensation indicates complete lesion with a poor prognosis
Signs suggestive of spinal cord injury are given in Table 9.1
In an unconscious patient, some symptoms suggest spinal cord injury (Box 9.1).
Table 9.1: Spinal cord injuries and their signs

Complete cord injury
Total paralysis with loss of sensation below level of injury
Cord hemisection (Brown-Sequard syndrome)
Ipsilateral paralysis with contralateral loss of sensation below level of

lesion
Central cord syndrome
Greater motor loss in the upper limbs than the lower limbs
Variable sensory loss below level of lesion
Anterior cord syndrome
Paralysis, loss of pain/temperature sensation below level of lesion

Proprioception and vibration preserved
Box 9.1: Signs suggestive of spinal cord injury in an unconscious patient

Diaphragmatic pattern of breathing
Unexplained hypotension
Flaccid paralysis
Reduced anal tone
Urinary retention/Priapism
X-rays and CT are useful in diagnosis.
Treatment
The treatment should focus on maintaining stability of the vertebral column either by external or internal
fixation
Recovery is variable and rehabilitation should start early for better results
Establish IV access and give good volume load to support blood pressure
Vasopressors may be needed to maintain circulation
Tracheal intubation and assisted ventilation may be needed to support ventilation
Nasogastric intubation may be needed for gastric decompression
Urethral catheterization is needed.
CHAPTER 9 SPINE AND SPINAL CORD INJURIES
49
Thoracic Injuries
10
RIB FRACTURES
This constitutes the most common chest injury
Minor fractures are those confined to one or two ribs
Mechanism of injury
Upper rib injuries involve major energy transfer and are often associated with injuries to major vessels,
brachial plexus and tracheobronchial tree
Fractures of lower ribs are frequently associated with liver and splenic injuries
Rib fractures in the elderly can occur after relatively low energy transfers as the bones are of low
density and chest wall compliance is poor.
Fractures of brittle ribs of elderly patients cause very little underlying injuries, whereas, flexible rib injuries of
younger individuals cause severe injury without obvious fractures.
Symptoms
Severe pain on deep inspiration and coughing, poor inspiratory effort, and progressive atelectasis and
pneumonia due to underlying lung contusion.
Signs
51
Apical rib fractures are associated with injury to great vessels

Mid zone rib fractures are associated with pulmonary contusion
Basal rib fractures are associated with abdominal visceral injuries (liver, spleen).
Chest X-ray shows the site and number of fractures (Figs 10.1A and B), underlying pleural and lung
injuries
Chest CT (Figs 10.2A and B) gives clearer view of fractures.
Treatment
Centers around pain management:
Oral and parenteral analgesics
Intercostal nerve blocks
Epidural analgesia especially in elderly or patients undergoing abdominal surgeries.
FIG. 10.1A: X-rayFracture rib
FIG. 10.1B: X-rayFractures of lower ribs
CHAPTER 10 THORACIC INJURIES
Crepitus, and bony tenderness

Skin bruises should give the suspicion
The hallmarks of rib fractures are intense pain, poor inspiratory effort, and progressive atelectasis and
pneumonia due to underlying lung contusion.
SECTION IV TRAUMA
52
FIG. 10.2A: Chest CTFractures of 7, 8, 9 and 10th ribs
FIG. 10.2B: CTLaceration of liver and perisplenic collection
FLAIL CHEST
53
When three or more ribs are fractured, each in more than one place, producing a free floating section of
the chest wall with or without separation of the costochondral junction it is called a flail chest (Fig. 10.3)
The flail segment interferes with the ventilatory function by ineffective chest wall motion (paradoxical
movement) i.e. movement inward with inspiration and outward with expiration, producing pain and
splinting and thereby a fall in tidal volume, hypoxia and hypercarbia.
FIG. 10.3: Flail chest
SECTION IV TRAUMA
54
Other causes for flail chest are:

1. Traumatic disruption of ligaments and cartilages of ribsnot seen on X-ray.
2. Destruction of ribs from malignant disease, e.g. multiple myeloma.
3. Metabolic diseaseosteitis fibrosa cystica.
4. Nonclosure of median sternotomy wound.
Symptom
Dyspnea.
Sign
Paradoxical respiration and hypoxia.
Chest X-rayto assess fracture, lung injury, hemopneumothorax
Arterial blood gas analysisto aid treatment of respiratory insufficiency (ventilation perfusion mismatch).
Treatment
Treatment of flail chest is shown in Table 10.1.
Table 10.1: Treatment of flail chest
Segment of flail
Respiratory distress
Respiratory function
Treatment
Small
No
Good
Pain relief and observation
Moderate
Severe
Moderate
Mechanical ventilation and analgesics
Large
Severe
Bad
Chest wall reconstruction and mechanical stabilization
STERNAL FRACTURE
Occurs mostly at the manubriosternal junction and is associated with very high velocity trauma
Injury to aorta, esophagus, bronchi, myocardium and spine need to be kept in mind.
Symptom
Severe pain over the anterior chest wall.
Sign
55
Chest X-ray lateral view and CT (Fig. 10.4) demonstrate the fracture.
FIG. 10.4: CTFracture sternum
Treatment
Sternal fractures can be managed conservatively with pain relief
Rarely, in case of persistent chest wall instability, fixation may be necessary.
PNEUMOTHORAX
Defined as air in the pleural cavity
The types (Fig. 10.5) are:
Closed pneumothorax: Air in the pleural cavity and has no external communication (e.g. rupture of
emphysematous bulla) or from outside
Open pneumothorax: Air in the pleural cavity has external communication (e.g. penetrating chest wall
injury or rib fracture)
Crepitus over the fracture site is characteristic.
SECTION IV TRAUMA
56
FIG. 10.5: Types of pneumothorax
Tension pneumothorax: Continued entry of air into the pleural cavity, increasing the intrapleural
pressure above the atmospheric pressure, which results in the shift of the mediastinum away from the
side of injury.
Symptoms
Chest pain, dyspnea and tachycardia.
Signs
On examination the neck veins are distended, the trachea and apex beat are shifted away from the side of
tension, breath sounds become distant or absent on the side of tension, due to the presence of air between
the chest wall and the lung substance
The chest on the affected side is more resonant (DDhemothorax, hydrothorax) on percussion.
Chest X-ray (Figs 10.6A to C) is conclusive, with shift of mediastinal structures away from the side of the
pathology, with air shadow lateral to the lung parenchyma on the side of the pathology
CT (Figs 10.7A and B) is diagnostic.
57
FIG. 10.6A: Chest X-rayRight pneumothorax
FIG. 10.6B: Chest X-rayRight pneumothorax

in patient on ventilator
FIG. 10.6C: Chest X-rayTension pneumothorax
SECTION IV TRAUMA
58
FIG. 10.7A: CTLeft pneumothorax with fractures of ribs
FIG. 10.7B: CTRight tension pneumothroax
Treatment
Open pneumothorax: The external wound is closed with a tape to convert it into a closed variety, supported
by intercostal drainage
Closed and tension pneumothorax: Simple aspiration of air from the pleural space followed by tube
thoracostomy.
Large chest wall wounds more than 75 percent the diameter of trachea allow preferential air entry through the
chest wall. Any attempt to ventilate leads to movement of air in and out of the defect. No ventilation is achieved,
and severe respiratory compromise occurs
All traumatic pneumothoraces should be drained
Massive air leaks may require bronchoscopy to exclude bronchial rupture
Bronchial rupture should be suspected in the presence of deceleration injury, mediastinal widening, hemoptysis,
first rib and clavicular fractures.
SURGICAL EMPHYSEMA
Defined as air in the subcutaneous tissues due to the air entry from the injured lung or external injuries like
fractured rib.
Pathogenesis
59
Symptoms and Signs

Subcutaneous tissues appear swollen and crepitus is a classical finding.
X-ray is diagnostic and reveals the air shadow in the subcutaneous plane, and also the underlying cause
(e.g. rib fracture)
CT (Fig. 10.8) is diagnostic.
FIG. 10.8: CTRight sided surgical emphysema

with rib fracture
Treatment
Small emphysema resolves spontaneously
Hemodynamic instability warrants surgical intervention
Treating the underlying cause.
HEMOTHORAX
Defined as blood in the pleural space, which is usually due to external (blunt or penetrating) trauma.
The entrapped air gradually spreads along the fascial planes into the neck, mediastinum but, rarely down into
the scrotum producing, a pneumoscrotum.
60
Symptoms
SECTION IV TRAUMA
Chest pain, dyspnea and tachycardia.
Signs
Tachycardia
Neck veins are distended
Trachea and apex beat are shifted away from the side of tension
The chest on the affected side is less resonant or dull (DDpneumothorax) on percussion
Breath sounds become distant or absent on the side of lesion, due to the presence of blood between the
chest wall and the lung substance
Hypotension and shock may be evident depending on the amount of blood loss (bleeding from lung
parenchyma is usually small but those from the intercostals and internal mammary arteries may be large).
Chest X-ray (Fig. 10.9A) is conclusive, with shift of mediastinal structures away from the side of the
pathology, with haziness with obliteration of costophrenic angle
CT (Fig. 10.9B) is diagnostic.
FIG. 10.9A: Chest X-rayLeft hemothorax
FIG. 10.9B: CT chestBilateral hemothorax (Red arrows) with

left 10th rib fracture (Blue arrow)
Treatment
61
Small collections of blood may be aspirated under aseptic conditions

Large collections need intercostal drainage
Thoracotomy is needed for massive bleeds (initial bleed of more than 1 1.5 liters), or continued bleeds
of more than 200300 ml/hr, to control the source of bleeding.
Early drainage is the key to success in the management of hemothorax
Once clot gets established, thoracotomy is needed
While draining hemothorax, it is advisable to use large drains (28 32 F)
Initial drainage of >600 ml or continued drainage of > 150 ml/hr will need thoracic surgical referral.
PULMONARY CONTUSION/LACERATION
While contusions of the lungs are produced by blunt chest injury with hemorrhage and edema in the lung
parenchyma, lung lacerations are due to penetrating injuries
There may be associated injury to larger airways:
Blunt injury usually produces injuries within 2.5 cm of the carina
Penetrating injuries may be at any level.
Alveolar microhemorrhages are responsible for the poor ventilatory status
Tracheobronchial injuries may coexist.
Complications: Mediastinal emphysema in case of major airway injury and hemopneumothorax in case of
peripheral bronchial injuries.
Symptoms and Signs

Dyspnea, tachycardia and chest pain
Small lacerations produce no symptoms.
Chest X-ray is diagnostic, which shows vague opacification in the injured area (usually within 1-2 hours
of injury)
CT (Fig. 10.10) and MRI are conclusive
Bronchoscopy is needed to evaluate tracheobronchial injuries.
SECTION IV TRAUMA
62
FIG. 10.10: CT chestBilateral pulmonary contusion
Treatment

Most lacerations of the lung resolve spontaneously and need no treatment

Large lacerations may require resuscitation and tube thoracostomy
Bronchial injuries involving more than 1/3rd circumference of the bronchus require surgery
Mechanical ventilation is warranted when there is profound V/Q mismatch.
INJURIES OF THORACIC AORTA

Thoracic aorta is vulnerable for injuries at its three fixed sites:
Annulus
Ligamentum arteriosumisthmus
Aortic hiatus
The most common sites being:
The ascending aorta proximal to innominate artery
The descending aorta at the point beyond the origin of left subclavian artery (ligamentum arteriosum)
Mechanism of injury:
Penetrating: More common and may involve other great vessels
Blunt: Rapid deceleration produces shear at the fixed portions of the aorta, or by anteroposterior
compression.
Almost 80 percent die on the way to the hospital.
Symptom
63
Signs
Features of massive hemothorax
Signs of shock may be evident
Neurological signs of cord compression may be present.
Injuries distal to innominate artery may show pseudocoarctation syndrome (upper extremity hypertension and
hypotension and low pulse in lower limbs).
Chest X-ray and CT (Fig. 10.11) are diagnostic with the following findings:
Widening of superior mediastinum
Depression of left main stem bronchus
Loss of aortic knob
Massive hemopnuemothorax
Look for associated 1st rib fracture, flail chest, sternal fracture and fracture of thoracic spine.
Arteriography is useful for definitive diagnosis of location and extent of injury.
FIG. 10.11: CT chestAortic rupture with upper rib fractures
Severe respiratory distress.
64
Treatment
SECTION IV TRAUMA
Resuscitation is the primary and emergent treatment

Resection of damaged segment of aorta and repair/interposition grafts is curative.
INJURIES OF MYOCARDIUM
Myocardial injuries are caused by:
Penetrating injuries (e.g. gunshot or stab injuries) where the outcome of injury depends on size of
pericardial defect
Blunt injuries
Rupture into the pericardium producing pericardial tamponade
Myocardial contusion
Arrhythmias.
Commotio cordis is the condition of sudden cardiac death or near sudden cardiac death after blunt, lowimpact chest wall trauma in the absence of structural cardiac abnormality. Ventricular fibrillation is the
most commonly reported induced arrhythmia in commotio cordis.
Blunt impact injury to the chest with a baseball is the most common mechanism and does not result solely
from the force of a blow as it is not seen in association with any rib or sternal fracture. It is largely the result
of the exquisite timing of the blow during a narrow window within the repolarization phase of the cardiac
cycle, 15 to 30 msec prior to the peak of the T wave. Survival rates for commotio cordis are low, even with
prompt CPR and defibrillation.
Symptoms
Dyspnea and cyanosis.
Signs
Examination reveals, distension of jugular veins, hypotension and narrowing pulse pressure and distant
heart sounds (Becks triad)
The jugular venous distension raises paradoxically on deep inspiration (Kussmauls sign), because the
increased venous return cannot be accommodated within the constricted heart
Signs of shock may be evident
Pulsus paradoxus is a cardinal sign (drop in systolic BP >10 mm during inspiration due to CO absorption).
2
65
Chest X-ray is contributory with cardiomegaly

ECG may remain normal for over 36 hours but exhibit features of ischemia, dysrhythmia later
ECHO is done to assess regional wall motion abnormalities
CPK-MB values show elevation (check values at admission, 2448 hours).
Treatment
Cardiac monitoring and resuscitation are important
Cardiac tamponade warrants pericardiocentesis/subxiphoid pericardial window
Thoracotomy is done to create an opening of pericardial sac.
ESOPHAGEAL INJURIES
Esophageal injuries are caused by:
Penetrating injury may occur at any level and are should be suspected when the injury crosses the
midline (e.g. in sword swallowers as circus act), during esophagoscopy
Blunt injury: Usually following severe blow to the sternum or epigastrium. The common site of injury
is at the lower 1/3rd esophagus.
Symptoms
Fever, dyspnea (due to mediastinitis or mediastinal emphysema) or tachypnea.
Signs
Features of surgical emphysema (spread of mediastinal emphysema to neck, face and chest wall) may
supervene, with signs of hypoxia about 34 days later.
Chest X-ray may reveal
Pneumomediastinum
Air in the prevertebral space
Left pleural effusion
Hemo or pneumothorax in the absence of rib fracture.
SECTION IV TRAUMA
66
FIG. 10.12: Gastrograffin swallowLeaking dye in esophageal perforation (penetrating injury)
Gastrograffin swallow may show the leak (Fig. 10.12)

Esophagoscopy may show the injury
Intercostal drainage shows particulate food matter, and show air leak during both phases of respiration.
Treatment
Intercostal drainage is mandatory
Early operative repair of the esophageal tear is necessary.
DIAPHRAGMATIC INJURIES
Injuries of diaphragm are caused by:
Blunt injuries produce large radial tears and herniation of abdominal viscera into the chest
Penetrating injuries are small initially and enlarge over a period of time.
Symptoms and Signs
67
Diagnosis is difficult unless the tears are large and allows herniation of abdominal contents into the chest
cavitydyspnea and tachycardia.
Chest X-ray is contributory and may show:
Bowel loops in the chest (in herniation of small bowel)
Double shadow overlying the diaphragm
Nasogastric tube in the chestin patients with gastrothorax.
Contrast studies and CT of chest are conclusive.
Treatment
Surgical repair with or without mesh is mandatory.
Abdominal Injuries
11
Abdominal injuries can be of two varieties. They are:

1. Closed injuries (caused by blunt injuries)
2. Open injuries (caused by penetrating or stab injuries).
CLOSED INJURIES
Caused by a blunt force exerted suddenly on the abdomen, such as:
Fall from a height
Blow with a fist
Injuries inflicted by heavy weapons like crowbars, poles, sticks
Run over injuries in road traffic accidents
Hitting against the steering wheel during sudden deceleration or braking of a speeding vehicle (in the
absence of seat belt).
They may lead to compression of intra-abdominal organs against the vertebral column causing rupture of:
Solid organs
Hollow organs
Mesentery
Detachment of gut from the mesentery
Contusion of abdominal wall.
OPEN INJURIES
69
Caused by any sharp instrument like knife, flying objects like bullets, missiles, pieces of wood or glass.
The incriminating agents enter the abdominal cavity taking with them some infection resulting in
peritonitis.
The points of entry and exit of the agent will indicate the direction and the possible organs injured.
Hollow organs may perforate and infect the peritoneal cavity (due to contamination by the contents
of the organfeces, urine, intestinal or gastric contents), or bleed (either into the organ or outside or
both).
Solid organs cause hemorrhage (inside the organ or outside or both), and large bleeds cause shock and
sometimes death.
CHAPTER 11 ABDOMINAL INJURIES
Symptoms and Signs

General features:
Symptoms: Weakness, clouding of thoughts and speech, air hunger, restlessness, decreased or absent
urine output
Signs: Pallor, tachycardia, hypotension, subnormal temperature.
Local features: Depend on the organ involved and the severity of damage.
INJURIES OF LIVER
The liver ranks high on the list of intra-abdominal organs involved by injury:
Blunt injuries are more common than the penetrating injuries, due to increase in motor traffic moving
at high speeds, and are associated with fracture of lower ribs on the right side. The dome of the liver is
involved with anterior-posterior tears, more on the right lobe (7:1).
Spontaneous rupture of liver is seen in:
Primary carcinoma in adults
Trauma during birth in children (postmature babies) being delivered per vaginum.
Liver injuries (Fig. 11.1) are classified into:
Transcapsular (blood and bile will seep into the peritoneal cavity)
Subcapsular (collection of blood between the capsule and the liver parenchyma mostly on the superior
surface of liver)
Central (interruption of liver parenchyma leading to intrahepatic hematoma, abscess and hematobilia).
SECTION IV TRAUMA
70
FIG. 11.1: Types of liver injuries
FIG. 11.2: X-ray showing lower rib fracture
Symptoms and Signs

Transcapsular: Symptoms and signs of shock and peritoneal irritation (pain right upper abdomen with
reference to the right shoulder, guarding and rigidity of the right hypochondrium, absent bowel sounds,
shifting dullness)
Subcapsular: Local tenderness and increase in area of liver dullness
Central: Signs of shock may be present with hemobilia and hematemesis.
Plain chest X-ray (Fig. 11.2) will demonstrate fracture of lower ribs on the right side
Plain X-ray abdomen may show haziness in the area of the liver with elevation of right dome of diaphragm
CT (Figs 11.3A and B) and MRI are useful in localizing the damaged areas of liver and collections of blood
or bile
Peritoneal tap may be useful in identifying bile leaks
Colloidal gold Au198 or Technitium-sulfur colloid Tc99m scans are useful during active bleeding.
Treatment
Correction of shock
No surgical intervention is needed for small injuries
71
FIG. 11.3A: CTRight lower rib fractures
FIG. 11.3B: CTLiver injury with hemoperitoneum
SECTION IV TRAUMA
72
Early surgical intervention, sometimes amounting to hepatectomy, is needed for large injuries associated
with vascular or biliary tract injuries.
Post-traumatic liver hemorrhage is amenable to radiological intervention (embolization).
INJURIES OF SPLEEN
Spleen is the intra-abdominal organ most frequently injured by blunt trauma, usually by thoraco
abdominal injuries associated with fractures of left lower ribs.
The causes of splenic injuries are:
Blunt injuries of lower chest and abdomen (e.g. automobile accidentsmay be associated with rib
fractures, lung injuries, fracture of spine, intra-abdominal organs)
Transabdominal and transthoracic penetrating injuries (e.g. gunshot or knife injuriesmay be
associated with injuries to left kidney, colon, pancreas, vascular structures of mesentery)
Operative injuries (e.g. during operations on adjacent visceragastrectomy)
Spontaneous rupture or minor trauma (e.g. enlarged spleen of malaria).
Splenic injuries may be:
Linear or stellate lacerations (due to excessive traction on the capsule during operations)
Capsular tears (due to excessive traction on the capsule during operations)
Subcapsular hematoma (due to excessive traction on the capsule during operations)
Puncture wounds (caused by penetrating injuries)
Intrasplenic hematomas (caused by penetrating injuries)
Rupture of parenchyma (due to extreme friability and vascularity of the organ).
Symptoms
Symptoms and signs of shock and peritoneal irritation.
Signs

Pain left upper abdomen with reference to the left shoulder (Khers sign)
Guarding and rigidity of the left hypochondrium
Absent bowel sounds
Shifting dullness
A mass of percussible area of fixed dullness in the left hypochondrium (Ballances sign)
Lacerations may be seen on the left lower chest.
73
The clinical presentation of splenic injury is of three types:

1. Acute: Immediate presentation of symptoms
2. Delayed: A quiescent period of 7 days to less than 2 weeks, between the injury and intraperitoneal bleeding
(Latent period of Baudet), probably related to a temporary tamponade of a minor laceration or the presence
of a slowly enlarging subcapsular hematoma which eventually ruptures
3. Occult: Mild symptoms caused by rupture of organized intrasplenic or parasplenic hematoma.
Plain chest X-ray chest will demonstrate fracture of ribs on the left side
Plain X-ray abdomen may show:
Haziness in the area of the spleen
Elevated immobile left dome of diaphragm
Medial displacement of gastric shadow with indentation
Obliteration of psoas shadow
Widening of space between splenic flexure and the preperitoneal pad of fat.
CT (Figs 11.4A to C) and MRI are useful in localizing the damaged areas of spleen and collections of
blood
Peritoneal tap may be useful in identifying blood in the peritoneal cavity.
FIG. 11.4A: CTSplenic injury with lower rib fracture
FIG. 11.4B: CTLaceration of liver

and perisplenic collection
SECTION IV TRAUMA
74
FIG. 11.4C: CTCombined renal and splenic injuries of automobile accident
Treatment
Once the diagnosis is made the operation should not be delayed
Splenectomy is the recommended treatment, regardless of the type and the extent of the injury.
Following splenectomy, to prevent the life-threatening infections (pneumococci), long-term prophylaxis

with penicillin (minimum of 2 years), with immunization against Pneumococcus, Meningococcus and
Hemophilus influenzae is required.
INJURIES OF MESENTERY
Mesentery consists of its arteries and veins and they may be injured by either penetrating or nonpenetrating abdominal trauma
In most cases, associated organ injuries are found
Isolated injury to mesenteric vessels is rare.
Symptoms
Depending on the size of the vessel lacerated, the rapidity of bleeding and associated organ injury, the patient
will present with signs of shock, abdominal pain and distension.
Sign
75
When the bleeding occurs within the layers of mesentery, the clinical signs evolve slowly and the viability of the
bowel is threatened.
Plain X-rays may show air under the diaphragm when the bowel is perforated by the injury
Peritoneal tap may be useful in establishing the bleeding.
Treatment
Repair of the torn mesentery is required
Resection and anastomosis is required for nonviable intestine.
INJURIES OF DUODENUM
Duodenum can be injured both by penetrating and nonpenetrating abdominal trauma
The duodenum can rupture:
Intraperitoneally and cause immediate chemical irritation of the peritoneum due to the highly alkaline
duodenal content
Retroperitoneally (more common with blunt trauma such as steering wheel injuries).
Symptoms and Signs

Intraperitoneal rupture:
Abdominal pain, fever and distension with vomiting
Examination shows marked tenderness in the upper abdomen and later signs of generalized peritonitis.
Retroperitoneal rupture:
Pain in the epigastrium and back, with pronounced vomiting
Testicular pain is a common feature of retroperitoneal rupture of duodenum.
Plain X-ray of abdomen may show air under the domes of diaphragm (intraperitoneal rupture) or large
accumulation of air above the right kidney (retroperitoneal rupture). Diagnostic accuracy can be increased
On examination, tenderness is marked.
SECTION IV TRAUMA
76
by injecting air in the Levines tube to increase the air collections. Water soluble dye injections in the tube
can make the diagnosis more precise
CT with contrast is conclusive
Paracentesis may show bile-stained fluid, if the rupture is intraperitoneal.
Treatment
Simple suturing may be adequate in many cases
Supplementary gastroenterostomy is required for large tears
Rarely, even a pancreatoduodenectomy may be necessary for extensive trauma involving the periampullary
region.
INJURIES OF SMALL INTESTINE

Injuries to the small intestine are more common than injuries to the duodenum and large intestine,
the usual mechanism being the blunt trauma crushing the bowel against the vertebral column, more
commonly the duodenojejunal flexure and the ileocecal junction, the fixed parts
Blunt injuries cause slow necrosis of bowel and leak occurs late
Signs and symptoms develop late2 to 3 days later, depending on the size of the damage and leak of
contents
Penetrating injuries can also cause small bowel trauma, but less commonly, probably due to its sliding
away from a knife because of its great mobility
Associated mesenteric tears are common.
Abdominal pain, distension and vomiting
Tenderness and guarding are pronounced around the damaged bowel and the patient may point it
(Pointing sign).
Plain X-rays may show air under the domes of the diaphragm
Paracentesis will show bile-stained fluid.
Treatment
77
Simple suturing is done for simple tears

Resections are required for large tears with nonviable bowel
Peritoneal toileting is mandatory under cover of antibiotics.
INJURIES OF LARGE INTESTINE

Large bowel injuries can be caused by penetrating and nonpenetrating injuries
Ruptures may be:
Extraperitoneal for ascending and descending colon injuries, whereas
Intraperitoneal, when the injuries are of transverse and sigmoid colons
Patient develops septic complications quickly as the large fluid leak is fecal and infected
Delayed presentation is not uncommon as in small bowel injuries
Symptoms
Abdominal pain, vomiting and distension
High grade fever occurs due to fecal contamination.
Signs
Signs of peritonitis.
Plain X-rays may show air under the domes of the diaphragm (intraperitoneal ruptures)
Paracentesis will show feculent fluid.
Treatment
Early laparotomy is required
Closure of tears with proximal diversion is necessary
Peritoneal toileting is mandatory under cover of broad-spectrum antibiotics.
78
ABDOMINAL COMPARTMENT SYNDROME
SECTION IV TRAUMA

Occurs when the intra-abdominal pressure rises above the venous pressure.
This can be caused by:
Blood
Free gas
Free fluid
Tissue or splanchnic edema
Organomegaly.
Pathogenesis
Occurs due to underperfusion of intra-abdominal organs (e.g. gut, kidneys and liver).
Symptom
Falling urinary output.
Signs
Tense and quiet abdomen.
Measurement of intra-abdominal pressure by connecting the urinary catheter to a pressure transducer
(>20 mm Hg suggests abdominal compartment syndrome).
Treatment
Surgical exploration
Patients may bleed torrentially when the abdomen is opened followed by hemodynamic instability,
following visceral reperfusion
Assisted ventilation may be required for many days.
Urological Injuries
12
RENAL INJURIES
Kidneys are the most common organs to get injured in the urological system
Injuries to the kidneys may be caused by:
Closed blunt abdominal trauma such as road traffic accidents, during active sports and may be
associated with lower rib fractures
Penetrating injuries by bullets, knives are also causes of renal trauma
Renal trauma is of three types:
Minor trauma (e.g. renal contusion, subcapsular hematoma)
Major trauma (e.g. deep cortical lacerations, extravasation of urine)
Renal vascular trauma (e.g. avulsion of renal pedicle).
Symptom
Hematuria is the most common symptom.
Signs
Bruising over the ribs posteriorly or evidence of penetrating injury
Tenderness and guarding in the loin and expanding mass
Signs of shock may be seen in major trauma.
80
SECTION IV TRAUMA
Plain X-rays may show fractures of lower ribs

CT is the investigation of choice and accurate assessment is possible (Figs 12.1 and 12.2)
Renal arteriography may be needed in cases where CT is not contributory, especially with renal vessel
injuries.
FIG. 12.1: CTInjury of right kidney
FIG. 12.2: Contrast enhanced CTLeft renal injury
Treatment
Any patient with renal injury should rest in bed and all urine samples should be examined for blood
Surgical exploration is warranted in closed injuries, when there is retroperitoneal bleeding, expanding
loin mass, urinary extravasation, evidence of nonviable renal parenchyma and renal pedicle injuries
Exploration of abdomen is required for penetrating injuries for assessment of other injuries and kidney
should only be explored when the condition warrants.
URETERIC INJURIES
Most common cause of ureteric injuries is during abdominal and pelvic operations
Urinary leak occurs around the 5th postoperative day
The operations associated with ureteric injuries are given in Table 12.1.
81
Table 12.1: Causes of ureteric injuries

Gynecology
General surgery
Urology
Hysterectomy (abdominal or vaginal)

open or laparoscopic
Sigmoid colectomy
Excision of bladder diverticula
Ovarian cystectomy
Abdominoperineal resection
Ureterolithotomy
Anterior colporrhaphy
Surgery for aortic aneurysm
Ureteroscopy
Nature of Injuries
Complete ligation of one or both ureters, leads to increase in intraureteric pressure, kidneys stop secreting
urine, with resultant dilatation of pelvis and atrophy of kidney
When the obstruction is incomplete (inclusion in a stitch), secretion continues to be normal, hydronephrosis
and infection occur
When the ureter is divided or suffers crushing injury, urine leaks into the retroperitoneum or peritoneal
cavity which may result in a urinary fistula
The injury may be recognized at the time of surgery
If bilateral ligation is not recognized during surgery, it manifests as uremia.
Symptom and Sign

The clinical presentation varies according to the nature of injury (Table 12.2).
Table 12.2: Ureteric injuries and their clinical presentations

Symptoms
Signs
Nature of injury
Clinical presentation
Bilateral ligation
Anuria in the immediate postoperative period
Unilateral ligation
No symptoms/loin pain/fever
Division
Urine leak through the drain/wound/vagina
Retroperitoneal urine leak
Abdominal distension and paralytic ileus
Intraperitoneal urine leak
Abdominal distension and paralytic ileus with peritonitis and sepsis
CHAPTER 12 UROLOGICAL INJURIES
Operations
SECTION IV TRAUMA
82
FIG. 12.3: IVULeakage of contrast from damaged ureter
IVU (Fig. 12.3) or contrast enhanced CT will demonstrate the nature of obstruction and urinary leak.
Treatment
If injury is recognized during surgery, it should be rectified immediately:
Spatulation and end-to-end anastomosis is done, when the length is not lost
Incomplete damages to the ureter may be treated by stenting and spontaneous healing may be
expected.
Surgical corrections (ureteroureterostomy, ureteroneocystostomy) are necessary to restore the
anatomy, before renal function is compromised.
URINARY BLADDER INJURIES

Urinary bladder is partially extraperitoneal and is also closely covered by the parietal peritoneum, and
because of this anatomy, it can rupture:
Extraperitoneally (80%)
Intraperitoneally (20%)
Table 12.3: Etiologic factors of bladder injuries

Extraperitoneal rupture
Intraperitoneal rupture
Fracture pelvis
Blunt abdominal trauma with full bladder
Prostatic surgery
Penetrating injury
Difficult pelvic surgery
Injuries during therapeutic and surgical endoscopy
Common in patients with abdominal trauma, who have a full bladder and are in a drunken state. The
etiologies of these types vary. They are tabulated in Table 12.3.
Symptoms
Severe lower abdominal pain with anuria
Passage of blood stained urine is a common symptom.
Signs
Distended abdomen with or without signs of peritonitis
Catheterization is easy but no urine is drained, as there is leak
Extraperitoneal leak is associated with pelvic fracture and causes tender suprapubic thickening.
Plain X-ray of abdomen will show ground glass appearance of the lower abdomen
IVU, retrograde cystography (Figs 12.4A and B) or CT cystography are helpful in identifying the rupture
and leak.
FIG. 12.4A: CystogramIntraperitoneal rupture of

urinary bladder
FIG. 12.4B: CystogramExtraperitoneal

rupture of urinary bladder
Etiology (Trauma)
83
84
Treatment
SECTION IV TRAUMA
Intraperitoneal rupture of bladder requires surgical exploration and repair

Extraperitoneal rupture is managed by drainage of retropubic space with suprapubic drainage of bladder.
URETHRAL INJURIES

Male urethra is more prone to injury, and is commonly caused by instrumentation

Pelvic fracture is another cause of urethral injuries
Treated or untreated, urethral injuries may end in strictures
Urinary incontinence and impotence are other complications.
Symptom
Blood at urethral meatus, hematuria and or anuria.
Sign
Distended bladder with tenderness on pelvic bones at the region of fracture, with perineal hematoma.
In rupture of membranous part of urethra, prostate is high riding.
Retrograde urethrography (Fig. 12.5) will be informative (catheterization should be avoided).
FIG. 12.5: Retrograde urethrography showing leak of contrast through urethral fistula
Treatment
85
Anterior urethral injuries:

Complete: Primary repair
Incomplete: Catheterization and allow it to heal spontaneously
Posterior urethral injuries: Suprapubic drainage and urethral catheterization by rail-road method initially
and delayed perineal end-to-end urethroplasty.
Male Genital Injuries
13
INJURIES OF PENILE SKIN

In adults, the injury to the penile skin occurs due to:
Direct injury during a fall
Assault or entrapment of clothing in machinery
In people who indulge in perverted sex or during masturbation with metal objects.
Children can injure the penis by pranky acts and cause damage to the penile shaft and skin (Fig. 13.1A).
Symptom
Profuse bleeding from the wound.
Sign
The penile skin is lacerated in an irregular fashion (Fig.13.1B)
No specific investigation is necessary.
Treatment
Immediate surgical repair is necessary.
87
FIG. 13.1B: Laceration penile skin

(Courtesy: Dr MG Rajamanickam)
FOREIGN BODIES IN PENILE URETHRA

Insertion of foreign bodies into the urethra is an unusual but a documented activity, especially by those who
are mentally disturbed and in those involved in perverted sex. A wide variety of objects have been documented
to be in the urethra, such as batteries, safety pains, telephone wire, ballpoint pen, etc.
Symptoms
Lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) Irritation, pain, and hematuria. Urinary retention is possible in total
obstruction of the urethra.
Signs
Blood at the tip of the penis
The foreign body may be felt at the undersurface of urethra (objects above the urogenital diaphragm may
not be palpable)
Foreign body at the urethral meatus can be seen directly (Fig 13.2)
Distended urinary bladder in total obstruction of urethra
Diagnosis is by clinical history (proper history may not be available in mentally disturbed patients).
CHAPTER 13 MALE GENITAL INJURIES
FIG. 13.1A: Gangrene of glans penis

due tying of hair around it
SECTION IV TRAUMA
88
FIG. 13.2: Foreign body (coconut kernel) in anterior urethra

(Courtesy: Dr N Mohan)

Urine examination gross or microscopic hematuria

X-ray radiopaque foreign bodies can be identified
Urethroscopy will reveal foreign bodies in the proximal urethra
US, IVU and cystogram may reveal radiolucent objects.
Treatment
Endoscopic manipulation and extraction using forceps, snares, balloon wires and retrieving baskets
Urethrotomy may be needed when endoscopic procedures are unsuccessful.
SCROTAL LACERATION
It occurs commonly following:
Blunt injury (road traffic accident)
A fall
Gunshot injuries.
89
Intra-abdominal, chest and head injuries may be associated
The tunica albuginea of testis may be damaged with loss of testicular substance.
Symptom
Profuse bleeding.
Signs
The laceration may be confined to a small area of the scrotum
Sometimes, there may be loss of entire scrotal skin with exposure of the testis (Fig. 13.3).
No special investigation is necessary.
Treatment

Cleaning and primary repair of simple tears

Placing the exposed testis in the subcutaneous plane of the thigh, and dressings for complex injuries
Skin grafting and, or scrotal reconstruction may be needed at a later date
Any tear in the tunica albuginea needs repair to prevent loss of testicular substance.
CHAPTER 13 MALE GENITAL INJURIES
FIG. 13.3: Laceration of penis and scrotum with exposure of left testis
Female Genital Injuries
COITAL INJURIES
Injuries commonly occur during forced intercourse and sometimes at the time of first intercourse.
Symptom
Vulval or vaginal bleeding.
Signs
Local examination reveals irregular abrasions in the vulva or vagina.
Local examination is conclusive and no special investigation is necessary.
Treatment
Application of pressure with gauze pack is effective in controlling most bleeds
Suturing is done for larger bleeds
Uncontrolled bleeding should prompt a search for coagulation disorders.
14
INJURIES DURING CHILDBIRTH
91
CHAPTER 14 FEMALE GENITAL INJURIES
Injuries of the genital tract occur during childbirth, especially due to:
Delivery of large babies
Tight introitus
Deliveries conducted with the aid of instruments.
Bleeding from the wound
Local examination reveals a laceration.
Treatment
Primary repair of the tear with correct approximation of layers is mandatory as healing by secondary intention
weakens the area resulting in anal or urinary incontinence or uterine prolapse.
Hand Injuries
15

Hand injuries form nearly one-third of all injuries to human body
They can be:
Open
Closed
Acute injuries can be classified depending on the nature of force and on contamination as tidy, untidy and
indeterminable injuries:
Tidy injuries: Clean cuts and incised wounds, usually resulting from sharp force
Untidy injuries: Ragged skin wounds, may be with associated fractures, usually resulting from crush or
avulsion force
Indeterminable injuries: Injuries where it is difficult to determine the extent of injury and the viability
of tissues, usually caused by very severe force
Injuries to the vessels, nerves, bones and joints may be present in any of the above injuries.
Complications: Post-traumatic deformities like contractures, neurovascular deficit.
The patient presents to the surgeon either in the acute stage or late.
In acute injuries (Figs 15.1A to C), the pain is excruciating, and assessment is difficult, unless pain is
alleviated by analgesics. When patients arrive late, infection gets superadded, and result in post-traumatic
sequelae.
93
CHAPTER 15 HAND INJURIES
FIG. 15.1A: Traumatic amputation of

tip of middle finger
FIG. 15.1B: Traumatic amputation of entire

index finger
FIG. 15.1C: Penetrating injury of three fingers

Nail injury: Avulsion of nail (complete or partial) (Fig. 15.2A)

Skin damage: Loss of skin, especially degloving
Nerve damage: Sensory or motor loss depending on the nerve affected
Damage to arteries: Suspected by profuse hemorrhage (incomplete tears), gangrene (complete injuries)
(Figs 15.2B to D)
Damage to tendon sheaths and tendons: Lack in active movement
Damage to bones and joints: Pain, deformity, tenderness and loss of movement.
SECTION IV TRAUMA
94
FIG. 15.2A: Avulsion of nails by crush injury
FIG. 15.2B: Traumatic gangrene of middle finger
FIG. 15.2C: Gangrene of fingertip following

crush injury
FIG. 15.2D: Traumatic gangrene of little finger
In acute injuries, for assessment of damage, surgical exploration may be necessary when in doubt and it should be
done meticulously. The structures should be considered divided until otherwise proved.
In late post-traumatic cases detailed examination of movements and sensation can be done with ease, and
damage assessed completely.
Skin injuries: Necrosis of skin, may manifest as raw area, when very late, can present with contracture
due to secondary healing.
Vascular injuries: Necrosed skin and deeper tissues
95
CHAPTER 15 HAND INJURIES
FIG. 15.3A: Boutonnire deformity of little finger
FIG. 15.3B: Mallet finger
FIG. 15.3C: Swan-neck deformity
Extensor tendon injuries: Dropped finger (if injury is at dorsum or proximal level), Boutonnire
deformity (when injury is at proximal finger level) (Fig. 15.3A) and Mallet finger (when injury is
at distal finger level) (Fig. 15.3B). Neglected or untreated Mallet fingers may progress to Swan-neck
deformity (Fig. 15.3C).
SECTION IV TRAUMA
96
Flexor tendon injuries: Lack of movement of PIP joint suggest flexor digitorum sperficialis injury and
DIP joint suggests flexor digitorum profundus injury
Nerve damage: Wasting of muscle groups, lack of sweating and trophic changes
Bone or joint injuries: Fractures with or without dislocations of joints.
X-rays (in various views) are necessary to assess bone injuries
Doppler studies are required to assess vascular damage.
Treatment
Bleeding can be controlled by elevating the limb or by applying pressure directly over the site with pads
In acute injuries:
Skin injuries: Primary repair wherever possible
Vascular injuries: Primary microvascular repair
Bone and joint injuries: Proper debridement and splinting, reduction of dislocations and immobilization
Nerve injuries: Primary repair under magnification where possible
Tendon injuries: Primary repair in clean wounds.
In late post-traumatic cases:
Skin injuries: Wounds healing by secondary intention cause severe fibrosis and contractures, and may
need release and repair and skin grafting in some cases
Vascular injuries: Grafts wherever required
Bone and joint injuries: Malunion or nonunion should be treated accordingly
Nerve injuries: Nerve grafts
Tendon injuries: Tendon transfers or grafts.
Note: Dirty wounds should be debrided well and converted into a clean wound and further treatment is carried out.
Section V
Organs and Systems

16. Oral Cavity

Acute Odontogenic
Infections
17. Head and Neck

Acute Suppurative
Sialadenitis

Ludwigs Angina
18.

Thorax
Acute Mediastinitis
Acute Pleuritis
Pleural Effusion
Acute Empyema
Thoracis
Spontaneous
Pneumothorax
Foreign Bodies in the
Respiratory Tract
Suppurative or
Aspiration Pneumonia
Hospital Acquired
Pneumonia
Acute Lung Abscess

Pulmonary Embolism
19. Breast

Breast Hematoma

Acute Breast Abscess
20. Spine

Degenerative
Diseases of Disk and
Facet Joints

Spondylolisthesis
21. Gastroenterology

Acute Abdomen

Acute upper
abdominal pain

Acute lower
abdominal pain

Acute Liver Abscess

Acute Cholecystitis

Acute Cholangitis

Primary Sclerosing
Cholangitis
Splenic Abscess
Acute Hemorrhagic
Pancreatitis
Acute Appendicitis
Acute Mesenteric
Lymphadenitis
Acute Colonic
Diverticulitis
Acute Meckels
Diverticulitis
Acute Solitary Cecal
Diverticulitis
Acute Ulcerative
Colitis
Acute Intestinal
Obstruction
Gallstone Ileus
Swallowed Foreign
Bodies
Perforated Bowel
Pathologies

22.

Intestinal Strictures
Bands and Adhesions
Enteroliths/Food
Bolus
Volvulus
Sigmoid volvulus
Cecal volvulus
Midgut volvulus
Gastric volvulus
Intestinal Obstruction
due to Herniae
(Internal and External)
Paralytic Ileus
Torsion of Mesenteric
Cyst
Torsion of Omentum
Colics
Gastrointestinal
Hemorrhage
Anorectum
Acute Anal Fissure
Anorectal Abscess
Hemorrhoids
Perianal Hematoma
Prolapse of Rectum
23. Vascular System

Acute Limb Ischemia

Acute Intestinal
Ischemia

Leaking or Dissecting
Aortic Aneurysm
24. Urology

Acute Retention of
Urine

Hematuria

Renal Colic

Ureteric Colic

Acute Urethritis

Acute Prostatitis

Acute Prostatic
Abscess
25.

Male Genitalia
Acute Scrotal Pain
Torsion of Testis
Torsion of
Appendages of Testis
Acute Epididymoorchitis
Traumatic Orchitis
Hematocele
Pyocele
Idiopathic Scrotal
Edema
Acute Scrotal Abscess
Fourniers Gangrene
Acute Filarial Scrotum
Fracture Penis
Paraphimosis
Priapism
26. Hernias

Complicated Hernias
27. Gynecology

Acute Torsion of
Ovarian Cyst

Acute Salpingitis

Rupture of Lutein Cyst
28. Pediatrics


Congenital Pyloric
Stenosis

Necrotizing
Enterocolitis

Tracheoesophageal
Fistula
29. Lymphatic System

Acute Lymphangitis

Acute Viral
and Bacterial
Lymphadenitis

Acute Filarial
Lymphangitis and
Lymphadenitis
30. Skin and Subcutaneous
Tissues

Hematoma

Erysipelas

Furuncle

Cellulitis

Acute Pyogenic
Abscess

Carbuncle

Burns

Necrotizing Fasciitis
Oral Cavity
16
ACUTE ODONTOGENIC INFECTIONS

Acute odontogenic infections present in three ways:
i. Abscess
ii. Cellulitis
iii. Fulminating infections.
The odontogenic abscesses present in many ways:
Acute periapical abscess (cause Infective necrosis of pulp)
Acute dentoalveolar abscess
Acute periodontal abscess
Acute pericoronal abscess.
Causative organisms
Staphylococci
Streptococci
Bacteroides.
Pathogenesis
The infection follows the path of least resistance, the deciding factor being the fascial planes:
Mandibular 2nd and 3rd molar infections perforate the lingual cortex and spread to submandibular space,
as the roots of these teeth lie below the mylohyoid line
SECTION V ORGANS AND SYSTEMS
100
Mandibular premolars and first molars, involve the sublingual space, as the roots of these teeth lie above
the mylohyoid line.
Spread of Infection
Acute periapical abscess (causeInfective necrosis of pulp): Organisms from infected pulp invade periapical
tissue through apical foramina
Acute dentoalveolar abscess: Continuation of periapical abscess
Acute periodontal abscess: Arises in the periodontal membrane adjacent to a periodontal pocket
Acute pericoronal abscess: Arises around the crown of impacted or erupting teeth.
Symptoms and Signs

Acute periapical abscess: Severe throbbing pain in the affected tooth which may be carious
Acute dentoalveolar abscess: Severe pain, submucosal and or extraoral swelling
Acute periodontal abscess: Dull pain, rarely severe, pus discharge via gingival pocket
Acute pericoronal abscess: Dull continuous pain, swelling of gingiva around the crown with or without pus
discharge.
Diagnosis is more clinical. X-rays are not diagnostic.
Treatment
Medical: Hydration, soft diet, analgesics, mouthwashes, broad-spectrum antibiotics
Surgery: Extraction of affected tooth or incision and drainage of abscess when possible
Conservative: Root canal treatment for acute periapical abscess.
Head and Neck
17
ACUTE SUPPURATIVE SIALADENITIS

Occurs generally in:
People with poor oral hygiene
Postoperative patients
Dehydration and reduced or obstructed salivary flow
By ascending infection from oral flora, usually Streptococcus viridans or pneumococci
Parotid gland is usually involved
Submandibular gland may also be involved.
Acute parotitis:
Painful unilateral parotid swelling with trismus, fever and tachycardia
On examination, the parotid is diffusely enlarged as a brawny swelling (Fig. 17.1) and extremely tender
with purulent discharge through the Stensons duct.
Acute submandibular sialadenitis:
Painful swelling of the submandibular gland
On examination, the gland is enlarged and tender (Fig. 17.2) purulent discharge through the Whartons
duct
Obstructing calculus may be seen or felt in the floor of the mouth (Fig. 17.3).
102
FIG. 17.1: Acute suppurative parotitis
FIG. 17.2: Submandibular salivary gland abscess
FIG. 17.3: Calculus in the Whartons duct (Courtesy: Dr Jacinth Cornelius)
103
Treatment
Broad-spectrum antibiotics are necessary
If abscess is formed, external drainage is necessary without waiting for fluctuation to establish.
LUDWIGS ANGINA
Usually due to dental infections
The infection is a mixture of aerobic and anaerobic organisms.
Pathogenesis
It is cellulitis involving the sublingual and submandibular spaces beneath the deep cervical fascia.
Complication: Edema of glottis.
Symptoms
Severe pain and swelling of neck (Fig. 17.4)
May cause respiratory embarrassment.
Signs
Severely swollen neck
Marked tenderness.
Culture of pus and identifying the organism.
Oral cavity examination is mandatory.
CHAPTER 17 HEAD AND NECK
No special investigation is required.
104
FIG. 17.4: Ludwigs angina
Treatment
Broad-spectrum antibiotics
Incision and drainage, if abscesses are found in the dental planes, with or without dental extractions.
Thorax
ACUTE MEDIASTINITIS
Acute suppurative mediastinitis occurs due to varied causes. They are:
Injury to cervical or thoracic esophagus
Extension of cervical infections
Secondary to osteomyelitis of ribs and sternum
Extension of retroperitoneal infections
Suppuration of mediastinal lymph nodes.
Chest pain, fever and chills are commonly present
Symptoms related to primary cause are usually present.
X-ray chest (Fig. 18.1) shows mediastinal widening
CT chest is diagnostic, especially of the primary cause.
18
106
FIG. 18.1: X-raySuperior mediastinitis
Treatment
Broad-spectrum antibiotics are necessary
Immediate surgery with adequate mediastinal drainage for esophageal injuries.
ACUTE PLEURITIS
A simple term denoting the pleural involvement of any disease giving rise to pleuritic pain or evidence of
pleural friction
Common feature of pleural invasion by pulmonary tuberculosis or bronchogenic carcinoma.
Symptom
Pain characteristically inspirational.
Sign
Chest movement may be restricted locally with an audible pleural rub.
107
Treatment
Analgesics are required to treat pleuritic pain with treatment focused towards the primary cause.
PLEURAL EFFUSION
Denotes accumulation of serous fluid in the pleural space, which results due to:
Increased hydrostatic pressure or decreased osmotic pressure (transudative effusion). The causes are:
Cardiac failure
Hepatic failure
Renal failure
Increased microvascular permeability due to disease of pleura or adjacent lung (exudative effusion). The
causes are:
Infections (e.g. bacterial, tuberculous, fungal, parasitic, viral)
Collagen vascular disease (e.g. rheumatoid, lupus)
Malignancy (e.g. mesothelioma, lung cancer, metastases)
Pulmonary embolism
Abdominal disease (e.g. pancreatitis, subphrenic abscess)
The effusion can be:
Unilateral (e.g. tuberculosis, malignancy)
Bilateral (e.g. cardiac failure, hypoproteinemia).
Symptom
Breathlessness is the most common symptom.
Signs
Reduced chest wall movement on the affected side, dullness on percussion and reduced or absent breath
sounds and vocal resonance
Large effusions shift the trachea to the opposite side.
CHAPTER 18 THORAX
X-ray chest is useful in identifying the underlying cause.
108
FIG. 18.2A: X-ray chestLeft pleural effusion
FIG. 18.2B: X-ray chestMassive pleural effusion left side
Chest X-ray shows a dense uniform opacity in the lower and lateral parts of hemithorax, shading off above
and medially into translucent lung (more than 400 ml is required to blunt the costodiaphragmatic angle)
(Figs 18.2A and B)
US is very useful in differentiating the effusion and tumor
CT (Fig. 18.3) is diagnostic
Aspiration of pleural fluid is necessary for:
Nature (blood malignancy, embolus; milky chyle; pus empyema; straw color tuberculosis and
transudates)
Microbiology culture sensitivity
Cytology
Biochemistry (Total proteins >3 g% - exudate, pleural LDH/serum LDH ratio >0.6 exudates, high
levels of triglycerides >110 mg% - chylothorax, amylase pancreatitis, malignant effusions)
Bronchoscopy biopsy, thoracoscopy and biopsy of enlarged lymph nodes may be needed to identify the
primary cause
Pleural biopsy yields good results.
109
CHAPTER 18 THORAX
FIG. 18.3: CTRight sided pleural effusion
Treatment
Aspiration of pleural fluid may be necessary to relieve breathlessness, but treatment of underlying cause is
necessary.
ACUTE EMPYEMA THORACIS

Empyema indicates pus in the pleural space, which may involve a part (loculated) or the whole of it
Always secondary to infection in a neighboring structure, usually the lung (bacterial pneumonia and
tuberculosis)
Other causes being, infection of hemothorax or rupture of subphrenic abscess or liver abscess.
Complications: Bronchopleural fistula, empyema necessitans, (empyema burrowing through the chest wall to
present as an abscess externally), pleurocutaneous fistula, pericarditis, mediastinal abscess.
110
Symptom
High intermittent pyrexia, with rigors, sweating, malaise and weight loss.
Signs
Pleural pain, breathlessness and cough with purulent sputum
Clinical signs are those of pleural effusion.

Chest X-ray is diagnostic

US and CT give invaluable information
Aspiration of pus is confirmatory
Isolation of organism from sputum or pleural aspirate is useful in treatment.
Treatment
General: Supportive respiratory care, physiotherapy
Drainage of pleural space (thoracentesis or close drainage) and irrigation with normal saline is necessary
to clear the pleural space of the pus, under cover of appropriate antibiotics
Underlying cause like pneumonia and tuberculosis need active treatment.
SPONTANEOUS PNEUMOTHORAX
Pneumothorax is presence of air in the pleural cavity
This is a sudden event
Spontaneous pneumothorax can be:
Primarywithout any obvious evidence of pulmonary pathology (e.g. rupture of small emphysematous
bulla)
Secondarydue to underlying pulmonary pathology (e.g. COPD, tuberculosis).
Symptom
Sudden unilateral chest pain or breathlessness.
111
CHAPTER 18 THORAX
FIG. 18.4: Chest X-rayRight pneumothorax
Sign
Small pneumothorax shows no clinical signs, whereas, large ones show decreased movement of chest wall,
hyper-resonant percussion note and decreased or absent breath sounds.
Chest X-ray (Fig. 18.4) shows sharply defined edge of the deflated lung with complete translucency
between the line and the chest wall with no lung markings
CT is useful in defining the underlying pathology.
Treatment
Percutaneous needle aspiration of air is necessary for full lung expansion
Intercostal tube drainage with underwater seal may be needed [See Chapter 31 (Insertion of Chest
Drains)]
Smoking should be completely avoided and the underlying pathology treated.
FOREIGN BODIES IN THE RESPIRATORY TRACT
112

Foreign bodies get lodged in the trachea and bronchi accidentally, and are more common in:
Children than in adults
The bronchus than the trachea
The right bronchus than the left, as the right bronchus is a direct continuation of trachea and is wider
than the left bronchus.
In children the objects are in the form of seeds, buttons, cells, etc. and in adults, they are dentures, loose
teeth, etc.
In adults, accidental lodging when they are under the influence of alcohol.
Pathogenesis
Foreign bodies act like a valve and cause symptoms (Table 18.1).
Symptoms
Dyspnea, cough, stridor, cyanosis and fever.
Signs
Rhonchi
Reduced breath sounds.
X-rays reveal the radio-opaque foreign bodies, and collapsed lungs
Bronchoscopy is diagnostic (Figs 18.5 and 18.6).
Table 18.1: Pathogenesis of foreign body obstruction in lower respiratory tract

Mechanism
Pathophysiology
Stop valve
Foreign body causes total obstruction and does not allow air entry (ingress) or allow air and secretions to
escape (egress). The lobe of lung may collapse and consolidate
Bypass valve
When the foreign body is small or has a hole, it allows ingress and egress of air
Ball valve
During inspiration, the bronchi dilate allowing air to enter (ingress), but does not allow air to escape (egress)
as the bronchi constrict during expiration. The trapped air caused pneumothorax or emphysema
113
CHAPTER 18 THORAX
FIG. 18.5: BronchoscopyTooth in the bronchus

(Courtesy: Dr R Narasimhan and Dr Gayathri)
FIG. 18.6: BronchoscopyTablet in the bronchus

(Courtesy: Dr R Narasimhan and Dr Gayathri)
Treatment
Bronchoscopic removal (using a rigid bronchoscope) is curative.
SUPPURATIVE OR ASPIRATION PNEUMONIA

Suppurative pneumonia or pneumonic consolidation denotes destruction of lung parenchyma by
inflammatory process with microabscess formation on histology
Staphylococcus aureus and Klebsiella pneumoniae infections cause suppuration
Suppuration has an insidious onset whereas aspiration is acute.
Pathogenesis
Inhalation of septic material during endotracheal anesthesia or by aspiration of gastric contents
Aspiration may lead to severe acute respiratory distress syndome (ARDS).
114
FIG. 18.7: X-rayAspiration pneumonia right lung
Symptoms
Productive cough (fetid or blood stained)
Pleural pain may be present
High remittent pyrexia is common.
Sign
Sign of consolidation, with pleural rub.
Chest X-ray (Fig. 18.7) shows homogeneous lobar or segmental opacity. A cavity with fluid level may indicate
an abscess.
Treatment
Broad-spectrum antibiotics form the mainstay of treatment
Surgical intervention may be required for abscess, which does not respond to medical therapy.
HOSPITAL ACQUIRED PNEUMONIA

Refers to a new episode of pneumonia 2 to 3 days after admission to hospital.
The predisposing factors for the development of pneumonia are:
Immunocompromised state (e.g. corticosteroid treatment, malignancy, AIDS)
Reduced cough reflex (e.g. postoperative)
Aspiration of gastric contents (e.g. vomiting, severe reflux, nasogastric intubation)
Endotracheal intubation (e.g. mechanical ventilation)
Bacteremia (e.g. sepsis).
Symptoms
Cough with purulent expectoration is the predominant symptom
Breathlessness will appear soon.
Signs
Cyanosis
Crepitations are heard on auscultation.
Leukocytosis is present
Chest X-ray will show mottled opacities in both lung fields.
Treatment
Broad-spectrum intravenous antibiotics are necessary
Physiotherapy is mandatory in immobile patients.
ACUTE LUNG ABSCESS

A suppurative focus within the lung associated with necrosis
The bacteria responsible for a lung abscess may reach the lung through various routes. They are:
Aspiration down the tracheobronchial tree (e.g. bronchiectasis)
By blood (e.g. septicemia)
Trauma (e.g. penetrating trauma)
Extension of adjacent suppurative focus (e.g. liver abscess).
CHAPTER 18 THORAX
115
116
Other causes are:

Tumors of bronchus (e.g. bronchogenic carcinoma)
Suppuration of hematoma (e.g. penetrating trauma).
Symptoms
Appear acutely ill
Cough with foul smelling purulent expectoration
Hemoptysis may occur
Fever
Breathlessless
Chest pain.
Sign
Crepitations may be heard.
X-ray and CT are diagnostic.
Treatment
Antimicrobial therapy resolves most abscesses
Surgical intervention (lobectomy or segmentectomy), is reserved for those which do not respond.
PULMONARY EMBOLISM
Majority of pulmonary emboli result from deep venous thrombosis of lower limbs, and they can be acute
(minor and massive) or chronic.
Symptoms and Signs

The symptoms and signs are tabulated in Table 18.2.
Table 18.2: Symptoms and signs of pulmonary embolism

Symptoms
Signs
Acute
minor
Shortness of breath and hemoptysis pleurisy
Pleural rub and signs of pleural effusion
Acute
massive
Central chest pain, apprehension, low cardiac Sinus tachycardia, hypotension and peripheral
output and syncope
vasoconstriction
Chronic
Exertional dyspnea, syncope and chest pain over Pulmonary hypertension, loud pulmonary component of
months and years
second heart sound and a right ventricular heave.
Chest radiographs, ECG, arterial blood gases, ventilation-perfusion lung scanning and pulmonary angiography
are useful investigations.
Treatment
General: Opiates to relieve pain and distress, resuscitation by external cardiac massage, with oxygen
support
Anticoagulation is necessary atleast for 5 days
Thrombolytic therapy is used in acute massive types.
CHAPTER 18 THORAX
Type
117
Breast
19
BREAST HEMATOMA
Associated with history of trauma such as seatbelt injury during a road traffic accident, or following a violent
contraction of pectoralis muscles responding to a blow.
Symptoms
Pain in the breast
History of trauma.
Sign
Presence of bruise over the breast may be the contributory finding for diagnosis.
Fine needle aspiration cytology (FNAC) and mammography are needed to rule out malignancy.
Treatment
Exploration and histopathological confirmation.
119
CHAPTER 19 BREAST
FIG. 19.1: Acute breast abscess
ACUTE BREAST ABSCESS

Collection of pus resulting from mastitis.
Symptoms
Starts with dull ache, which proceeds on to throbbing pain
Systemic manifestations like fever and malaise may develop.
Signs
Superficial abscesses may show as fluctuant tender lumps
Deep abscesses may show as severe cellulitis with edema of breast (Fig. 19.1) without fluctuation.
Polymorphonuclear leukocytosis is generally present
Diagnostic aspiration may confirm the presence of pus.
Treatment
Surgical drainage gives full relief
Spontaneous or inadequate drainage may result in the formation of antibioma, chronic abscess, mammary
fistula with purulent or sero sanguinous discharge.
Spine
20
DEGENERATIVE DISEASES OF DISK AND FACET JOINTS

Degenerative diseases of the spine are very common. They affect the lumbar, cervical and thoracic regions in
decreasing order of frequency.
Lumbar degenerative disease:
Prolapse of intervertebral disk: Disks between L5/S1 and L4/L5 are most often affected. Part of the
gelatinous nucleus pulposus protrudes through the rent in the annulus fibrosus at its weakest part,
which is posterolateral and compress the nerve roots (compressive radiculopathy) (Figs 20.1A to D).
Occasionally, a large central disk prolapse at L5/S1 compresses the cauda equina (Cauda equina
syndrome).
Facet joint disease: Degenerative changes cause root compression.
Lumbar canal stenosis: Increasing wear and tear, bony overgrowth and ligamentous hypertrophy can
cause narrowing of the spinal canal.
Cervical degenerative disease: Pathogenesis is the same as in lumbar disease.
Cauda equina syndrome consists of back pain, bilateral sciatica and urinary retention.
Symptoms and Signs

Lumbar degenerative disease: Back pain is the constant feature, but varies according to the compression
of the root:
121
CHAPTER 20 SPINE
FIGS 20.1A to D:Stages of prolapse of

intervertebral disk: (A) Torn annulus fibrosus with
disk bulge; (B) Extrusion of nucleus pulposus
protrusion not pressing the nerve; (C) Extrusion
of nucleus pulposus protrusion pressing the
nerve; (D) Sequestration of disk
FIG. 20.2: MRIProlapse of L4-L5

intervertebral disk
Prolapse of intervertebral disk: Back pain, radiating to

Inner thigh (L4 root compressionL3/L4 prolapse)
Outer aspect of the leg to the big toe (L5 root compressionL4/L5 prolapse)
The sole of foot (S1 rootL5/S1 prolapse), is the presenting symptom.
Acute radiating pain and inability to move, aggravated by coughing and sneezing is the symptom of acute
disk prolapse. Straight leg raising test is positive on the affected side.
Facet joint disease presents with pain similar to the synovial joint pain (more after a period of rest like
early mornings and becomes less after movement)
Lumbar canal stenosis causes numbness and weakness of lower limbs on walking.
Cervical degenerative disease: The presenting symptom is neck pain related to movements with
radiculopathy.
CT and MRI (Fig. 20.2) are diagnostic.
Treatment
Acute attacks require rest and analgesics, followed by physiotherapy
Chronic, persistent or progressive symptoms require surgery to remove the prolapsed disk or decompressive
laminectomy.
SPONDYLOLISTHESIS
122

This term signifies slipping of one vertebra over the lower, which is usually forwards, but may be
backwards. In the normal spine, forward displacement of a vertebral body is prevented by engagement
of the articular processes with those of the segment next below it, and this check mechanism is weak
in spondylolisthesis
The displacement is most common in the 5th lumbar vertebra, and the displacement may increase slowly
over years, and reach a severe degree of spondyloptosis.
The predisposing factors are:
Spondylolysis (a defect in the pars interarticularis of the neural arch)
Osteoarthritis of the posterior (facet) joints (degenerative)
Congenital malformation of the articular processes (rare).
Symptom
Chronic backache with or without sciatica.
Signs
A step above the sacral crest
Lumbar vertebral bodies may be felt per abdomen due to its forward displacement
Straight leg raising (SLR) test may be positive.
FIG. 20.3: X-raysSpondylolisthesis
123
FIG. 20.5: MRI spineC4-C5 spondylolisthesis
X-rays (Fig. 20.3) and CT (Fig. 20.4) are diagnostic
MRI (Fig. 20.5) is used to assess root compression.
Treatment
Asymptomatic patients require no treatment
Mild cases require surgical corset
Surgery is justified only when the disability is severe.
CHAPTER 20 SPINE
FIG. 20.4: CTSpondylolisthesis (Courtesy: Dr V Thulasiraman)
Gastroenterology
21
ACUTE ABDOMEN
Introduction
Acute pain often denotes the presence of a disease process or injury, which needs to be treated with elimination
of cause. It is a signal of ongoing or impending tissue damage. Acute abdominal pain denotes similar intraabdominal organ disease or pathology, which warrants emergent care.
The main visceral pain receptors in the abdomen respond to mechanical and chemical stimuli.
Mechanical stimuli: Stretch, distension, contraction, compression and torsion
Chemical stimuli: Bradykinin, substance P, serotonin and prostaglandins. These receptors are located on
the serosal surfaces, within the mesentery and within the walls of hollow viscera
Gut related visceral pain is usually perceived in the midline because it is a midline structure in an embryo
and has bilateral symmetric innervations, except for pains originating from the gallbladder and the
ascending and descending colon. Pain from other intra-abdominal organs tends to be unilateral.
Pain at epigastrium: Diseases of the foregut (abdominal esophagus, stomach and proximal half of
second part of duodenum and their offshoots like liver, gallbladder, pancreas and spleen) (e.g. gastric
and duodenal ulcers)
Pain at the umbilical region: Diseases of midgut (distal half of second part of duodenum, small bowel,
colon up to the proximal 2/3 of transverse colon) (e.g. intestinal tuberculosis)
Pain at the hypogastrium: Diseases of hindgut (distal 1/3 of transverse colon to the anorectal junction)
(e.g. colorectal and urinary bladder pathologies)
Pain
Nature of Pain
Sudden onset pain: Pain is sudden in otherwise healthy and asymptomatic persons. It increases in a very
short time (e.g. pain due to perforations of duodenal ulcer and appendicitis)
Sudden onset with pain-free intervals: The pain of quick onset can reach a peak making the patient writhe
in pain and buckle up, and also quickly recede to absolutely pain-free period, only to recur again (e.g.
colics)
Dull continuous pain increasing in severity: A persistent pain may increase in severity over a period of time
(e.g. a dull pain of subacute appendicitis in the right iliac fossa may become severe when the appendicitis
becomes severe and acute due to superadded infection and inflammation)
Burning pain: The pain may be of burning nature occurring suddenly (e.g. pain in acid peptic disease)
Constant or continuous pain: Persistent pain without variation in intensity (e.g. peritonitis)
Agonizing pain: Very severe pain which upsets the morale of the patient (e.g. pancreatitis, torsion of
pedicled organ)
FIG. 21.1: Regions of abdomen
CHAPTER 21 GASTROENTEROLOGY
The abdomen is divided into 10 arbitrary regions for convenience of understanding and localizing. 125
The two lateral vertical planes pass from the costal margin close to the tip of the ninth cartilage above to
the femoral artery below. The horizontal plane (the subcostal plane) connects the lowest points on the
costal margins and the interiliac plane connects the tubercles of the iliac crests (Fig. 21.1). These divisions will
help in localizing the diseases.
126
Throbbing pain: Continuous pain throbbing in nature (e.g. acute cholecystitisdue to inflammation
being inside closed confines of a structure).
Shift, Migration and Referred Pain

Shifting pain: Shifting pain is defined as the pain, which originates in one region and shifts totally to
another region, without any pain at the point of origin (e.g. pain in acute appendicitis originates at the
umbilical region and shifts to right iliac fossa later)
Migrating pain: Migrating pain is that pain which originates at one region and shifts to another region,
but does continue to stay at a lesser degree at the point of origin (e.g. pain in perforated duodenal ulcer is
right hypochondrial to start with, and spreads to the right iliac fossa due to the flow of the gastric contents
down the right paracolic gutter)
Referred pain: The pathology and the area of the pain are different, since the organ of pathology and the
area of pain share the same nerve supply. The examples are given in Figure 21.2
FIG. 21.2: Referred pain
The perception of visceral pain corresponds to the spinal segments where the visceral afferent nerve fibers 127
enter the spinal cord. Table 21.1 shows some common spinal segments where visceral pain is perceived.
The abdominal pain may be aggravated by certain factors like movements, food or habits. Some examples are
given in Table 21.2.
The pain may get relieved by certain factors. Some examples are given in Table 21.3.
Table 21.1: Visceral pain and dermatomal perceptions

Organ of pathology
Site of pain
Dermatome
Stomach
Epigastrium
T5-T10
Small bowel
Umbilicus
T9-T10
Large bowel up to splenic flexure
Umbilicus
T11-L1
Large bowel from splenic flexure
Hypogastrium
L1-L2
Gallbladder
Epigastrium, scapular region
T7-T9
Pancreas
Epigastrium
T6-T10
Ureter
Loin to groin
Genitofemoral nerve (L1-L2)
Testis and ovary
Umbilicus
T10-T11
Note: Segmental nerve supply mentioned here is sympathetic supply of the viscus. Parasympathetic supply is
from the vagus nerve, excepting for the hindgut and the urinary bladder, which is from the sacral segments.
Table 21.2: Aggravating factors of abdominal pain

Aggravating factor
Pathology
Physical movements like jolting
Appendicitis, peritonitis
Deep inspiration
Pleurisy
Intake of fatty food
Cholecystitis
Intake of spicy food, alcohol
Acid peptic disease
Lying supine
Pancreatitis
DrugsAnalgesics, NSAIDs
Acid peptic disease
Effects of Movements, Food or Habits
128
Table 21.3: Relieving factors of abdominal pain

Relieving factor
Pathology
Vomiting
Peptic ulcer pain
Intake of bland food
Peptic ulcer pain
Local pressure
Colicky pain
Leaning forward
Pancreatitis
Drugsantacids, H2 blockers
Acid peptic disease
Vomiting
Vomiting is a very common feature associated with pain in acute abdominal emergencies. The patient should
be asked about the following details, as each has its own significance. They are:
Character of vomiting
Projectile: Involuntary projectile ejection of large quantities of vomitus (e.g. high intestinal obstruction)
Regurgitative: Effortless involuntary regurgitation of intestinal contents (e.g. peritonitis due to
perforation)
Frequency of vomiting
Constant: Persistent vomiting even in the absence of food intake (e.g. acute intestinal obstruction,
acute pancreatitis)
Periodical: Vomiting with some periodicity or following food intake indicates bowel obstruction (e.g.
acute peptic ulcer, gastric outlet obstruction)
Nature of vomitus
Coffee ground vomitus (Brown to dark brown colour)gastric contents with altered blood (e.g.,
bleeding duodenal ulcer)
Bloody (red in colour) (e.g. bleeding oesophageal varices)
Faeculent (yellowish green and foul smelling) (e.g. gastric contents followed by duodenal and intestinal
contents in intestinal obstruction)
Quantity of vomitus
Large quantities indicate distal bowel obstruction
Small quantities indicate gastric outlet obstruction
Relationship with pain: The pain may precede, accompany or follow abdominal pain. The examples are
given in Table 21.4.
Table 21.4: Relationship of vomiting with abdominal pain

Pathology
Pain preceding vomiting
Acute appendicitis, acute peptic ulcer, biliary and renal colic
Pain and vomiting occurring together
High intestinal obstruction
Vomiting occurs much later than the pain
Low intestinal obstruction
Vomiting as a late feature or absent
Large intestinal obstruction
Abdominal pain due to acute peptic ulcer may get relieved by vomiting, but gives temporary relief in colics
Vomiting is not a constant feature in acute appendicitis as the stomach gets empty after one bout, but nausea
persists
In peritonitis, vomiting is absent but appears at a later stage.
Alteration in Bowel Habits

Obstipation: Inability to pass feces and flatus (absolute constipation) (e.g. acute intestinal obstruction)
Constipation: Inability to pass stools but able to pass flatus (due to solidified fecal mass impacted at the
anal verge) (e.g. acute fissure in ano)
Tenesmus: A desire to evacuate but results in passage of flatus only (e.g. acute appendicitis)
Passage of blood stained stools: Red currant jelly stools in acute intussusception, mesenteric vascular
obstruction, mesenteric thrombosis, malignancy
Diarrhea: Passage of loose stoolsrarely seen in illnesses requiring emergency surgery (e.g. ulcerative
colitis, Crohns disease, acute enteritis).
Urinary Symptoms
Patients presenting with abdominal pain may have associated urinary symptoms:
Frequency in micturition: Patients presenting with renal or ureteric colic, may have associated urinary
infections along with urolithiasis. Frequency is one of the common symptoms
Strangury: Frequent passing of urine with excruciating pain. (e.g. impacted stones in the urinary tract,
pelvic or retrocecal appendicitis). Patient succeeds in passing a small quantity of blood stained urine
Hematuria: Passing blood in the urine (e.g. stones in the urinary tract, rarely retrocecal or pelvic appendix
lying close to the ureter).
Relationship of vomiting with abdominal pain
129
130
ACUTE UPPER ABDOMINAL PAIN

Causes
Right Hypochondrium

Acute cholecystitis
Acute cholangitis
Acute hepatitis
Acute hyperacidity
Perforated duodenal ulcer
Epigastrium
Acute hyperacidity
Acute pancreatitis
Perforated duodenal ulcer
Acute hepatitis (left lobe)
Left Hypochondrium
Acute pancreatitis
Acute hyperacidity
Splenic infarct
Eliciting History
1. Nature of pain
Continuous (e.g. acute pancreatitis)
Episodic (e.g. acute hyperacidity)
Colicky (e.g. biliary colic).
2. Location of pain
Epigastric pain (e.g. acute hyperacidity, acute pancreatitis, acute colitis)
Left hypochondrial pain (e.g. acute hyperacidity, left renal colic)
Right hypochondrial pain (e.g. acute cholecystitis, acute hepatitis, right renal colic).
Renal colics can present as upper abdominal pain in their respective sides.
3. Association of vomiting: Presence of vomiting is not a very reliable symptom to narrow down the diagnosis,
as it can be present with any severe painful pathology in the upper abdomen.
4. Association of fever: Fever indicates infective pathology (e.g. acute cholecystitis, acute pancreatitis, acute
colitis, perforated duodenal ulcer).
Past History
History of pain (e.g. acute on chronic cholecystitis)
Previous surgery (e.g. cholecystectomy will rule out cholecystitis from consideration).
Family History
Gallstones
General
Breath for fetor (e.g. alcoholic hepatitis, acute pancreatitis)
Conjunctiva for anemia, jaundice
Tongue for anemia
Neck for lymphadenopathy
Hands for signs of liver failure (e.g. clubbing, palmar erythema, liver flap, etc).
Abdomen
Inspection
Distension:
Generalized (e.g. perforated duodenal ulcer or gallbladder with peritonitis)
Right upper abdominal (e.g. hepatomegaly)
Epigastric (e.g. left lobar hepatomegaly, carcinoma stomach)
Left upper abdominal (e.g. splenomegaly)
Scars, swellings and sinuses.
5. Association of jaundice: Jaundice may be present with acute cholangitis, acute hepatitis or acute cholecystitis. 131
6. Association of loose stools: Association of loose stools may indicate colitis or rarely acute pancreatitis.
7. Radiation: Radiation to right scapula or shoulder is common with acute cholecystitis, perforated duodenal
ulcer due to irritation of diaphragm.
8. Aggravating factors
Foodin acute hyperacidity
Lying supinein acute pancreatitis
Deep breathingin acute cholecystitis.
9. Relieving factors: Leaning forward while sittingacute pancreatitis.
10. Referred pain: In some pathologies, the pathology and the area of the pain are different, since both of them
share the same nerve supply.
132 Palpation
Tenderness:
All quadrantsgeneralized peritonitis
Right upper quadrant (e.g. acute hepatitis, acute cholecystitis, acute hyperacidity)
Epigastric (e.g. acute gastritis, acute hepatitis)
Left upper quadrant (e.g. acute gastritis, acute pancreatitis).
Lump:
Right upper quadrant (e.g. hepatomegaly, distended gallbladder)
Epigastric (e.g. carcinoma stomach, left lobar hepatomegaly)
Left upper quadrant (e.g. carcinoma stomach, splenomegaly).
Percussion
Percuss the liver for:
Its enlargement (e.g. acute hepatitis)
Obliteration of liver dullness (e.g. perforated duodenal ulcer).
Auscultation
Absence of bowel sounds indicates paralytic ileus (e.g. perforated peritonitis)
Exaggerated bowel sounds may indicate obstruction of small bowel (e.g. intestinal colic)
Normal bowel sounds indicate that there is no gross infection of the peritoneum.
Examination of
Groins (e.g. obstructed hernia)
Genitalia (e.g. obstructed hernia)
Differential Diagnosis by Clinical History and Examination

Right hypochondrial pain
Without fever and but local tenderness (e.g. acute cholecystitis, acute hepatitis, acute hyperacidity)
With fever and local tenderness
+ Distension (e.g. acute cholecystitis)
Obliteration of liver dullness (e.g. perforated duodenal ulcer)
+ Hepatomegaly (e.g. acute liver abscess)
With vomiting
Local tenderness (e.g. acute cholecystitis, acute hyperacidity)
Local tenderness with obliteration of liver dullness (e.g. perforated duodenal ulcer)
With diarrhea and local tenderness (e.g. acute colitis)
With jaundice
133
Local tenderness + hepatomegaly (e.g. acute hepatitis, acute cholecystitis, choledocholithiasis,
cholangitis, acute liver abscess)
Local tenderness, fever, +/ abdominal lump (e.g. mucocele gallbladder, choledochal cyst)
Colicky in nature +/ local tenderness (e.g. biliary colic, right renal colic)
Epigastric pain
Without fever but with local tenderness (e.g. acute hyperacidity, acute pancreatitis, acute hepatitis
left lobe)
With fever and local tenderness + distension (e.g. acute pancreatitis, perforated duodenal or gastric
ulcer)
With vomiting and
Local tenderness (e.g. acute hyperacidity, acute pancreatitis)
Local tenderness and obliteration of liver dullness (e.g. perforated ulcer)
With jaundice and local tenderness
+ tender hepatomegaly (e.g. left lobar hepatitis, left lobar liver abscess
Nontender hepatomegaly (e.g. metastatic liver)
Left hypochondrial pain
Without fever but with local tenderness (e.g. acute gastritis, acute pancreatitis)
With fever and local tenderness + / splenomegaly (e.g. acute pancreatitis, splenic infarct)
Colicky in nature + local tenderness (e.g. left renal colic).

Perforated bowel can give rise to generalized abdominal distension due to generalized peritonitis
Obstructed groin hernia is one of the common causes of intestinal obstruction causing generalized distension.
Hematology
Leukocytosis in infective pathologies (e.g. acute cholecystitis, perforated dudodenal ulcer, perforated
cholecystitis, acute pancreatitis)
Raised ESR in all infective pathologies.
Radiology
Plain X-ray abdomen: Gas under the diaphragm (e.g. perforated hollow viscus)
Ultrasonography: Radiopaque shadows in right upper abdomen (e.g. gallstones, renal stones)
134
Treatment Plan
Nonperforated pathologies: Medical management
Perforated pathologies: Early surgical management
Diagnosis not clear and not responding to medical managementexploratory laparotomy.
ACUTE LOWER ABDOMINAL PAIN

Causes
Right Iliac Fossa
Acute appendicitis
Perforated appendicitis
Acute mesenteric adenitis
Ureteric colic
Acute Meckels diverticulitis
Acute cecal diverticulitis
Torsion of cyst of right ovary
Pelvic inflammatory disease
Incarcerated right inguinal hernia
Ruptured ectopic gestation
Right ureteric colic.
Hypogastrium
Acute cystitis
Acute congestive dysmenorrhea
Uterine fibroid.
Left Iliac Fossa

Acute diverticulitis
Ureteric colic
Torsion of cyst of left ovary
Pelvic inflammatory disease
Incarcerated left inguinal hernia
Ruptured ectopic gestation
Left ureteric colic.
Diabetic ketoacidosis is one of the important metabolic causes of acute lower abdominal pain.
Eliciting History
Continuous (e.g. acute appendicitis)
Episodic (e.g. acute cystitis, ruptured ectopic gestation)
Colicky (e.g. appendicular colic, ureteric colic, dysmenorrhea).
Association of nausea and vomiting

Presence of vomiting is not a very reliable symptom to narrow down the diagnosis, as it can be present with
any severe painful pathology in the lower abdomen. Nausea is a predominant symptom of acute appendicitis,
whereas vomiting is a common symptom of ureteric colic.
Association of fever
Fever indicates infective pathology (e.g. acute appendicitis, acute cystitis, acute colitis, perforated appendicitis).
Association of loose stools
Association of loose stools may indicate colitis, acute diverticulitis.
Radiation
Radiation to pain to external genitalia occurs with ureteric colic.
Past History
History of pain (e.g. acute on chronic appendicitis, ureteric colic)
Previous surgery (e.g. appendicectomy will rule out appendicitis from consideration).
Personal History
Menstrual irregularities
Dysmenorrhea (e.g. congestive dysmenorrhea)
Irregularities (e.g. pelvic inflammatory diseases)
Amenorrhea (e.g. ruptured ectopic gestation).
Family History
Diverticulosis
Colonic malignancy.
Nature of pain
135
136
General
Conjunctiva for anemia (e.g. ruptured ectopic gestation)
Tongue for anemia (e.g. ruptured ectopic gestation)
Neck for lymphadenopathy (e.g. mesenteric adenitis as a part of tuberculosis).
Abdomen
Inspection
Distension:
Generalized (e.g. perforated appendicitis with generalized peritonitis)
Right lower abdominal (e.g. ruptured appendicitis, torsion of right ovary or its cyst)
Hypogastric (e.g., distended urinary bladder in cystitis, enlarged uterus)
Left lower abdominal (e.g. torsion of left ovary or its cyst)
Scars, swellings and sinuses
Palpation
Tenderness:
All quadrants generalized peritonitis
Right lower quadrant (e.g. acute appendicitis, acute mesenteric adenitis)
Hypogastric (e.g. acute cystitis)
Left lower quadrant (e.g. acute colitis, acute diverticulitis)
Lump:
Right lower quadrant (e.g. appendicular abscess, mesenteric adenitis, right ovarian cyst)
Hypogastric (e.g. distended urinary bladder, uterine fibroids)
Left lower quadrant (e.g. carcinoma colon, left ovarian cyst)
Percussion
Percuss the liver for:
Its enlargement (e.g. associated metastases liver)
Obliteration of liver dullness (e.g. perforated appendicitis and diverticulitis)
Auscultation
Absence of bowel sounds indicates paralytic ileus (e.g. perforation and peritonitis)
Exaggerated bowel sounds may indicate obstruction of small bowel (e.g. intestinal colic)
Normal bowel sounds indicate that there is no gross infection of the peritoneum
Hematology
Reduced hematocrit (e.g. ruptured ectopic gestation, colonic malignancy)
Leukocytosis in infective pathologies (e.g. acute appendicitis, perforated appendicitis, and diverticulitis,
dudodenal ulcer)
Pain in the right iliac fossa with

Nausea/vomiting and fever and local tenderness (e.g. acute catarrhal/perforated appendicitis, acute
typhlitis, acute Meckels diverticulitis, acute mesenteric adenitis)
Vomiting and
+/ Local tenderness (colicy paine.g. right ureteric colic, appendicular colic, radiating pain
right ureteric colic)
Menstrual irregularities and palpable lump (e.g. right ovarian cyst torsion)
Amenorrhea with local tenderness and anemia (e.g. ruptured ectopic gestation)
Abdominal lump (e.g. ileocecal tuberculosis, Crohns disease, cecal malignancy, right ovarian
malignancy, right ovarian cyst)
Diarrhea or dysentery and local tenderness (e.g. acute amebic typhlitis, cecal diverticulitis)
Pain in the left iliac fossa with
Vomiting
+/ Local tenderness (e.g. left ureteric colic)
Menstrual irregularities and palpable lump (e.g. left ovarian cyst torsion)
Amenorrhea with local and cervical tenderness and anemia (e.g. ruptured ectopic gestation)
Abdominal lump (e.g., colonic malignancy, left ovarian malignancy, left ovarian cyst)
Diarrhea or dysentery with or without local tenderness (e.g. acute colitis, acute diverticulitis)
Hypogastric pain with
Urinary symptoms with
Local tenderness (e.g. acute cystitis)
Distended urinary bladder (e.g. acute distension of bladderbladder outlet obstruction)
Menstrual irregularities
+/ With or without local tenderness (e.g. congestive dysmenorrhea, pelvic inflammation)
Enlarged uterus (e.g. uterine fibroids, endometrial malignancy)
Acute lower abdominal pain (any or all quadrants of lower abdomen) with
Menstrual irregularities and local tenderness (e.g. pelvic inflammatory disease)
Vague symptoms and signs (e.g. metabolic causesdiabetes mellitus).
137
138 Radiology
Plain X-ray abdomen

Gas under the diaphragm (e.g. perforated appendicitis and diverticulitis)
Opaque abdomen (e.g. peritonitis)
Radiopaque shadows (e.g. ureteric stone)
Ultrasonography
Cystic swelling (e.g. ovarian cyst torsion)
Collection of pus (e.g. appendicular abscess, paracolic abscess)
Radiopaque shadows in the lines of ureters (e.g. ureteric calculus) and bladder region (e.g. vesical
calculus)
Dilated pelvicalyceal system or ureters (e.g. obstructed ureteric stone).
Treatment Plan
Nonperforated pathologiesmedical management (except acute appendicitis)
Perforated pathologiesearly surgical management
Diagnosis not clear and not responding to medical managementexploratory laparotomy or diagnostic
laparoscopy.
ACUTE LIVER ABSCESS

Amebic liver abscess: Amebic infections causing hepatitis and dysentery may resolve into a liver abscess
(usually in alcoholics)
Pyogenic liver abscess: Septicemic patients may present with pyemic abscesses in the liver.
Pathogenesis
Amebic liver abscess: Amebic infections originating in the colon as amebic colitis, travel through the portal
blood to reach the liver, forming an abscess more commonly in the right lobe of the liver
Pyogenic liver abscess: Septicemic patients infected blood reach the liver through the systemic and portal
circulation, forming multiple abscesses in both lobes of the liver.
Symptoms
Constitutional symptoms with high-grade fever, tachycardia and sometime shock.
Patients with amebic etiology may give history of preceding diarrhea or dysentery.
Signs
139
Lower thoracic lesions (basal pleurisy, pneumonia, and lung abscess), which irritate the diaphragm
Acute cholecystitis
Acute hepatitis.
Plain X-ray of abdomen or chest X-ray will reveal elevation of the right dome of diaphragm (Fig. 21.3).
Right pleural effusion is common
Fluoroscopy will show reduced mobility of the right dome
US and CT (Fig. 21.4) are diagnostic
Aspiration is confirmatory
Stool examination is routine
Isolation of organism in culture is required
Serologic test (for amebiasis) is positive in majority of cases.
FIG. 21.3: Elevated right dome of

diaphragm in amebic liver abscess
FIG. 21.4: CTAmebic liver abscess right lobe with

subphrenic collection
Intercostal tenderness is pathognomonic of a right lobar liver abscess.
140
Treatment
Antiamebic treatment is administered for small abscess and hepatitis of amebic etiology
Drainage under US guidance with broad-spectrum antibiotics and antiamebic drugs is required for large
abscess
Growth of pyogenic organisms in culture of pus requires appropriate treatment.
ACUTE CHOLECYSTITIS
Common in fat, flatulent, fertile, female of fifty (Five Fs)
Ninety-five percent people with acute cholecystitis have gallstones.
Pathogenesis
Inflammation of gallbladder occurs due to detergent action of bile (chemical cholecystitis), and infection
by bacteria supervenes (commonly enteric organisms)
Obstruction caused by a calculus in the cystic duct.
Complications
Acute obstruction of the cystic duct causes distension and the bile can be replaced by mucus (mucocele)
or pus (empyema)
Ongoing inflammation causes gangrene and perforation of gallbladder (common in diabetics).
Symptoms
Severe colicky pain (biliary colic) in the right hypochondrium, radiating to the inferior angle of the right
scapula and the right shoulder
Pain may be associated with vomiting.
Fever and jaundice* are associated when there is associated cholangitis
Symptom complex of pain, jaundice and fever with chills is called Charcots triad.
*Jaundice may occur due to the obstruction of the common bile duct caused by an impacted stone in the cystic duct
(Mirizzis syndrome type 1)
Signs
Tenderness at the tip of the right ninth costal cartilage (Murphys sign)
Hyperesthesia between the right 9th and 11th ribs posteriorly (Boass sign)
There may be associated guarding and rigidity in the right hypochondrium
Palpable mass in the RUQ (inflamed and distended gallbladder).
141

Acute appendicitis
Acute right pyelonephritis
Duodenal ulcer perforation
Right basal pleurisy
Myocardial infarction.

Elevated leukocyte count

Deranged LFT (due to inflammation and edema of biliary tract)
Plain X-ray abdomen (About 10% of gallstones are visible)
US (Figs 21.5A and B) is diagnostic
Rarely CT scan (Figs 21.6A to C) may be required
Isotope scans are contributory.
FIG. 21.5A: USStone in the cystic duct of gallbladder

(Courtesy: Dr V Ganesan)
FIG. 21.5B: USAcute

edematous cholecystitis
142
FIG. 21.6A: CTStone in the gallbladder
FIG. 21.6B: CTEdematous gallbladder of acute

cholecystitis
FIG. 21.6C: CTRuptured empyema of gallbladder
Treatment
Acute cholecystitis is treated conservatively with antibiotics followed by elective cholecystectomy
(Laparoscopic or open) **
Common duct stones need to be removed by ERCP, sphincterotomy and basketing/stenting or by open
choledochotomy, to relieve cholangitis and jaundice followed by cholecystectomy later.
** Laparoscopic cholecystectomy can be performed within 72 hours of onset of symptoms, with no higher conversion
or complication rate, than a delayed operation.
ACUTE CHOLANGITIS
Approximately 10 percent of patients with gallstones have associated common bile duct stones
(choledocholithiasis)
Obstructive lesions in the common bile duct can cause cholangitis (Fig. 21.7). They are:
Stricture
Tumor
Foreign body (e.g. stent)
Acute pancreatitis
ERCP
Pathogenesis
Obstructing lesion causes bile stasis, and this obstructed flow of bile encourages multiplication of bacteria,
which have entered the biliary tract from the intestines through the sphincter of Oddi, causing ascending
cholangitis.
Symptoms
RUQ pain, fever with rigors and jaundice (Charcots triad).
FIG. 21.7: Causes of mechanical obstruction of biliary system
143
144
Signs
Pyrexia, tachycardia, tachypnea
Hypotension in shocked in individuals
Jaundice
Tenderness and guarding in RUQ.

Elevated leukocyte count

Conjugated bilirubinemia
Deranged LFT (due to inflammation and edema of biliary tract)
Plain X-ray abdomen (About 10% of gallstones are visible)
US and CT may reveal the dilated intra-hepatic radicals
ERCP (Fig. 21.8) and MRCP (Fig. 21.9) will reveal the level and severity of stricture
PTC (Fig. 21.10) is useful in impassable strictures
MDCT with MPR technique (Fig. 21.11) has sensitivity of about 90 to 95 percent in localizing the causes
of biliary obstruction.
FIG. 21.8: ERCPBenign stricture of CBD
FIG. 21.9: MRCPBenign stricture of CBD
145
FIG. 21.10: PTCGrossly dilated intrahepatic

bile ducts due to CBD obstruction
FIG. 21.11: MDCTCholangiocarcinoma
FIG. 21.12: Sphincterotomy
146
Treatment
Inpatient care/Intensive care
Analgesics
Broad spectrum antibiotics
Fluid resuscitation
Emergency ERCP, sphincterotomy and basketing/stenting (Fig. 21.12) to relieve cholangitis and jaundice
followed by cholecystectomy.
Surgical treatment is required for impassable strictures
Resectable strictures can be resected with primary anastomosis
Strictures of the retropancreatic region require, choledocho-duodenostomy
Strictures of the common hepatic duct, require hepatico-jejunostomy.
Acute suppurative cholangitis is uncommon, but serious enough and if left untreated, has 100 percent mortality.
PRIMARY SCLEROSING CHOLANGITIS


Rare condition of autoimmune origin

Results in progressive fibrosis of the biliary system
Causes luminal narrowing and progressive obstructive jaundice and secondary cirrhosis
Strongly associated with inflammatory bowel disease, ulcerative colitis (75% of patients with PSC have
inflammatory bowel disease and 7.5% with ulcerative colitis have PSC)
Risk of malignant transformation (cholangiocarcinoma) is 15 percent.
Progressive obstructive jaundice
Low-grade fever with chills, sweats.
CT (Fig. 21.13) and ERCP (Fig. 21.14) are diagnostic, classically shows diffuse stricturing and beading
involving both intra and extrahepatic bile ducts, but indistinguishable from cholangiocarcinoma
Liver biopsy may show the characteristic lesion of concentric fibrosis around small bile ducts, termed
onion skin fibrosis
Peripheral antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (pANCA) is detected.
147
FIG. 21.14: ERCPSclerosing cholangitis
FIG. 21.15: Biliary stenting with endoprosthesis for cholangiocarcinoma
Treatment

May settle spontaneously

May respond to antibiotics, and UDCA
Stenting of the biliary tree (Fig. 21.15) is very useful
Liver transplantation is used widely for advanced disease.
FIG. 21.13: CTSclerosing cholangitis
SPLENIC ABSCESS
148

Cyst of the spleen is a rare condition
They can be:
Congenital
Parasitic (hydatid).
Pathogenesis
Severe systemic infections cause splenic abscesses which are usually multiple.
Symptoms
Constitutional symptoms (e.g. high-grade fever)
Previous history of severe intra-abdominal sepsis may be present.
Sign
Tender splenomegaly may be present.
US and CT (Fig. 21.16) are diagnostic.
FIG. 21.16: CT abdomenSplenic abscesses
Treatment
149
ACUTE HEMORRHAGIC PANCREATITIS

Common in the third decade
Classification:
Mild type: Pancreatitis with minimal or no organ dysfunction and has a self-limiting course with
uneventful recovery
Severe type: Pancreatitis with multiorgan failure and/or local complications like pseudocyst, necrosis
or abscess
Common causes are (nemonic: I get smashed)
I - Idiopathic
G - Gallstone (in the ampulla of Vater)
E - Ethanol
T- Trauma
S - Steroids
M - Mumps (paramyxovirus, Epstein-Barr virus, cytomegalovirus)
A - Autoimmune (Polyarteritis nodosa, Systemic lupus erythematosus)
S - Scorpion sting (Tityus Trinitatis), Snake bite
H - (Hypercalcemia, hyperlipidemia hypertriglyceridemia and hypothermia)
E - (Endoscopic Retrograde CholangiopancreatographyERCP)
D - Drugs (Steroids and Sulfonamides, Azathioprine, NSAIDs, DiureticsSAND)
Less common causes are:
Pancreas divisum
Long common duct
Carcinoma of the head of pancreas, and other cancer
Ascaris blocking pancreatic outflow
Chinese liver fluke
Ischemia from bypass surgery
Fatty necrosis
Pregnancy

Splenectomy is done for large spleen with abscesses.
150
Infections other than mumps, including varicella zoster
Repeated marathon running

Cystic fibrosis.
Most common causes of pancreatitis, by demography are as follows:
Western countries: Chronic alcoholism and gallstones
Eastern countries: Gallstones.
Pathogenesis
In acute pancreatitis, there is edema, hemorrhage and necrosis of the organ partly due to autodigestion.
The inflamed pancreas may return to normal, but may recur, and likely to occur under two circumstances:
The initiating cause has not been removed (gallstones, alcohol consumption)
Major pancreatic necrosis, resulting in chronic pancreatitis or stricture of main pancreatic duct.
Complications
Systemic complications:
Respiratory failure
Renal failure
Metabolic abnormalities
Coagulation disorders
Multiple organ failure.
Local complications:
Pancreatic necrosis
Infection of pancreatic necrosis
Fungal infections
Hemorrhage
Pancreatic pseudocyst, pancreatic fistula, pancreatic abscess.
Symptoms
Very severe, unbearable constant epigastric pain radiating to the back, relieved by sitting and bending
forwards
Nausea and vomiting are marked, frequent and persistent.
Signs
Shock and cyanosis are marked
Elevated temperature, tachycardia, tachypnea
Epigastric tenderness but guarding and rigidity are not marked

151
Retroperitoneal hemorrhage may lead to characteristic discoloration:
Around the umbilicus (Cullens sign) (Fig. 21.17)
Of the flanks (Grey Turners sign) (Fig. 21.18)
(These signs are not pathognomonic of pancreatitis, as they can be seen with ruptured ectopic pregnancy
as well).

Perforated peptic ulcer

Leaking aortic aneurysm
Myocardial infarction
Acute cholecystitis
Acute hyperacidity
Elevation of serum amylase over 400 Somogyi units is indicative and more than 1000 Somogyi units is
diagnostic (It usually rises 2 to 12 hours from the onset of symptoms, and normalizes within 48 to 72
hours)
Serum lipase levels are elevated (It rises 4 to 8 hours from the onset of symptoms and normalizes within
7 to 14 days).
FIG. 21.17: Cullens sign
FIG. 21.18: Grey Turners sign
152
Serum amylase may be normal (in 10% of cases) for cases of acute on chronic pancreatitis (depleted
acinar cell mass) and hypertriglyceridemia. Reasons for false positive elevated serum amylase include
salivary gland disease (elevated salivary amylase) and macroamylasemia. If the lipase level is about
2.5 to 3 times that of Amylase, it is an indication of pancreatitis due to alcohol
Plain X-rays of abdomen show characteristic features:

Sentinel loop sign duodenum which represents a focal dilated jejunal loop in the left upper
quadrant
Cut off sign Transverse colon (Fig. 21.19) - Inflammatory exudate of acute pancreatitis extends
into the phrenicocolic ligament directly spreading through the lateral attachment of the transverse
mesocolon causing functional spasm and/or mechanical narrowing of the splenic flexure at the level
where the colon returns to the retroperitoneum.
(Absence of gas under the diaphragm eliminates the diagnosis of perforated duodenal ulcer)
US may not be very useful at all times (Fig. 21.20)
Contrast enhanced computed tomography (CECT) is very useful in assessing the size of the pancreas (Fig.
21.21), and also in determining the causes like the biliary or pancreatic duct calculi (Fig. 21.22).
Predicting the severity of an attack of acute pancreatitis is made on Glasgow or Imrie criteria (simplified
Ranson criteria) Box 21.1.
Presence of three or more criteria reached before or at 48 hours of an attack predicts a severe attack and
two or less predicts a mild attack.
APACHE II score (Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation) can be applied at anytime but it is
cumbersome as it requires 15 different or biochemical criteria.

FIG. 21.19: X-rayColon cut-off sign
FIG. 21.20: USAcute pancreatitis
153
FIG. 21.22: CTPancreatic calculi
Box 21.1: Criteria to assess the severity of acute pancreatitis

P
Arterial PaO2 <9 kpa
Albumin <32 g/L
Urea Nitrogen >10 mmol/L
Calcium <2 mmol/L
Raised white cell count >16 mmol/L
Enzyme lactate dehydrogenase >600 mmol/L
Age >55 years
Sugar glucose >10 mmol/L
Treatment
Initial management is conservative in intensive care unit:
Continuous arterial and CVP monitoring
Assisted ventilation if required
Inotropic support
FIG. 21.21: CTEnlarged and edematous

pancreas - Acute pancreas
154
Enteral feeding
Parenteral feeding if required
Hemodialysis of renal failure if warranted
Endoscopic treatment:
ERCP sphincterotomy and extraction of stones followed by laparoscopic cholecystectomy
Pancreatic necrosectomy is the treatment of choice with questionable outcome in a grave situation.
ACUTE APPENDICITIS

Most common acute abdominal condition, occurring at any age

Uncommon only below the age of two
Most commonly seen between the age of 18 and 35.
The two varieties of appendicitis are:
1. Catarrhal appendicitis
2. Obstructive appendicitis.
Pathogenesis
Catarrhal appendicitis: Occurs due to acute inflammation of the appendix, which produces edema and
even gangrene due to vascular involvement in inflammatory process
Obstructive appendicitis: Caused by obstruction of its lumen by worms, fecoliths (Fig. 21.23) or
hypertrophied lymphoid follicles. The appendix itself may be filled with pus (Fig. 21.24).
Complications
When the adjacent tissues and omentum wall off the appendix or its perforation, it forms a mass called
Appendicular mass.
When there is suppuration, it forms an abscess named Appendicular abscess, which may burst into
peritoneal cavity to produce severe peritonitis and even death.
Symptoms
Pain: A dull continuous ache starting at the umbilical region (visceral pain) and then localizing at the
right iliac fossa (parietal pain) - catarrhal variety. Obstructive appendicitis presents with colicky pain
(appendicular colic) in the right lower abdomen
Nausea, vomiting and anorexia are usually present and are diagnostic
155
FIG. 21.24: Acute suppurative appendicitis

(note the pus in the cup)
Fever is the last to develop

(Pain, vomiting and fever in appendicitis is called Murphys syndrome).
Signs
Hyperesthesia over Sherrens triangle
Tenderness over McBurneys point
Guarding and rigidity in the right iliac fossa
Rovsings sign (pain in the right iliac fossa on application of pressure in the left iliac fossa) may be elicited
Tender mass may be felt (appendicular mass/abscess)
Dullness on percussion (if mass already formed).
The signs and symptoms of appendicitis vary according to the position of the appendix (Fig. 21.25). They
are given in Table 21.5.
Special Situations
In children:
Constitutional symptoms like fever and tachycardia are more predominant
Use the childs hand itself for palpation, and if there is tenderness in the McBurneys point, the child
will withdraw its hand
Appendicular mass is rare as the omentum is small in size and does not reach the appendix.
FIG. 21.23: Appendix with fecoliths
156
FIG. 21.25: Various positions of appendix
Table 21.5: Signs and symptoms of acute appendicitis related to the position of the appendix
Symptoms and signs
Retrocecal and paracecal

appendicitis
Pelvic and subcecal

appendicitis
Pre and post-ileal

appendicitis
Pain
Right flank and back lateral to

sacrospinalis muscle
Right iliac fossa
Right iliac fossa
Diarrhea
Absent
Absent
May be present
Tenderness and guarding
Not marked
Absent
Present
Positive test
Copes psoas test

Baldwings test
Obturator test
Nil specific
Tenderness in rectal
examination
Absent
Present
May be present
In the elderly:
Guarding and rigidity are not pronounced as the abdominal musculature is weak
Incidence of gangrene is more as there is associated atherosclerosis
Peritonitis supervenes early.
In pregnant women:
The point of tenderness is shifted up, as the appendix itself is pushed up by the enlarged gravid uterus
Pyelitis and cystitis of pregnancy adds to the difficulties in diagnosis of appendicitis
Accidental hemorrhage mimics acute appendicitis.
Differential diagnosis
Right ureteric colic (most common)
Right ovarian pathology
Acute mesenteric adenitis
Acute cholecystitis.
The differentiating features of acute appendicitis and right ureteric colic are given in Table 21.6.
US (Figs 21.26A and B) may be contributory. The immobile swollen appendix with free fluid in the right
iliac fossa may be imaged. Mildly swollen appendix is generally not seen in an ultrasound scan. The scan
helps to eliminate other lesions like the ureteric calculus, ovarian pathology, which can be imaged by US
CT is useful in identifying inflamed appendix and (Fig. 21.27) appendicular mass. The signs of appendicitis
are tabulated in Table 21.7.
Table 21.6: Differentiating features of acute appendicitis and right ureteric colic
Sign and symptom
Pathology
Acute appendicitis
Right ureteric colic
Pattern of pain
Periumbilical pain shifting to right iliac fossa
Loin to groin radiation on the right side
Nature of pain
Dull and continuous
Very severe and colicky with painfree intervals
Onset of pain
Slow and continuous
Sudden onset
Relationship to body
movements
Aggravated
Not related to movement
Urinary symptoms
Absent
May be present
Rebound tenderness
May be present
Absent
Plain X-ray of abdomen
Nonspecific
Ureteric calculus
157
Cardinal signs and symptoms of acute appendicitis are:

Periumbilical pain shifting to the right iliac fossa (very important)
Association of nausea
History of similar episodes in the past
Tenderness at McBurneys point
Guarding and rigidity in the right iliac fossa.
158
FIG. 21.26A: USInflamed appendix (Courtesy: Dr V Ganesan)
FIG. 21.26B: USAppendicolith

FIG. 21.27: CTAppendicular mass
Table 21.7: CT findings associated with acute appendicitis

Appendiceal signs
Periappendiceal signs
Appendix >6 mm in anteroposterior diameter
Increased fat attenuation (stranding) in the right lower quadrant
Failure of appendix to fill with oral contrast or gas to Cecal wall thickening
its tip
Enhancement of appendix with IV contrast
Phlegmon in the right lower quadrant
Appendicolith
Abscess or extraluminal gas

Fluid in the right lower quadrant or pelvis
159
Treatment
ACUTE MESENTERIC LYMPHADENITIS

Seen commonly in the pediatric age group
Acute infection and inflammation of the mesenteric lymph nodes mostly of the ileocolic group
(Fig.21.28).
Pathogenesis
Commonly caused by viral infections.
Symptoms
Periumbilical pain associated with high grade fever
Vomiting is rare.
Signs
The point of tenderness is usually in the right iliac fossa in the supine position, and shifts to the left side,
if the patient is made to lie on the left side and vice versa (Kleins sign)
Guarding is not predominantly present
In thin children, enlarged lymph nodes may be felt.
Tubercular infection
Acute appendicitis.
Clinical suspicion is important
US (Fig. 21.29) and CT may show large lymph node swellings.
Emergency appendicectomy (Laparoscopic or open) is the treatment of choice

Conservative management is adopted for appendicular mass, subacute or chronic appendicitis (Oschner
Scherren regime), followed by appendicectomy at a later date (interval appendicectomy)
Appendicular abscess requires drainage, followed by interval appendicectomy.
160
FIG. 21.28: Mesenteric lymphadenitis
FIG. 21.29: USMesenteric lymphadenitis

Treatment
Medical management with antibiotics and supportive measures.
ACUTE COLONIC DIVERTICULITIS

Common in the West
Disease of the elderly
Sigmoid colon is most commonly affected.
Pathogenesis
Acute inflammation of the diverticulum of large bowel (colonic diverticulitis)
They are thought to arise from increased pressure in the colonic lumen, occurs at weak areas between the
taeniae where vessels perforate through the submucosal layer.
Complications
Bleeding
Perforation
Peritonitis
Abscess.
161
FIG. 21.31: ColonoscopyAcute diverticulitis

(Courtesy: Dr Mani Veeraraghavan)
The severity of diverticulitis is classified by Modified Hinchey classification

Stage 1 pericolic abscess
Stage 2a distant abscess amenable to percutaneous drainage
Stage 2b complex abscess associated with/without fistula
Stage 3 generalized purulent peritonitis
Stage 4 fecal peritonitis
Symptoms
Colonic diverticulitis presents with colicky pain in the left flank
When perforated, it may form an abscess in the paracolic region and present with high grade fever and a
palpable tender lump.
Signs
Left iliac fossa tenderness
Tender mass (abscess) may be palpable.
Double contrast barium enema (Fig. 21.30) is informative
Colonoscopy (Fig. 21.31) is diagnostic
US and CT (Fig. 21.32) are useful in diagnosing abscesses.
FIG. 21.30: Barium enema Diverticulitis

of colon
162
FIG. 21.32: CTDiverticulitis of sigmoid colon
Treatment
Uncomplicated diverticulitis needs to be treated with antibiotics
Perforated diverticulitis with or without abscess formation needs surgical intervention.
ACUTE MECKELS DIVERTICULITIS

Meckels diverticulum* - An embryological remnant (Fig. 21.33) present as a free diverticulum with a
wide mouth, about 25 to 30 cm from the ileocecal junction; may contain ectopic gastric mucosa (reason
not known)
Occurrence follows rough rule of 2s:
2 percent of the population
2 feet from the ileo-cecal junction
2 inches in length
2 times more common in males than in females.
Complications: Perforation and peritonitis.
* Meckels diverticulum is often found incidentally during laparotomy and remains asymptomatic in majority of individuals.
163
FIG. 21.33: Meckels diverticulum
Symptom
Right iliac fossa pain.
Sign
Tenderness right iliac fossa (McBurneys point).

Meckels diverticulitis may present with peptic ulceration, lower GI hemorrhage, perforation, intussusception and
intestinal obstruction.
Acute appendicitis
Right ovarian pathology in women.
No investigation is useful.
164
Treatment
Acute diverticulitis warrants diverticulectomy
Perforation and peritonitis need appropriate management.
ACUTE SOLITARY CECAL DIVERTICULITIS

Solitary diverticulum is common in the cecum
Inflammation of the diverticulum presents like acute appendicitis and mislead the examiner.
Symptom
Pain in the right iliac fossa (similar to acute appendicitis).
Sign
A lump may be felt in the right iliac fossa.
Clinically it mimics acute appendicitis, and many times, cecal diverticulitis is identified in second surgery, after
appendicectomy.
US and CT may be useful.
Treatment
Diverticulectomy or right hemicolectomy is the treatment of choice.
ACUTE ULCERATIVE COLITIS

A chronic inflammatory bowel disease with relapses and remissions
Acute inflammation is one of its clinical presentations.
Complications: Perforation and peritonitis.
165
FIG. 21.34: X-rayToxic megacolon
Symptoms
Incessant diarrhea, mixed with blood, mucus and pus with constitutional symptoms
They present an emaciated appearance.
Signs
Deep ulcers involving the entire colon is called Toxic megacolon, presenting as grossly distended abdomen.
Plain X-ray abdomen (Fig. 21.34) is diagnostic
Colonoscopy is essential for diagnosis.
Treatment
Uncomplicated cases are treated medically
Perforation and peritonitis need appropriate treatment.
ACUTE INTESTINAL OBSTRUCTION
166
Intestinal obstructions may be dynamic or adynamic.

Dynamic obstruction is a physical or mechanical obstruction of the intestinal lumen due to various
causes. They are:
Intramural causes (e.g. fecal impaction, worms)
Mural causes (e.g. strictures or stenosis due to tuberculosis, malignancies)
Extramural causes (e.g. adhesions, obstructed hernia)
Adynamic obstruction of the bowel is due to its neural (autonomic) paralysis, commonly seen after
abdominal surgery in the immediate postoperative period, peritonitis or any other cause like fractures,
tight bandages, etc.
Intestinal obstruction may be at different levels. They are:
Small intestinal (high or low)
Large intestinal (colonic or sigmoid)
Causes of intestinal obstruction are different for different age groups (Table 21.8).
Symptoms
1. Sudden episodic colicky abdominal pain
2. Vomiting
3. Constipation
4. Abdominal distension
(The symptoms vary according to the level of obstruction)
Abdominal pain: It is sudden and squeezing, and the patient doubles up. It is felt in the umbilical region,
sometimes accompanied by the appearance of a contracting loop. There may be pain free intervals.
Colonic pain presents in the hypogastrium
Newborn
Duodenal atresia
Table 21.8: Causes of intestinal obstruction in different age groups

Infants
Adolescents
Adults
Elderly
Helminths
Bands
Postoperative adhesions Growth
Rare causes
Enteroliths
Pyloric stenosis
Intussusception
Foreign bodies
Meconium ileus
Hirschsprungs
disease
Intussusception
Intussusception
Intussusception
Meckels
diverticulum
Obstructed or
strangulated hernia
Volvulus
Obstructed or
Gallstones
strangulated hernia
Trichobezoar
Obstructed or
strangulated hernia
Growth
Phytobezoar
Vomiting: Vomiting is predominant in high obstructions. The vomitus consists of gastric contents, followed 167
by the duodenal and lastly the intestinal, depending on the level of obstruction. In the late stages, the
vomitus becomes feculent ominous sign. Vomiting by itself is a late sign of chronic intestinal obstruction
Constipation: The patient evacuates his bowel (contents distal to obstruction) once or twice, and
constipation becomes a noticeable feature after 24 hours
Abdominal distension: Common feature of intestinal obstruction. Distension is

centrally located in small bowel obstruction (ladder pattern),
more on the flanks when distal colon is obstructed (asymmetrical)
more on the left flank in sigmoid volvulus
Dehydration: When vomiting is pronounced as in high level obstructions, dehydration is a presenting
feature.
Early dehydration and less abdominal distension suggests duodenal or jejunal obstruction whereas, late dehydration
and more abdominal distension suggests distal ileal obstruction. Vomiting and dehydration are usually not present
in isolated acute colonic obstruction.
Signs
General: Pulse rate and blood pressure are maintained at normal levels in the initial stages. As dehydration
becomes prominent, tachycardia and hypotension result
Abdomen: Bowel sounds are not heard as obstruction worsens.
The summary of signs and symptoms related to intestinal obstruction are given in Table 21.9.
Plain X-rays of abdomen in the erect posture will reveal multiple air fluid levels (Fig. 21.35) and colonic
obstruction may show distended colon also (Fig. 21.36).
Table 21.9: Signs and symptoms related to intestinal obstruction

Level of
obstruction
Signs and symptoms

Duration of
colic
Pain free
interval
Vomiting
Distension of
abdomen
Constipation
Dehydration
High
Short
Short
More
Minimal
Not constant
Severe
Low
Long
Long
Less
More
Late feature
Mild-to-moderate
(Findings of clinical examination and treatment of individual diseases are discussed at appropriate headings in the following
pages)
Diarrhea can be a feature in certain situations like intussusception (red currant jelly stools), Richters hernia,
adynamic obstruction caused by mesenteric vascular occlusion, pelvic abscess, etc.
168
FIG. 21.35: X-rayMultiple air fluid

levels of small bowel obstruction
FIG. 21.36: X-rayDistention

of large bowel
Treatment

Inpatient/intensive care
Nil by mouth
Intravenous fluids
Correction of electrolytes
Nasogastric decompression
Urinary catheterization of better monitoring
Identifying and treating the cause.*
* If adhesions are the likely cause, a trial of conservative management is justified.
GALLSTONE ILEUS
Pathogenesis
Gallstone enters the bowel through a perforated gallbladder (postcholecystitis) adherent to the small
bowel (cholecysto-enteric fistula)
When the stone is big and reaches the ileocecal junction, it causes small bowel obstruction.
Symptoms
169
Signs
Features of intestinal obstruction.
Plain X-ray abdomen (Fig. 21.37) almost always shows air in the biliary tree as bowel gas passes through
the cholecystoenteric fistula. A gallstone may also be seen in the right lower quadrant, if it is radiopaque
CT (Fig. 21.38) is more informative. Rarely, a gallstone may also be seen in the small bowel, and also in the
gallbladder if there are many.
Treatment
During laparotomy:
Simple crushing of stone with finger from outside the bowel may be enough if it is soft
Simple surgical removal through an enterotomy is required if the stone is hard and big
Cholecystectomy must be performed with closure of fistula.
FIG. 21.37: X-rayGallstone ileus
FIG. 21.38: Air in the biliary system
Previous history of vague attacks of right upper quadrant pain, suggesting frequent cholecystitis.
ACUTE INTUSSUSCEPTION
170

Intussusception is the invagination of a segment of bowel into the distal adjacent loop (proximal into the
distal) (Fig. 21.39).
In Children
Two per thousand infants are affected with male preponderance, commonly affecting the age group of
3 months to 1 year
Commonly, it is secondary to an enlarged Peyers patch due to viral or bacterial infections
The other less common causes are:
Meckels diverticulum
Duplication cyst in the bowel wall
Polyp.
In Adults
Intussusception of small bowel is always secondary to a polypoid lesion, a lipoma (Figs 21.40A and B)
In large bowel, it is due to a malignant polypoid lesion (Figs 21.41A and B).
FIG. 21.39: Ileoileal intussusception
171
FIG. 21.40B: Lipoma the cause of ileoileal

intussusception
FIG. 21.41A: Colocolic intussusception
FIG. 21.41B: Malignant growth of colon cause for

intussusception
Complications: When the mesentery is drawn between the loops, it may result in vascular compromise, which
may lead to strangulation, gangrene and perforation.
Symptoms
In children, there may a history of preceding gastroenteritis following a change in diet (weaning from milk
to solid food)
FIG. 21.40A: Ileoileal intussusception
172
Severe acute colicky pain, with abdominal distension

Passing of frequent semisolid stools with bright red blood may be predominant (red currant jelly).
Signs
During the attacks of pain, a sausage-shaped mass may be felt, which appears during the time of colic and
disappears after the colic disappears. The right iliac fossa is empty Sign de Dance
Rectal examination may reveal bloodstain on the examining finger (red-currant jelly)
Colo-rectal intussusception may be felt by the examining finger on rectal examination, or it may even
present through anus, resembling a rectal prolapse.
Plain X-ray abdomen soft tissue shadow in the region of transverse colon with empty distal colon.
Multiple air fluid levels may be seen when obstruction predominates
Barium enema may show a filling defect called pincer-shaped filling defect (caused by the intussusceptum
with the intussuscipiens)
Colonoscopy can identify, colonic intussusceptions (Fig. 21.42A)
US and CT (Figs 21.42B and C) will reveal the intussuscepting mass (pseudokidney appearance).
C
FIG. 21.42A: Intussusception of small bowel
(Courtesy: Dr Mani Veeraraghavan)
FIGS 21.42B and C: CTIntussusception
Treatment
Barium enema and colonoscopy, by themselves may reduce the colonic intussusception
Laparotomy is required to reduce the small bowel intussusception, and treat the cause appropriately
Bowel resections may be needed if the bowel segment is strangulated, and nonviable
SWALLOWED FOREIGN BODIES

Common in children and psychotic individuals
Most foreign bodies pass through GIT without any difficulty.
Symptoms
Abdominal pain may be present
Vomiting may supervene.
Signs
Signs of intestinal obstruction may appear
Chest signs may appear.
Examine the oral cavity, oropharynx or nasopharynx for impacted foreign body, before asking for radiographs.
Plain X-ray of throat (Fig. 21.43), chest and abdomen may identify the foreign body
Bronchoscopy/Gastroscopy may be required.
By the time the patient is seen by the clinician, the foreign body might be expelled through feces, if it is small
and blunt
Since button cells have the tendency to erode through the bowel wall, it is better to monitor its position by serial
radiography, and removed if stuck in a place.
Treatment
Blunt objects reaching the stomach will pass without difficulty
Sharp foreign bodies impacted in the GIT should be removed (endoscopically or by open surgery)
Catastrophic bleed, obstruction and perforation peritonitis need laparotomy.
173
174
FIG. 21.43: Foreign body larynx (Courtesy: Bharat scans)
PERFORATED BOWEL PATHOLOGIES

There are a variety of intra-abdominal pathologies, which are serious emergencies, and also threaten life, if
not recognized early and treated. Such conditions are called acute abdominal catastrophes. Most of these
conditions are a result of infection of peritoneum called peritonitis, caused by the leak of infected intestinal
contents into the peritoneal cavity. Since the peritoneum is a semi-permeable membrane, it allows the spread
of infection systemically into the blood to result in septicemia, a fatal condition.
Peritonitis consists of three stages. They are:
1. Stage of peritonism: Occurs due to the chemical irritation of the peritoneum caused by the leaked contents
of the bowel, and the patient feels sudden excruciating pain. Constitutional symptoms are not prominent,
though tenderness and guarding can be elicited
2. Stage of reaction: The contents of the bowel are neutralized by the peritoneal exudates, and pain becomes
less. Muscle guarding may be present, and shifting dullness may be elicited indicating the presence of free
fluid in the abdomen
3. Stage of spreading peritonitis: This is an ominous stage, as there are signs of severe infection. They
exhibit classic facies, called Facies Hippocratica sunken eyes, hollow cheeks and anxious face. Severe
tachycardia (fast thready pulse) is present. Abdomen shows board like rigidity, indicating generalized
peritonitis. Death becomes imminent if not attended to, surgically.
The signs and symptoms of perforations caused by various parts of the bowel have certain indicative
findings. They are given in the Table 21.10.
Table 21.10: Signs and symptoms of perforations caused by various diseases of the bowel
Perforation of
Duodenal or Appendicitis** Cholecystitis
gastric ulcer
(benign/
malignant)*
Typhoid/
Tubercular
ulcer
Ulcerative
colitis
Diverticular
disease
Colonic
malignancy
Previous
history
Frequent
use of
antacids
Nil or pain in
the right iliac
fossa in the
past (treated
or untreated)
Gallstones
or chronic
cholecystitis
Prolonged
fever (high
grade in
typhoid and
low grade in
tuberculosis)
Repeated
attacks of
diarrhea and
abdominal
pain
Repeated
attacks of
constipation
and abdominal
pain
Constipation
History of
drug intake
NSAIDs
Nil
Nil
Treatment
for typhoid
fever
Medical
management
Medical
management
Laxatives
Area of
abdominal
pain
Upper
abdominal
Umbilical to
start and then
in the right
iliac fossa
Right hypo
chondrial
Umbilical
or lower
abdominal
Flanks and
hypogastric
Umbilical or
flanks
Flank on the
side of lesion
Gastro
intestinal
bleeds
Upper
Nil
Nil
Lower
Lower
Lower
Lower
Treatment
Surgical
* Leaks of gastric contents due to perforated gastric ulcer (posteriorly placed), into the lesser sac may mask abdominal symptoms
** Clinical presentation of perforated Meckels diverticulitis is the same as that of perforated acute appendicitis.

Myocardial infarction
Diaphragmatic irritation caused by lower lobar lung lesions
Acute pancreatitis
Ruptured or dissecting aortic aneurysm.
Plain X-rays of abdomen in the erect posture is confirmatory (gas under the diaphragm) in most cases
(Figs 21.44 and 21.45) and peritonitis gives the classic ground glass appearance (Fig. 21.46)
CT (Fig. 21.47) is useful.
Signs and
symptoms
175
176
FIG. 21.44: X-rayAir under the right dome

of diaphragm-duodenal ulcer perforation
FIG. 21.46: X-ray abdomen - Ground

glass appearance of peritonitis
FIG. 21.45: Minimal air under right dome of diaphragm appendicular perforation
FIG. 21.47: CTPneumoperitoneum
177
Treatment
INTESTINAL STRICTURES
Obstructions can be caused by strictures due to:
Tuberculosis (healing lesions)
Malignant lesions
Postoperative strictures are not uncommon.
Symptoms
Symptoms of subacute or acute intestinal obstruction
History of weight loss, low-grade pyrexia, anemia and vague abdominal pain may be present.
Signs
Clinical examination may show a mass in the right iliac fossa (differential diagnosisCrohns disease)
Ascites may be present.
Plain X-ray abdomen (erect) shows air fluid levels
X-ray chest may reveal a primary tubercular lesion.
Treatment
Laparotomy is needed for acute obstructions
Stricturoplasty or bypass procedures or resections are done for tubercular strictures
Radical resections or bypass procedures are done for malignant strictures.
Treatment is always surgical:

Closure of bowel perforation if it is simple and of benign cause
Cholecystectomy (gallbladder perforations)/ appendicectomy (appendicular perforations)/appropriate bowel resections (benign or malignant bowel perforations)
Peritoneal toileting is mandatory and should be complete.
BANDS AND ADHESIONS
178

Bands may be congenital, but adhesions are post surgical
The adhesions may be like a small band or generalized, flimsy or dense, single (Figs 21.48 and 21.49) or
multiple.
Symptoms and Signs

Features of subacute or acute intestinal obstruction, months or years after surgery.
Plain radiographs of abdomen are useful in diagnosis
Diagnostic laparoscopy is conclusive.
Treatment
Release of adhesions by laparoscopy or by open surgery
Open surgery and release of adherent bowel loops for dense adhesions obstructing the bowel
It is better to manage the acute obstructions by trial medical management with gastric suction and
intravenous fluids
Note: Surgery has the disadvantage of recurrence, especially in generalized adhesions.
FIG. 21.48: Band in the pelvis causing internal rotation

of small bowel
FIG. 21.49: Adhesions of small bowel

to previous surgery scar
ENTEROLITHS/FOOD BOLUS
Obstructions may be caused by enteroliths or food bolus, resulting from poor chewing in an edentulous
patient, high consumption of high fiber (e.g. orange pith), usually at a pre-existing narrowing due to
tuberculosis, Crohns disease and surgery.
Symptoms and Signs

Symptoms of subacute or acute intestinal obstruction.
Plain X-ray abdomen (erect) shows air fluid levels. Diagnosis is more clinical and is difficult.
Treatment
Surgery is indicated for acute obstructions, and the bolus or enterolith can be milked into the large intestine
and rarely it is necessary to open the bowel to remove it.
VOLVULUS
Volvulus is defined as a twist of the bowel around its mesenteric axis
It is more common in the large bowel (commonly the sigmoid colon) than in the small bowel
Rotation of more than 180 degrees may result in strangulation.
SIGMOID VOLVULUS
Disease of the middle aged and elderly.
Pathogenesis
Rotation of the sigmoid around its axis occurs when its mesentery is unusually long.
Symptoms
Sudden severe pain, frequently when straining to pass stool. The patient retches and develops hiccoughs
The patient may give history of attacks of abdominal pain with constipation, relieved by passing watery
stools and large volumes of flatus.
179
180
FIG. 21.50: X-ray Sigmoid volvulus
Signs
Abdomen rapidly distends, disproportionate to the duration of pain, and the distension is confined more
to the left flank
Rectum is empty on examination.
Plain radiograph of the abdomen will reveal a distended sigmoid, coffee bean appearance Freeman Dahl
sign (Fig. 21.50) (Convergence of three white lines towards the base of the pedicle).
Treatment
Untwisting of the volvulus, and fixing the colon to parietal peritoneum to prevent recurrence
Sigmoidectomy is the treatment of choice in long redundant sigmoid colon.
CECAL VOLVULUS
This occurs in those whose entire right colon has a mesentery continuous with that of the small bowel,
and the cecum does not lie in the right iliac fossa
More common in women and during pregnancy.
Plain radiograph of the abdomen is diagnostic (Cecal bubble is seen).
Treatment
Untwisting of the volvulus with or without resection of the segment of the bowel and cecopexy is required.
MIDGUT VOLVULUS
In children, this occurs due to malrotation and failure of fixation of midgut, usually before one year, rarely
in neonates
In adults, a loop of bowel rotates around a point of adhesion (to the abdominal wall or to an adjacent
viscera).
Symptom
Severe abdominal pain.
Signs
Signs of intestinal obstruction.
Contrast study shows Cork-screw effect.
Treatment
Emergency laparotomy and correction of the defect with fixing of the bowel.
A distended, tense palpable resonant mass in the umbilical region, with an empty right iliac fossa
Features of distal small bowel obstruction.
181
182
GASTRIC VOLVULUS
Rare, potentially life threatening
Stomach twists by more than 180 degrees causing in the long axis (organo-axial rotation) causing closed
loop obstruction
Mesentero-axial rotation occurs in one-third of cases.
Symptoms*
Severe upper abdominal pain
Vomiting
Dyspnea.
* Subdiaphragmatic gastric volvulus causes chest pain.
Sign
Upper abdominal distension.
Plain X-ray shows gas filled bowel in lower chest or epigastrium.
Treatment
Emergency laparotomy to reduce the volvulus and gastropexy.
INTESTINAL OBSTRUCTION DUE TO HERNIAE

(INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL)
Internal hernias may occur due to congenital and acquired reasons.
Congenital: Herniation through the pockets under the superior mesenteric and interior mesenteric vessels
Acquired: External hernia like strangulated inguinal or femoral hernia can cause intestinal obstruction.
183
FIG. 21.52: Intestinal obstruction due to obstructed

inguinal hernia
Symptoms
Internal hernia may present with features of intestinal obstruction (Fig. 21.51). Symptoms depend on the
level of obstruction.
Sign
External hernia is clinically evident and may show signs of obstruction or strangulation (Fig. 21.52).
Plain radiographs and CT are useful in diagnosis.
Treatment
Reduction of herniating bowel and closure of defects
Strangulated bowel may need resection.
PARALYTIC ILEUS
Prolongation of ileus after abdominal operations beyond the third postoperative day and last for a week
or more
FIG. 21.51: Internal herniation of small intestines
184
Causes
Sympathetic dysfunction
Local causes
Pharmacological
Biochemical
Table 21.11: Causes of paralytic ileus

Pathology
Mechanism
Postoperative ileus
Reflex inhibition
Spinal injury
Acute renal colic
Trauma
Acute pancreatitis
Retroperitoneal malignancy
Peritonitis
Advanced mechanical obstruction
Anticholinergics
Antidiarrheals
Ganglion blockers
Hypokalemia
Uremia
Diabetic crisis
Hypoxia
Retroperitoneal hemorrhage
Malignant infiltration
Bacterial infection
Excessive distension of bowel
Interference with smooth muscle contractility
Usual cause being electrolyte imbalance in the postoperative period

Retroperitoneal or intraperitoneal hemorrhage and sepsis are the other causes
Trivial causes like an injection, application of Plaster-of-Paris bandage and any injury anywhere, fractures,
etc. (Table 21.11).
Symptoms
Abdominal distention without pain
Vomiting is a predominant symptom.
Sign
The abdomen is resonant with the characteristic absence of bowel sounds.
Serum electrolyte levels show abnormalities
Plain radiographs of the abdomen will show step-ladder pattern of small bowel (Fig. 21.53) with
distension of both small and large bowels.
185
FIG. 21.53: Step-ladder pattern of paralytic ileus
Treatment
Correction of electrolyte imbalances
Treatment of retroperitoneal or intraperitoneal causes like hemorrhage and sepsis.
TORSION OF MESENTERIC CYST

Cystic lesions of mesentery are more common than solid tumors (2:1)
Cystic tumors of mesentery are:
Chylous cyst, serous cyst (developmental) more common
Lymphangioma (lymphatic tissue) more common
Traumatic cyst (trauma)
Enteric cyst, dermoid (embryonic rests)
Majority of cysts are benign (except lymphangiosarcoma, malignant teratoma).
186
Pathogenesis
Torsion occurs more by its weight, and mobile nature of mesentery encourages this torsion.
Symptom
Sudden acute abdominal pain.
Signs
Central abdominal tenderness with guarding and rigidity
A cystic lump may be felt in the central abdomen.
US and CT of abdomen are diagnostic.
Treatment
Emergency laparotomy is needed. The cyst should be removed.
TORSION OF OMENTUM
More common in 4th to 5th decades
Equal sex incidence
Causes of omental torsion are:
Primary: Always unipolar, cause is unknown
Secondary: Usually bipolar, associated with adhesions (intra-abdominal inflammationtuberculosis,
postsurgical adhesions, internal and external herniae).
Pathogenesis
The omentum twists on its long axis to an extent causing vascular obstruction
May vary from mild vascular obstruction producing edema to complete strangulation leading to infarction
and gangrene
The situations to cause torsion are:
Redundant and mobile segment
Fixed point around which the segment can twist
Symptoms
Acute abdominal pain usually is localized to right lower quadrant
Movement increases the pain
Nausea and vomiting are common.
Signs
Tenderness, rigidity and guarding of abdomen
A vague tender mass may be felt in the upper abdomen.
Acute cholecystitis
Acute appendicitis
Torsion of right ovary.
US and CT of abdomen are diagnostic.
Treatment
Emergency laparotomy is needed.
Twisted omentum needs to be excised with release of adhesions
Associated hernia needs repair.
COLICS
Colic is defined as a sudden squeezing or griping pain lasting for about 3 to 5 minutes with pain free intervals.
Nausea, vomiting and retching are common accompaniments
The cause of a colic is partial obstruction of a tubular structure due to varied causes.
187
The precipitating factors for torsion are:

Anatomic variations (bifid omentum, accessory omentum, large and bulky omentum)
Venous redundancy
More common in right side (due to increased bulk and mobility).
188
Clinical Features (Table 21.12)

Clinical
feature
Incidence
Table 21.12: Clinical features of various colics

Colics
Biliary colic
Renal colic
Ureteric colic
Intestinal colic
Fat, fertile, flatulent,
Young age
Younger age
Any age
female of fifty
Etiology
Gallstones
Renal calculus
Nature of
pain
Right hypochondrial
pain, referred to right
scapula or shoulder
Severe pain in the

lumbar region
radiating towards
umbilicus
Associated
symptom
Dyspepsia
Urinary
symptoms
Ureteric calculus, Parasitic infestations

papilloma, clot, (younger age), strictures
stricture
(middle age), malignancy
(old age)
Severe colicky
Colicky pain in the
pain radiating
umbilical region
from loin to
groin, testis or
thigh
Urinary
Constipation or diarrhea
symptoms
Symptoms
Severe griping pain with pain free intervals
Location of pain is definite (Table 21.13)
Radiation (Fig. 21.54) may be present:
Radiation to right scapula or shoulder is common with biliary colic
Radiation to external genitalia and groins (e.g. ureteric colic)
Vomiting is usually present
Table 21.13: Location of pain related to regions of abdomen

Right hypochondrium
Biliary colic
Right renal colic
Left hypochondrium
Left renal colic
Right lumbar region

Right renal colic
Umbilical region
Intestinal colic
Left lumbar region

Left renal colic
Right iliac fossa

Appendicular colic
Hypogastrium
Left iliac fossa

Left ureteric colic
Uterine colic
Urethral colic
Appendicular colic
Any age
Fecoliths, Worms
Colicky pain in
the right iliac
fossa
Repeated attacks
of dull pain in
right iliac fossa
189
FIG. 21.54: Ureteric colic: (A) Base of penis; (B) Genitalia; (C) Thigh
Fever may be present if infection is associated

Jaundice may be present if cholangitis is associated
Loose stools may be present if colitis is associated
History of similar episodes in the past
Family history may present regarding biliary and urinary calculi.
Signs
Tenderness in the region of pathology
Mass may be felt proximal to the level obstruction:
Right upper quadrant (e.g. distended gallbladder)
Right lumbar (e.g. obstructed and enlarged kidney as in PUJ obstruction)
Umbilical (e.g. distended bowel)
Hypogastric (e.g. distended uterus in dysmenorrhea).
190

Biliary colic, jaundice, palpable gallbladder (e.g. cholangitis with mucocele, gallbladder choledochal cyst)
Renal colic, urinary symptoms, palpable kidney (e.g. obstruction at PUJ)
Ureteric colic, urinary symptoms, tenderness in iliac fossa (e.g. obstruction of ureter)
Intestinal colic, exaggerated bowel sounds (e.g. obstruction of small bowel)
Appendicular colic, tenderness right iliac fossa (e.g. obstructive appendicitis)
Uterine colic, dysmenorrhea, palpable uterus (e.g. congestive dysmenorrhea).
Hematology
Leukocytosis in infective pathologies (e.g. acute cholecystitis)
Radiology
Plain X-ray abdomen: Gas filled loops of bowel (e.g. acute intussusceptions, acute intestinal obstruction)
Ultrasonography: Radiopaque shadows in the abdomen (e.g. renal stones, ureteric stones).
Treatment Plan
Medical management will suffice in most instances
Obstructive pathologies may require surgery or removal to relieve the cause of obstruction
Repeated attacks of colic will require evaluation and management.
GASTROINTESTINAL HEMORRHAGE
Definitions

Hematemesisvomiting blood, which may be fresh or partly altered.

Melenapassing altered blood (meaning digested blood) per rectum.
Hematocheziapassing blood per rectum bright in color
Occult bleedingbleeding not visible to naked eye, but microscopic.
Types of Gastrointestinal Hemorrhages
191
The blood loss due to gastrointestinal hemorrhage is divided into three types:
1. Mildless than 500 ml.
2. Moderate500 to 1500 ml.
3. Severemore than 1500 ml.
Gastrointestinal hemorrhages, when they are in large quantities, called major hemorrhages present either as
vomiting of blood or passage of blood per rectum, but usually they coexist
Many times, melena is the sole clinical presentation of upper gastrointestinal bleed.
While evaluating a GI hemorrhage, the following pathologies are to be kept in mind (Fig. 21.55)
FIG. 21.55: Causes of gastrointestinal bleeding
192
Hematemesis and Melena

Esophagus

Reflux esophagitis
Esophageal varices
MalloryWeiss tears
Corrosive poisoning.
Stomach and Duodenum

Acid peptic disease

Gastric polyps
Gastric lymphoma
Carcinoma stomach
Corrosive poisoning.
Melena
Small Bowel
Angiodysplasia
Diverticulitis
Radiation enteritis
Infections and inflammations
Ischemic disease
Intussusception
Richters hernia
Benign tumors
Malignant tumors.
Hematochezia
Large Bowel
Angiodysplasia
Diverticulitis
Radiation colitis
Infections and inflammations
Ischemic disease
Inflammatory bowel disease
Benign polyps
Malignant tumors.
Rectum and Anus

Polyps
Malignant tumors
Hemorrhoids, fissures.
Lower gastrointestinal hemorrhages do not present with hematemesis.
Eliciting History
Hematemesis
1. Nature of bleed
Frank blood (e.g. esophageal varices)
Altered blood (e.g. peptic ulcer, gastric malignancy).
2. Duration of hematemesis
Short duration (e.g. acute hyperacidity)
Recurrent attacks (e.g. chronic duodenal ulcer, gastric malignancy).
3. Association of rectal bleed
Melena (e.g. upper GI bleed)
Hematochezia (e.g. lower GI bleed).
4. Association of abdominal pain
Absence of abdominal pain (e.g. esophageal varices)
Presence of abdominal pain (e.g. chronic duodenal ulcer, gastric malignancy).
5. Association of fever: Fever usually low grade (e.g. GI malignancy).
6. Association of jaundice: Jaundice may be present (e.g. periampullary carcinoma, hepatic failure).
Hematochezia
1. Duration of bleed
Short duration (e.g. hemorrhoids, inflammatory bowel disease, colonic malignancy)
Recurrent attacks and long duration (e.g. hemorrhoids, inflammatory bowel disease).
193
194 2. Association of abdominal pain

Absence of abdominal pain (e.g. hemorrhoids, malignancy)

Presence of abdominal pain (e.g. inflammatory bowel disease).
3. Association of fever: Fever (e.g. inflammatory bowel disease)
4. Association of jaundice
Jaundice may be present (e.g. portal hypertension, metastatic colonic malignancy)
5. Association of bowel disturbances
Constipation (e.g. colorectal malignancies)
Diarrhea (e.g. inflammatory bowel disease).

Past History
History of pain (e.g. chronic duodenal ulcer, diverticulitis)
History of bleeds (e.g. chronic duodenal ulcer, diverticulitis, hemorrhoids)
Previous surgery (e.g. recurrent malignancy of GIT).
Family History
Familial polyposis
Colonic malignancy.
General

Vital signs (e.g. shock)

Breath for fetor (e.g. hepatic failure)
Conjunctiva for anemia (e.g. GI malignancy), jaundice (e.g. hepatic failure)
Tongue for anemia (e.g. GI malignancy)
Neck for lymphadenopathy (e.g. GI malignancy)
Hands for clubbing, palmar erythema, liver flap, etc. (e.g. liver failure).

Mild hemorrhages are rarely associated with systemic signs. When the blood loss approaches about 40 percent
of the blood volume, shock ensues
The volume of blood loss either by vomiting or through rectum, is not a very reliable measure, as large amounts
stay in the bowel.
Abdomen
Scars, swellings and sinuses
Palpation
Tenderness
Right upper quadrant (e.g. hepatic failure)
Epigastric (e.g. chronic duodenal ulcer)
Left upper quadrant (e.g. chronic duodenal ulcer).
Lump
Right upper quadrant (e.g. hepatomegaly, distended gallbladder)
Epigastric (e.g. carcinoma stomach, left lobar hepatomegaly)
Left upper quadrant (e.g. carcinoma stomach, splenomegaly).
Percussion
Percuss the liver for
Its enlargement (e.g. chronic hepatitis, metastatic liver).
Auscultation
Bowel sounds are usually normal
Exaggerated bowel sounds may indicate obstruction of small bowel (e.g. intestinal colic).

Hematemesis and melena (e.g. pathologies of upper GI tract proximal to ligament of Treitz)
With upper abdominal pain, epigastric tenderness (e.g. bleeding gastric/duodenal ulcer)
Without abdominal pain and
No clinical findings (e.g. esophageal varices, vascular malformations, upper GI malignancy)
Abdominal lump (e.g. upper GI malignancy).
Without abdominal pain and
Increasing jaundice, abdominal lump, + / hepatomegaly (e.g. upper GI malignancy + / liver
metastases)
Fluctuating jaundice, palpable GB, + / hepatomegaly (e.g. periampullary carcinoma + / liver
metastases).
Inspection
Distension
Generalized (e.g. ascites of liver failure, malignant ascites)
Right upper abdominal (e.g. hepatomegaly)
Epigastric (e.g. left lobar hepatomegaly, carcinoma stomach)
Left upper abdominal (e.g. splenomegaly).
195
196
Melena (e.g. pathologies of lower GI tract distal to ligament of Treitz)

With abdominal pain
Epigastric tenderness (e.g. bleeding duodenal/gastric ulcer)
Umbilical tenderness (e.g. inflammatory bowel disease)
Flank tenderness (e.g. ulcerative colitis)
Palpable lump (e.g. proximal colonic malignancy).
Without abdominal pain
No clinical findings (e.g. esophageal varices, vascular malformations)
Abdominal lump (e.g. upper GI malignancy).
Hematochezia (e.g. pathologies of lower GI tract in the colorectum)
With pain during defecation, positive inspection findings (e.g. acute fissure in ano)
Without perianal pain
Positive proctoscopy findings (e.g. hemorrhoids, rectal pathologies)
Negative proctoscopy findings (e.g. colonic pathologies)
With abdominal pain + / fever, local tenderness (e.g. inflammatory bowel disease, diverticulitis)
With colicky pain, abdominal lump (e.g. obstructing colonic malignancy)
With jaundice + / abdominal pain, + / abdominal lump, + / hepatomegaly (e.g. colonic malignancy
with liver metastases).
Whatever be the external visible loss, signs of hypovolemia should be watched for.
Hematology

Hemoglobin and PCV for anemia

Total and differential leukocyte count (e.g. tuberculosis, ulcerative colitis)
Thrombocytopenia (e.g. hypersplenism)
ESR may be raised in infections and malignancies
Coagulation profile (e.g. bleeding disorders).

Coagulation profile should be assessed in all cases of GI bleed, as bleed by itself the sole presentation of
coagulation disorders.
Liver Function Tests

Serum bilirubin (e.g. raised levels indicate jaundice)
Serum transaminases (e.g. raised levels indicate liver cell disease)
Serum alkaline phosphatase (e.g. raised levels may indicate biliary obstruction due to hepatic metastases).
Serum proteins (e.g. reduced levels indicate undernutrition)

197
Prothrombin time is prolonged in liver diseases and needs to be corrected by administration of vitamin K,
in the management of gastrointestinal bleeds.
Examination of stool for occult blood is required in cases of occult bleeding from GIT.
Occult bleeding from GIT is common, but the bleed should be atleast 10 ml to identify by examination.
Radiology
Chest X-ray (e.g. aspiration pneumonitis, mediastinal widening and hilar lymphadenopathy of esophageal
malignancy)
Contrast studies of bowel
Barium swallow (e.g. esophageal malignancy)
Barium meal (e.g. gastric malignancy, periampullary carcinoma)
Barium enema (e.g. colonic malignancy)
CT/MRI scan
Chest (e.g. esophageal malignancy, and paraesophageal pathology like lymph nodes, pulmonary
secondaries)
Abdomen (e.g. cirrhosis of liver, malignant deposits of liver, lymph node metastases of GI malignancies,
intestinal tuberculosis)
Ultrasonography of abdomen (e.g. malignant deposits, dilated portal vein and biliary radicals)
Magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP) (e.g. periampullary carcinoma).
Endoscopy
Upper gastrointestinal endoscopy (e.g. gastroesophageal reflux disease, esophageal tears, gastric
malignancies, periampullary carcinoma)
Lower gastrointestinal endoscopy (e.g. polyps, tumors of rectum and colon)
Endoscopy has the advantage of obtaining tissue for histopathology
Endoscopy may be used as a therapeutic tool at the same sitting (e.g. sclerotherapy in bleeding esophageal
varices and endoclipping of bleeding vessel)
Endoscopy should be performed at the earliest opportunity and after adequate resuscitation.
Radioisotope Studies
Radioisotope scanning using the patients own labeled red blood cells can be useful in small bowel bleeds,
especially those from angiodysplasia.
Stool Examination
198
Selective Arteriography
Selective arteriography (superior mesenteric arteriography) may be useful in determining the small bowel
bleeds, particularly those from angiodysplasia.
Capsule Endoscopy
Swallowing a small capsule with a video camera, and recording the images of the lumen of small bowel
gives tremendous information of bleeding from small bowel. Histopathology cannot be obtained by capsule
endoscopy.
Histopathology
Biopsy through endoscopy (upper and lower) is confirmative.
Treatment
Medical Management
Large bore vascular access and correction of hypovolemia and hematocrit
Correction of coagulopathy
Emergency endoscopy
For nonvariceal bleeding
IV PPI (80 mg 6 hrly)
Nasogastric suction and gastric lavage
For variceal bleeding
Insertion of Sengstaken-Blakemore tube for compression of varices
Administration of vasopressin (upto 20 units SC or slow IV).
Variceal injection or banding
Transhepatic intravenous portosystemic shunt (TIPSS) for uncontrolled bleeding.
Surgery is needed for persistent uncontrollable GI bleeding.

Patient requiring more than six units of blood for resuscitation for acute bleed, will require surgical
management.
Surgical Treatment
Surgery is indicated in recurrent esophageal variceal bleeding, complicated inflammatory bowel disease,
polyps, benign and malignant tumors of GIT and hemorrhoids.
Anorectum
22
ACUTE ANAL FISSURE

Anal fissures are of two types. They are:
i. Acute fissures: Tear in the anal skin due to forceful expulsion of hard fecal matter
ii. Chronic fissures: Nonhealing of acute fissure due to repeated trauma caused by hard fecal matter
Anal fissures can occur secondary to Crohns disease, ulcerative colitis, syphilis and tuberculosis (secondary
fissures).
Pathogenesis
It is a tear in the anal skin, usually found in the 6 oclock or 12 oclock positions, following a bout of constipation
and passage of a large hard stool.
Posterior fissures are common than the anterior due to following reasons:
Anal canal is posteriorly angulated
Anal orifice is elliptical in shape
Posterior part of the anus is not supported by the muscles
Local ischemia.
Symptoms
Acute fissure is a very painful condition associated with fresh bleeding (streak of blood on the hard fecal
matter)
Chronic fissure is moderately painful with blood stained fecal matter.
200
Signs
Acute fissure presents with a linear tear in the anal skin (Fig. 22.1)
Chronic fissure has a swollen skin at its lowest part called sentinel pile (Figs 22.2A and B).
FIG. 22.1: Acute fissure in ano 6 oclock position
FIG. 22.2A: Chronic fissure in ano

6 oclock position
FIG. 22.2B: Chronic fissure in ano with sentinel pile

and hemorrhoids
201
Treatment
Acute fissure heals when constipation is taken care of, with probable anal dilatation
Chronic fissure requires excision
Secondary fissures require appropriate management.
ANORECTAL ABSCESS
They are of four types (Fig. 22.3):
i. Pelvirectal abscess
ii. Submucous abscess
iii. Ischiorectal abscess
iv. Perianal abscess.
FIG. 22.3: Anorectal abscesses: (1) Pelvirectal abscess (2) Submucous abscess
(3) Ischiorectal abscess (4) Perianal abscess
CHAPTER 22 ANORECTUM
No specific investigation is necessary, excepting a proctoscopy.
202
Pathogenesis
Acute infections of the anal intersphincteric glands caused by aerobic and anaerobic organisms
The infection originating in the intersphincteric space may spread in three directions:
i. Upwards
ii. Downwards
iii. Horizontally and circumferentially.
When the infection spreads in the vertical direction, that is upwards and downwards, and opens at two
places, forming an internal opening in the rectum and an external opening on the perianal skin, resulting
in a fistula.
Symptoms
A painful lump in the perianal region (Fig. 22.4), associated with fever
Signs of acute inflammation in the perianal region.
Signs
Tender mass with surrounding cellulitis
Fluctuation is difficult to demonstrate.
FIG. 22.4: Recurrent perianal abscess 5 oclock position
203
Treatment
Incision and drainage of painful abscess under general anesthesia, under cover of antibiotics
Appropriate antibiotics are necessary based on culture examination of pus, after drainage.
HEMORRHOIDS
Hemorrhoids (piles) are the varicosities of the hemorrhoidal plexus of veins
Hemorrhoids are caused by:
Chronic constipation
Purgation
Malignancies
Hemorrhoids may occur in the late middle age or elderly, secondary to rectal growths infiltrating or
compressing the hemorrhoidal veins, called symptomatic piles since it is a symptom of a condition more
proximally
External piles are covered by skin and the internal piles are covered by mucosa
Hemorrhoids are of four degrees:
First degree: Only bleeding (splash in the pan) and no mass
Second degree: Masses prolapse on straining and reduce spontaneously (Fig. 22.5A)
Third degree: Masses prolapse on straining and need manual reduction
Fourth degree: Masses stay prolapsed at all times (Fig. 22.5B).
Complications: Profuse hemorrhage (Fig. 22.6A), prolapse (Fig. 22.6B), strangulation, infection (Fig. 22.6C),
thrombosis (Fig. 22.6D), gangrene, ulceration (Fig. 22.6D) and fibrosis.
Symptoms

Majority of patients present with painless rectal bleed

Constipation is a common accompaniment
Mucus discharges and pruritus ani are commonly present
Pain is felt when the pile masses are thrombosed and strangulated.
204
FIG. 22.5A: Second degree hemorrhoids
FIG. 22.5B: Third degree hemorrhoids
FIG. 22.6A: Bleeding hemorrhoids
FIG. 22.6B: Prolapsed hemorrhoids
Signs
Lumps (3,7 and 11 oclock positions primary piles) at the anal orifice
Digital examination to rule out associated sphincter spasm and tumors is important
Proctoscopy is diagnostic.
205
FIG. 22.6C: Inflamed hemorrhoids
FIG. 22.6D: Thrombosed and ulcerated pile

masses (Courtesy: Dr Chandrasekar Rao)
Uncomplicated hemorrhoids are not felt by the examining finger

Complicated hemorrhoids warrant emergency surgical consultation
Thrombosed pile masses are firm to feel and visible on inspection, and present with gross edema and
ulcerations.
No special investigation is required unless other pathologies like malignancies are suspected.
Treatment

Hemorrhoidal bleeds are usually self-limiting

Banding or infrared coagulation controls acute bleeds
Venotonics control chronic recurrent rectal bleeds
Laxatives to manage constipation
Hemorrhoidectomy is curative.
PERIANAL HEMATOMA
206

It is sometimes called as thrombosed piles, but it is not related to hemorrhoids
The cause is not exactly known.
Pathogenesis
Occurs due to thrombosis of a subcutaneous vein below the transitional zone.
Symptoms*
A discrete painful swelling (Fig. 22.7)
Ulceration (Fig. 22.8) can occur with greater pain.
* Disturbing pain brings the patient to the doctor for an emergency consultation.
Sign
Tender mass external to the anal canal.
FIG. 22.7: Perianal hematoma
FIG. 22.8: Ulcerated perianal hematoma
207
Treatment
No treatment as most of them resolve
Incision and curettage gives quick relief from painful swellings
Since it opens up a vein, bleeding may be troublesome.
PROLAPSE OF RECTUM
Generally caused by chronic constipation and straining at stool and when the pelvic floor is weak
Occurs at extremes of age.
Pathogenesis
Pelvic floor weakness and the lack of mechanical support allows the rectum to prolapse.
Symptoms
The rectum presents as a prolapsed mucosa, varying from partial to full thickness (Fig. 22.9), appearing
more during the act of defecation
It can reduce spontaneously or may need manual reduction
There may be associated mucous discharge, bleeding, pain and incontinence
Patient may have to strain to make it prolapse for clinical examination, in most cases.
Signs
Prolapse up to 5 cm is considered to be partial and more than that is considered complete
They can be differentiated by feeling the wall with the thumb and the index finger.
Hemorrhoids
Intussusception.
No special investigation is necessary

Proctoscopy to rule out associated hemorrhoids.
208
FIG. 22.9: Prolapse rectum (Courtesy: Dr V Srinivasan)
Proctoscopy and colonoscopy may be needed to rule out the causes of constipation, and associated malignancy.
Treatment
Medical
Manual reduction
Dietary modification and laxatives.
Surgical
Various operative procedures are available for the treatment of prolapse.
Vascular System
23
ACUTE LIMB ISCHEMIA

Causes of acute ischemia are:
Acute thrombosis
Occurs in a vessel with pre-existing atherosclerosis due to plaque rupture or due to hypercoagulable
condition
Can occur de novo in a normal artery due to thrombophilia
Embolism - Emboli originate from:
Heart (e.g. myocardial infarction and rheumatic heart disease with atrial fibrillation commonest,
atrial myxoma rare)
Proximal artery (e.g. arterial emboli arise from an ulcerated atheromatous plaque or from an
aneurysm - Popliteal aneurysm and subclavian aneurysm following thoracic outlet compression).
The common sites for emboli are the brachial bifurcation and common femoral artery bifurcation.
Multiple shower of emboli in the foot produces the characteristic trash foot.
Dissection: Seen in patients with hypertension or connective tissue disorders like Marfans syndrome.
There is a tear in the intima which allows the blood to enter between the intima and the media (false
lumen) causing the true lumen to occlude. It usually starts in the arch of aorta and extends all the way
upto the iliac arteries
Arterial trauma: Can be homicidal or iatrogenic (e.g. surgical intervention, accidents). The arterial
injury may be laceration, transection, contusion, thrombosis or spasm. There is usually associated
bony and or soft tissue injury
210
Rapid changes occur in the tissues distal to the occlusion and the limb survival depends on the presence
of collaterals
Skeletal muscle and nerve tissue are the most sensitive to hypoxia and suffer damage early.
Complications: Compartment syndrome, acute renal failure (acidosis), muscle contracture (Volkmanns
ischemic contracture).
Symptoms
Acute ischemia produces classical symptoms (6 Ps)
Pain: Usually excruciating, sudden in onset and continuous
Pallor: Affected limb appears pale due to lack of blood
Pulselessness: Pulses distal to the block are absent
Paresthesia: Due to nerve damage
Paralysis: Sensory motor deficit due to ischemic nerve damage secondary to severe ischemia (a late
sign)
Poikilothermia: The affected limb appears cold.
Signs
Affected muscle gets swollen, tense and is very tender, due to persistent ischemia
On palpation, muscle gives a characteristic rubbery feel (can be mistaken for DVT)
Later skin changes like mottling (Fig. 23.1) and blisters start and ultimately the limb becomes gangrenous
(Fig. 23.2).
FIG. 23.1: Mottling of ischemic

limb (Courtesy: Dr N Sekar)
FIG. 23.2: Gangrene of acute ischemia

of left lower limb (Courtesy: Dr N Sekar)
211
All investigations should be done without delay:

Duplex scan is done to confirm diagnosis in early cases
Angiogram for treatment planning
Tests for thrombophilia
Hyperkalemia when renal shut down ensues.
CHAPTER 23 VASCULAR SYSTEM
Treatment
Acute arterial occlusion is a surgical emergency. Usually irreversible damage occurs by 4 to 6 hours. Hence,
revascularization should be done within 6 to 8 hours for limb salvage (Golden hour).
Intravenous heparin should be administered as soon as the diagnosis of acute ischemia of the limb is
made. Best results are seen in those who undergo revascularization within 6 to 8 hours after the onset
of ischemia
Embolism is best managed by embolectomy done through the brachial artery at the elbow or the
femoral artery at the groin
Acute arterial thrombosis can be managed by surgical bypass or by catheter directed thrombolytic
therapy. Frequently both modalities may be required to achieve revascularization
Fasciotomy will be required to avoid muscle damage in compartment syndrome caused by delayed
revascularization
Early amputation for limbs with irreversible ischemia.
Note: Those who present late should be taken up for surgery without imaging and intraoperative angiogram
should be done to reduce time delay.
ACUTE INTESTINAL ISCHEMIA

Intestinal ischemia occurs usually due to occlusion of mesenteric artery caused by:
Thrombosis on an atheromatous plaque (e.g. origin of superior mesenteric artery)
Embolus following atrial fibrillation/myocardial infarction/detached atheromatous plaque.
Severe acute abdominal pain with copious vomiting
Very fast deterioration of health
212
Hematemesis and melena also occur in some cases

The clinical signs are disproportionate to the symptoms, and rarely an area of tenderness may be felt near
the infarcted bowel.
ECG, plain X-ray and US abdomen are useful
Selective angiography is informative.
Systemic inflammatory response, oliguria, persistent acidosis, raised serum amylase and bloody diarrhea may
all occur but none is specific.
Treatment
Conservative management to stabilize the patient
Laparotomy and resection of nonviable bowel will be necessary, if the patient is stable
Balloon angioplasty or bypass grafts may be feasible in select cases.
Note: Outcome is guarded in most cases.

Intestinal ischemia should be considered as a possible cause of deterioration, particularly in the elderly
with pre-existing vascular disease or vasculitis.
LEAKING OR DISSECTING AORTIC ANEURYSM

Aneurysm of aorta (> 4 cm diameter normal 1.5 to 2.5 cm) is the disease of elderly, and rupture is the
deadly complication, with a mortality of more than 80 percent
The rupture can occur into the retroperitoneum or into the peritoneal cavity.

Acute severe upper abdominal pain or in the lower chest

Radiation to the back mimics acute pancreatitis
Aneurysm may be felt per abdomen with guarding and rigidity
Lower limb pulses are feeble or absent
Dissecting aneurysms present with retrosternal pain, as the pathology starts at the aortic arch.
213
CHAPTER 23 VASCULAR SYSTEM
FIG. 23.3: CT chestDissecting aneurysm of thoracic aorta
US and CT of the abdomen are conclusive (Fig. 23.3).
Treatment
Emergency surgical intervention is necessary, along with correction of shock.
Only a third with rupture of aneurysm live to reach the hospital.
Urology
24
ACUTE RETENTION OF URINE

Definition
Defined as inability to micturate even when the bladder is full.

This occurs when the sphincter is unable to relax or with proximal urethral obstruction like in prostatic
enlargement
Acute retention is of short duration and the bladder distension is painful
The causes of acute retention of urine are given in Table 24.1.
Symptoms
Severe lower abdominal pain
Inability to void urine
Symptoms relating to underlying cause (e.g. LUTS).
Signs
Palpable distended tender urinary bladder
Rectal examination: Anal sphincter spasm, enlarged prostate.
Table 24.1: Causes of acute retention of urine

Females
Both sexes
Prostatic enlargement
Multiple sclerosis
Clot retention
Urethral stricture
Urethral stenosis
Calculus at bladder neck or urethra
Tight Phimosis / Meatal stenosis
Retroverted gravid uterus
Rupture of urethra
Acute urethritis
Cervical fibroid
Spinal anesthesia
Postoperative
Bladder neck hypertrophy
Neurogenic
Fecal impaction
Anal pain (post hemorrhoidectomy)
Drugs (antihistamines, antihypertensives,
anticholinergics, antidepressants)
Hemogram
Urea/creatinine
PSA levels may be high
US may confirm the cause of obstruction.
Treatment
Immediate urethral catheterization
Urine examination for sugar and infective organisms
Treatment of the cause.
HEMATURIA
Definition
Passing of blood in the urine is called hematuria.
Frank hematuria: Presence of frank blood or blood clots in the urine
Microscopic hematuria: Presence of blood discovered by microscopy or dipstick.

Whatever the cause, hematuria is usually episodic:
Hematuria (painless) (e.g. tumors of urological system)
Hematuria with dysuria (e.g. urological infections)
The causes of hematuria are given in Table 24.2.
CHAPTER 24 UROLOGY
Males
215
216
Table 24.2: Causes of hematuria

Etiology
Diseases
Kidneys
Congenital
Ureters
Bladder
Prostate
Urethra
Polycystic kidney
AV malformation
Traumatic
Trauma
Trauma
Inflammatory
Glomerulonephritis
Cystitis
Tuberculosis
Schistosomiasis
Trauma
Prostatitis
Acute urethritis
Neoplastic
Malignancy
Urothelial tumors
Malignancy
Malignancy
Malignancy
Others
Calculi
Calculi
Calculi
Benign enlargement
Calculi
Nonurological
Coagulation and
hematological
disorders
Note: Microscopic hematuria may represent a significant lesion in the urinary tract and should be taken seriously, though in
about 5 percent of the cases, no cause can be found.
Symptoms
Passing dark colored/blood stained urine
Pain may or may not be present.
Signs
Clinical signs may vary (palpable kidney in large tumors, palpable bladder in bladder obstruction)
Anemia (in chronic hematuria or large hematuria)
Enlarged prostate.
Hematocrit may be low
Renal function may be impaired
Coagulation profile may be altered
Urine examination for infection (routine and C/S)
Ultrasonography
Intravenous urography (IVU)
Cystoscopy
CT/MRI may be needed while evaluating malignancies.
Treatment
217
RENAL COLIC
Caused by distension of renal capsule and pelvis or stretch of the peritoneum by large renal swellings:
Nature of pain
Pain localized to renal angle (posterior space between the 12th rib and the sacrospinalis muscle)
(Fig. 24.1) (e.g. acute pyelonephritis, renal tuberculosis)described by putting the hand on the waist
with his fingers on the renal angle and thumb pointing the umbilicus (Fig. 24.2)
Pain radiating to umbilicus (e.g. renal tuberculosis)
Intensity of pain
Severe (e.g. acute pyelonephritis renal stones)
Dull and persistent (e.g. polycystic disease and malignancy)
Acute obstruction of the upper ureter can give a severe colicky pain in the loin called Renal colic.
FIG. 24.1: Renal angle
FIG. 24.2: Description of renal pain
CHAPTER 24 UROLOGY
Primary treatment requires immediate urethral catheterization

When catheterization is not possible, suprapubic cystostomy is needed
Definitive treatment depends on the underlying cause.
218


Ultrasonography will show stones or proximal dilatation
IVU will show stones, or filling defects (stones, tumors) or proximal dilatations
Cystoscopy is routine
Treatment
Emergency treatment requires antispasmodics to relieve pain, antiemetics for vomiting
Definitive treatment depends on the underlying cause.
URETERIC COLIC
Caused by obstruction of the ureter commonly by a stone or a clot, and may correspond to the level of
obstruction:
Nature of pain
When the stone is lodged in the upper ureter, the pain radiates to the testicle (T11-12)
When the stone is lodged in the mid ureter, the pain may be in the McBurneys point on the right side
and simulate diverticulitis on the left side (T12-L1)
When the stone is lodged in the distal ureter, the pain resembles vesicular pain or may radiate to the
genitalia or inner side of thigh (L1-L2)
Intensity of pain
Dull pain in the side of abdomen (e.g. chronic obstruction of ureter with calculi)
Severe colicky pain(loin pain radiating to the groin, genitalia or inner thighgenitofemoral nerve)
in acute obstructions of ureter called Ureteric colic (Fig. 24.3).
Symptom
Severe pain as described above.
219
CHAPTER 24 UROLOGY
FIG. 24.3: Ureteric colic: (A) Base of penis; (B) Genitalia; (C) Inner aspect of thigh
Coagulation profile may be altered

Ultrasonography may show stones or proximal dilatations
IVU will show filling defects (stone, tumors) and proximal dilations
Cystoscopy may show stones impacted at the ureterovesical junction.
Treatment
Treatment depends on the underlying cause. Stones need to be removed by crushing or as such, by basketing
or ureterolithotomy.
ACUTE URETHRITIS
220

Acute inflammation of paraurethral glands caused usually by gonococcal infections, and rarely by
Chlamydia.
Urethritis can lead to periurethral abscesses, and healing urethritis can lead to stricture, due to scarring.
Symptoms
White urethral discharge (Fig. 24.4) with severe pain
History of extra or premarital contact is available.
Sign
Tender swelling in the periurethral area (e.g. abscess).
Isolation of organism in the discharge or urine
Urethroscopy (Fig. 24.5) is diagnostic.
Treatment
Appropriate antibiotics.
FIG. 24.4: Urethral discharge of gonococcal urethritis
FIG. 24.5: UrethroscopyAcute urethritis
ACUTE PROSTATITIS

Usually caused by infection of urinary tract by E. coli, Klebsiella or Pseudomonas

Dental and upper respiratory infections are known causes of acute prostatitis
Epididymo-orchitis may follow due to retrograde spread of infection
Untreated prostatitis may form prostatic abscess, which may rupture into rectum to form a fistula
Recurrent acute prostatitis is not uncommon
Symptom
Malaise, fever sometimes with rigor and pain in perineum, sometimes with urinary retention.
Sign
Rectal examination will show tender and swollen prostate.
Leukocytosis and pyuria may be present.
Treatment
Empirical antibiotics can be curative
Acute retention of urine due to abscess needs suprapubic cystostomy with antibiotics
Abscess requires drainage per urethra to avoid iatrogenic fistula formation.
ACUTE PROSTATIC ABSCESS

Prostatic abscess results due to untreated prostatitis
Abscess may rupture into the rectum to form a fistula.
Symptom
Malaise, fever sometimes with rigor and pain in perineum, sometimes with urinary retention.
CHAPTER 24 UROLOGY
221
222
Sign
Rectal examination will show tender and swollen prostate.
Leukocytosis and pyuria may be present
US may be conclusive.
Treatment
Empirical antibiotics
Acute retention of urine due to abscess needs suprapubic cystostomy with antibiotics
Abscess requires drainage per urethra to avoid iatrogenic fistula formation.
Male Genitalia
ACUTE SCROTAL PAIN
Definition
Acute severe pain in the scrotum.
Causes of Acute Scrotal Pain

Torsion of testis
Torsion of hydatid of Morgagni and other appendages
Epididymo-orchitis
Trauma
Inguinoscrotal hernia
Testicular tumor
Scrotal abscess
Fourniers gangrene
Pain may also be referred to the scrotum from pathologies away from the scrotum:
Ureteric colic
Leaking aortic aneurysm
Hip pathology
Intra-abdominal sepsis or free fluid (in neonates).
25
224
Symptoms
Nature of Pain

Sudden and severe (e.g. testicular torsion)

Sudden and gradual increase in intensity (e.g. obstructed inguinoscrotal hernia)
Insidious (e.g. torsion of appendages of testis/testis, epididymo-orchitis)
Constant and throbbing (e.g. epididymo-orchitis).
Location of Pain
Testis and cord (e.g. epididymo-orchitis, testicular torsion)
Scrotum (e.g. scrotal abscess, Fourniers gangrene).
Association of Vomiting
Vomiting is usually present in testicular torsion, and ureteric colic.
Association of Fever
Fever indicates infective pathology (e.g. acute epididymo-orchitis, scrotal abscess, Fourniers gangrene).
Radiation
Radiation from loin to genitalia is characteristic of ureteric colic, whereas pain of epididymo-orchitis may
spread along the cord structures in the inguinal canal.
Past History
History of pain (e.g. epididymo-orchitis, recurrent torsion, inguinoscrotal hernia)
Previous surgery (e.g. surgery for torsion on one side, recurrent inguinoscrotal hernia).
Signs
Swelling of scrotum with:
Erythema and edema (e.g. torsion of testis, acute epididymo-orchitis, scrotal abscess, strangulated
inguinoscrotal hernia)
Bluish tinge of skin (e.g. ischemia of testicular torsion)
Dark spot on the upper half of hemiscrotum (e.g. blue dot sign of torsion of testicular appendages).
On Palpation
Scrotum
Swelling separate from testis (e.g. obstructed inguinoscrotal hernia)
Tender skin (e.g. scrotal abscess, torsion of testis and its appendages).
Testis
Generalized swelling (e.g. epididymo-orchitis, torsion of testis, testicular tumor)
Tenderness (e.g. epididymo-orchitis, torsion of testis).

Acute scrotal pain, fever
Mild skin changes and
Normal lying nontender testis (e.g. scrotal cellulitis, abscess)
Normal lying and tender testis (e.g. acute epididymo-orchitis)
Gross skin changes and
Normal lying and nontender testis (e.g. Fourniers gangrene)
Acute scrotal pain, nausea and vomiting
Erythema and edema of tender skin, bell-clapper lie, enlarged and tender testis (e.g. acute torsion of
testis)
Swelling separate from normal testis (e.g. obstructed or strangulated inguinoscrotal hernia)
Colicky pain (loin to genitalia) with normal testis (e.g. ureteric colic)
Acute scrotal pain after trauma with tender +/ enlarged testis (e.g. traumatic orchitis).
Hematology
Leukocytosis in infective pathologies (e.g. acute epididymo-orchitis, Fourniers gangrene)
Raised ESR in all infective pathologies (e.g. acute epididymo-orchitis, Fourniers gangrene).
225
CHAPTER 25 MALE GENITALIA
Testis
Horizontal lie (e.g. bell-clapper testis of torsion)
Normal lie (e.g. epididymo-orchitis).
226
Radiology
Doppler ultrasonography to assess blood flow to the testis in testicular torsion.
Treatment
Infective pathologies antibiotics
Scrotal abscess incision and drainage
Torsion of testis
Viable testis: Surgery (Detorsion and fixation of testis when it is viable, with orchidopexy for the
contralateral testis)
Nonviable testis: Orchidectomy
Torsion of testicular appendages medical or surgical (excision)
Obstructed/strangulated hernia surgery
Fourniers gangrene surgery (desloughing) with broad-spectrum antibiotics
Testicular tumor high orchidectomy with chemoradiation as per stage.
TORSION OF TESTIS
Common in children between 10 to 15 years, but can also occur in adults.
Pathogenesis
The testis lies in the scrotum suspended by the cord structures, and the testicular artery is a part of it.
When the testis is twisted on the axis of the cord, the blood supply can get impaired, which may lead
to gangrene. This twist is usually away from midline corresponding to contraction of cremaster muscle
(Torsion)
Can be precipitated by horizontal lie of the testis or by the presence of a long mesentery between epididymis
and body of the testis.
Symptoms
Sudden onset of severe scrotal pain, usually following an act of physical strain
Pain in the lower abdomen and suprapubic area, may be present
There may be mild fever.
Signs
227
Doppler studies will show decreased blood flow to the affected side (in epididymo-orchitis, blood flow is
increased).
Treatment
It is a surgical emergency and no time should be wasted in treating this condition. Delayed treatment will lead
to loss of function of testis.
Surgery involves untwisting of the torsion to restore blood flow and fixing it
The opposite testis also needs fixation, to prevent similar problem occurring later
Gangrenous testis needs orchidectomy (Fig. 25.1).
Note: Even if the diagnosis is in doubt surgical exploration should be done.
FIG. 25.1: Torsion of testis (Courtesy: Dr MG Rajamanickam)
Swollen cord structures, and in the early stages, a knot can be felt in the cord structure. There may be
minimal hydrocele
If not detected early, there will be swelling of testis and it cannot be separately felt from epididymis.
TORSION OF APPENDAGES OF TESTIS
228

Defined as torsion of hydatid of Morgagni, which is attached to the anterior aspect of upper pole of testis
as a pedunculated structure
Accounts for 90 percent of cases.
Pathogenesis
Thought to be due to increased gonadotrophins during puberty which increase the size of hydatid, hence
more common in preadolescent age group
Since it is a pedunculated structure, rotation of this pedicle may compromise the blood supply and lead
to infarction.
Symptom
Pain insidious onset.
Signs

Distressed patient
Tender scrotum
Dark spot may be visible over the testis (Blue dot sign)
Normal lie of testis in the scrotum
Hydrocele may be present.
No specific investigation is required.
Treatment
Surgical exploration is required to diagnose, if confirmed the hydatid needs to be excised.
ACUTE EPIDIDYMO-ORCHITIS
Acute inflammation of testis and epididymis can be caused by:
Viral infections (e.g. mumps)
Bacterial infections (e.g. Neisseria gonorrhoeae, E. coli and Klebsiella, and Chlamydia)
Pathogenesis
Retrograde infection from prostate and seminal vesicle
Blood-borne infection from other focus
Surgery of urinary tract (TUR)
Symptom
Pain and swelling of testis.
Signs
Edema of scrotal skin, cord structures very bulky and thickened
Epididymis is very much enlarged
Testis is also enlarged and tender.
However, it is possible to make out the testis separate from epididymis whereas this is not possible in
torsion testis.

Blood count leukocytosis

Blood culture positive culture
Urine culture is routinely requested
US may be useful in assessing the increased blood flow (reduced in torsion).
Treatment
Vigorous treatment with antibiotics is necessary
If the epididymo-orchitis is not settling with one week of antibiotics then tuberculosis or even tumor
must be excluded.
229
TRAUMATIC ORCHITIS
230

It is a common condition, an aseptic inflammation caused by direct trauma, seen in sportsmen involved
in contact sports like football
Any direct trauma to the testis causes this condition.
Acute pain in the injured testis
Supporting or lifting the testis may give comfort (pain gets aggravated when it is lifted if it is due to
torsion)
Mild hydrocele may be present.
Treatment
Scrotal support and analgesics would suffice.
HEMATOCELE
Definition
Collection of blood in tunica vaginalis sac.

Occurs as a complication following:
Any direct blunt trauma to scrotum
After needle aspiration of pre-existing hydrocele.
Symptoms
May be asymptomatic and can mimic a testicular tumor
Scrotal swelling becomes heavy and causes discomfort (Fig. 25.2).
231
FIG. 25.2: Right hematocele
Signs
Hard swelling
The testis may become atrophic following long-standing pressure effect by the hematoma.
Ultrasonography (US) is useful in diagnosing hematocele and determining the size of testis.
Treatment
Drainage of hematoma and excision of hydrocele sac
Analgesics and anti-inflammatory drugs.
PYOCELE
Definition
Collection of pus in tunica vaginalis sac.
232

Can result following infection or after aspiration of hydrocele.
Symptom
Severe pain and high-grade fever.
Signs
Tenderness on pressing the swollen scrotum
Transillumination is characteristically absent.
Leukocytosis may be pronounced
Diagnostic aspiration may reveal the presence of pus.
Treatment
Needle drainage of pyocele with antibiotic may be sufficient in early stages
Open drainage and or orchidectomy may be required in delayed cases.
IDIOPATHIC SCROTAL EDEMA

More common in young and preadolescent children.
Pathogenesis
Uncertain
May be a hypersensitivity reaction resulting in angio edema of skin
May be caused by beta-hemolytic streptococci.
Symptom
Gradual or sudden onset of scrotal swelling (usually unilateral).
Signs
233
Ultrasonography (US) may be useful in identifying other scrotal pathologies.
Treatment
Scrotal support
Anti-inflammatory drugs
Antihistamines.
ACUTE SCROTAL ABSCESS


Usually, a superadded infection of fungal infections

The incriminating organisms being staphylococci
Minor trauma like bruises and scratches are known to initiate this pathology
More common in diabetics.
Symptoms
Sudden pain in the scrotum
Pyrexia.
Sign
Tender swelling of scrotum (Fig. 25.3).
Screening for diabetes mellitus is useful
Diagnostic aspiration of pus and isolation of organism is necessary.
Swollen and mildly tender scrotum

Erythema may extend to involve the perineum and inguinal regions
The lie of the testis is normal.
234
FIG. 25.3: Scrotal abscess
Treatment
Broad-spectrum antibiotics
Incision and drainage of abscess.
FOURNIERS GANGRENE
It is called a vascular disaster of infective origin
The incriminating organisms being hemolytic streptococci, staphylococci, E. coli and Cl. Welchii.
The three cardinal characteristics of Fourniers gangrene are:
i. Sudden appearance of scrotal inflammation
ii. Rapid onset of gangrene
iii. Predisposing factors
Diabetes
Local trauma
Paraphimosis
Periurethral extravasation of urine
Symptoms
Sudden pain in the scrotum
Prostration
Pallor
Pyrexia.
Signs
Swollen scrotum with necrotic skin
When cellulitis spreads and scrotal coverings slough, the testes are exposed (Fig. 25.4).
Culture of sloughed tissues or the overlying secretions is diagnostic.
Treatment
Broad-spectrum antibiotics and wide excision of slough, to stop the spread of gangrene
Raw area needs split skin grafting.
FIG. 25.4: Fourniers gangrene

(Courtesy: Dr A Chandrasekar Rao)
235
Perianal infection
Surgery (circumcision/herniorrhaphy)
Minor trauma like bruises and scratches are known to initiate this pathology.

ACUTE FILARIAL SCROTUM
236

In the tropics, the main cause of acute swelling of the scrotum is filariasis.
The scrotum may be enormously enlarged (Fig. 25.5)
The skin is red and erythematous, and tender.
Lymphorrhea may be present:

Penis may also be swollen

If untreated, may enlarge to massive proportions, a condition called elephantiasis
The skin becomes hyperkeratotic, nodular and fissured giving a pachydermous appearance
There may be associated lower limb edema.
Peripheral smear for microfilaria.
Treatment
Medical: Antifilarial treatment
Surgical: Various plastic surgical procedures are available for chronic swelling of genitalia.
FIG. 25.5: Acute filarial scrotum
FRACTURE PENIS
Occurs due to direct injury to tunica albuginea or corpora cavernosa, when the penis is in the erect state
The tear in the tunica albuginea leads to accumulation of blood outside the corpora cavernosa
Fracture can occur during:
A fall
Assault by the sexual partner
Forceful manipulation by the patient himself
Common in the young and middle age.
In about 10 percent of cases, urethral injury may be associated.
Symptoms and Signs

Erect penis becomes flaccid suddenly, followed by swelling of the penis and scrotum with bluish
discoloration (Fig. 25.6)
The patient is able to hear a click at the time of injury and hence the name fracture penis
There may be blood at the urethral meatus with difficulty in passing urine due to associated urethral
injury.
FIG. 25.6: Fracture penis (Courtesy: Dr MG Rajamanickam)
237
238
No specific investigation is necessary, however when in doubt, cavernosogram can be done. This is done by
injecting radiopaque contrast into the corpora cavernosa, to visualize the corporal anatomy.
Treatment
Immediate surgical repair to torn tunica albuginea is required to maintain erectile function
Urethral injury if present can be repaired at the sametime.
PARAPHIMOSIS
Occurs due to forceful retraction of the foreskin of pre-existing phimosis, either by manipulation or
during sexual intercourse
The fibrous band resulting from repeated infections, encircles the penis in the subcoronal area to cause
congestion of the glans penis
The patients unaware of phimosis, may develop this condition after the first sexual intercourse, usually
after marriage.
Symptoms
Mild-to-moderate pain in the glans penis
Swollen prepuce.
Sign
Retracted foreskin just above coronal sulcus is swollen and edematous (Fig. 25.7).
No specific investigation is required.
Treatment
Immediate reduction of paraphimosis
Constricting band needs to be incised, when reduction is not possible
Circumcision should be done as an elective procedure after a couple of weeks, to prevent a recurrence.
239
FIG. 25.7: Paraphimosis
PRIAPISM
In this condition, there is persistent painful erection without any sexual desire
The causes include:
Hematological disorders
Leukemia
Sickle cell disease
Thalassemia
Neurological disorders
Spinal cord lesions and trauma
Secondary malignant deposits
Drugs
Intracavernosal injection treatment with drugs (papaverine, alprostadil) for erectile dysfunction
(impotence)
Antihypertensives
Antipsychotics
Antidepressants
240
FIG. 25.8: Priapism
Anticoagulants
Recreational drugs (e.g. alcohol, cocaine)
Complications: Ischemia, thrombosis, gangrene, and impotence.
Persistent erection of penis for more than six hours accompanied by pain (Fig. 25.8).
If detumescence does not result in about 6 hours, permanent erectile failure may result due to arterial and venous
thrombosis and fibrosis of corpora.
Investigations towards the probable etiology.
Treatment
It should be treated as an emergency
The blood from the corpora cavernosa should be drained using a 18 F butterfly needle
If this fails, corporospongial shunt (anastomosing corpora cavernosa to corpus spongiosum) or cavernosasaphenous venous shunt may be required
The underlying pathology needs to be treated.
Hernias
26
COMPLICATED HERNIAS
Definition
Hernia is a protrusion of an internal part of an organ through an aperture with the enclosing membrane.
Whatever be the cause, the hernia is named conveniently based on its anatomical location (Fig. 26.1).
Groin hernia
Inguinal
Femoral
Ventral hernia
Epigastric hernia
Umbilical hernia
Paraumbilical hernia
Spigelian hernia
Incisional hernia (postoperative)
Divarication of recti
Others
Obturator hernia
Sciatic hernia
Lumbar hernia
Perineal hernia.
To understand the pathology of each hernia, it is necessary to understand the anatomy of that region.
242
FIG. 26.1: Various types of hernia
Anatomy of the Hernial Sac

The hernia sac consists of mouth, neck, body and fundus (Fig. 26.2).
The coverings of a hernia will vary according to its site, but commonly, will be skin, subcutaneous fat,
aponeurosis, muscle, endocavity fascia and endothelial lining (pleura or peritoneum)
The contents will vary depending on its location (e.g. cecum, appendix, small bowel, omentum and right
ovary in the right groin hernia, and sigmoid colon, left ovary in the left groin hernia). The contents of the
hernia are returnable into the cavity when it is uncomplicated, a property called Reducibility.
Complications
Irreducibility: When the contents cannot be returned into the cavity, it is called irreducible. This may be
due to the narrow neck of the sac (e.g. femoral, umbilical), or adhesions between the contents of the sac
(e.g. longstanding herniae)
Obstruction: When the neck of the sac is totally obstructed due to the contents of the hernia sac (e.g.
distended bowel which forms a closed loop), without vascular impedence, it is said to be obstructed
243
CHAPTER 26 HERNIAS
FIG. 26.2: Anatomy of hernia
Strangulation: The venous and lymphatic occlusion distends the bowel further secreting more fluid in the
bowel, causing further increase in the swelling. The tissues undergo ischemic necrosis called strangulation.
The tissues may slough and become permeable to bacteria and bacteremia results. It may even perforate to
cause septicemia and septic shock.
Inflammation: The sac may get inflamed if the contents of the sac like the appendix or Meckels diverticulum
is inflamed.
Symptoms

Uncomplicated hernia are asymptomatic

Pain is a symptom indicating a complication (e.g. inflammation, obstruction and strangulation)
Fever may be a symptom of inflammation
Vomiting, abdominal distension and constipation are signs of obstruction and strangulation in abdominal
hernia.
244
Signs
Irreducibility is a sign of complication
Tenderness indicates complication (e.g. obstruction, strangulation)
Signs of intestinal obstruction may indicate complications (e.g. obstruction, strangulation).
No specific investigation is required, excepting an X-ray abdomen in intestinal obstruction.
Treatment
Emergency surgery is mandatory (reduction of hernia, relieving of obstruction, and repair)
If nonviable bowel is found in the hernia sac, resection is necessary.
Gynecology
27
ACUTE TORSION OF OVARIAN CYST

It can occur at any age, may follow major physical exertion, which can initiate the torsion.
Pathogenesis
Due to the large size and vulnerability to rotate over a narrow pedicle, torsion occurs.
Symptom
Severe pain in the lower abdomen, with signs of shock.
Signs
Guarding and rigidity may be present.
A tender lump may be palpable, whose lower border cannot be made out.
Ultrasonography (US) and Computed tomography (CT) or Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of abdomen
(Fig. 27.1) are diagnostic.
246
FIG. 27.1: MRITorsion of ovarian cyst
FIG. 27.2: Torsion of ovarian cyst
Treatment
Emergency laparotomy (Fig. 27.2) is needed. The cyst should be removed.
ACUTE SALPINGITIS
A disease of the sexually active female, sometimes after sexually transmitted diseases, can confuse with
acute appendicitis
Usually associated with menstrual period, abortion or puerperium
Common infective agents are N. gonorrhoeae, coliforms and chlamydiae.
Pathogenesis
Infective organism gains entry through the vagina to infect the salpinx.
Symptoms
Suprapubic pain, with or without white discharge per vagina (leukorrhea).
247
Signs
Acute appendicitis is to be thought of in right sided salpingitis.
Ultrasonography (US) is useful in diagnosing mass of the right ovary and the bulky uterus.
Treatment
Treatment with antibiotics.
RUPTURE OF LUTEIN CYST

A common condition in young females.
Acute abdominal pain associated with vomiting (right sided pathology may be confused with acute
appendicitis)
On examination:
A firm mass may be felt adjacent to the midline or in one of the iliac fossae
Guarding and rigidity may be present
Vaginal examination may reveal a tender mass.
Ultrasonography (US) of the abdomen is diagnostic.
Treatment
Emergency surgical intervention is mandatory.
CHAPTER 27 GYNECOLOGY
Localized hypogastric tenderness

Vaginal examination may reveal tender cervix and a bulky uterus.
Pediatrics
28
ACUTE INTUSSUSCEPTION
Two per 1000 infants are affected with male preponderance, commonly affecting the age group of 2
months to 2 years
Commonly, it is secondary to an enlarged Peyers patch due to viral or bacterial infections (Fig. 21.39)
The other less common causes are:
Meckels diverticulum
Duplication cyst in the bowel wall
Polyp.
Pathogenesis
Intussusception is the invagination of a segment of bowel into the distal adjacent loop (proximal into the
distal)
When the mesentery is drawn between the loops, it may result in vascular compromise, which may lead to
strangulation, gangrene and perforation.
Symptoms
In children, there may a history of preceding gastroenteritis following a change in diet (weaning from milk
to solid food)
Severe acute colicky pain, with abdominal distension

Passing of frequent semisolid stools with bright red blood may be predominant (red recurrant jelly).
249
During the attacks of pain, a sausage shaped mass may be felt, which appears during the time of colic and
disappears after the colic disappears. The right iliac fossa is emptySign de Dance
Rectal examination may reveal bloodstain on the examining finger (red-currant jelly)
Colorectal intussusception may be felt by the examining finger on rectal examination, or it may even
present through anus, resembling a rectal prolapse.
Plain X-ray abdomen: Soft tissue shadow in the region of transverse colon with empty distal colon.
Multiple air fluid levels may be seen when obstruction predominates
Barium enema may show a filling defect called pincer shaped filling defect (caused by the intussusceptum
with the intussuscipient)
Colonoscopy can identify, colonic intussusceptions
US and CT (Fig. 28.1) will reveal the intussuscepting mass (pseudokidney appearance).
Treatment
Resuscitation
Hydrostatic or pneumatic radiological reduction
FIG. 28.1: CTIntussusception
CHAPTER 28 PEDIATRICS
Signs
250
Barium enema and colonoscopy, by themselves may reduce the colonic intussusception
Laparotomy is required to reduce the small bowel intussusception, and treat the cause appropriately
Bowel resections may be needed if the bowel segment is strangulated, and nonviable
CONGENITAL PYLORIC STENOSIS

Four in 4000, with male predominance, most common in first born child.
Pathogenesis
Congenital inherited condition resulting in hypertrophy of the circular muscle fibers of pylorus.
Symptoms
Nonbilious projectile vomiting
Failure to thrive despite hunger.
Signs
Visible gastric peristalsis
Palpable mass in abdomen deep to right rectus in the transpyloric plane.
Serum electrolytes to be checked
US is diagnostic.
Treatment
Resuscitation
Pyloromyotomy when the child is stable.
NECROTIZING ENTEROCOLITIS
Common in newborns.
251
Pathogenesis
Symptoms
Fever
Bilious vomiting
Bloody diarrhea
Abdominal distension.
Signs
Abdominal distension
Absence of bowel sounds (may indicate perforation and peritonitis).
Leukocytosis
Abdominal X-ray may show thickened dilated bowel wall containing intramural gas.
Treatment
Fluid resuscitation
Surgical resection of necrotic bowel may be needed.
TRACHEOESOPHAGEAL FISTULA
This fistulous communication can occur in newborn infants.
Pathogenesis
It is a developmental abnormality.
CHAPTER 28 PEDIATRICS
Thought to be due to ischemia of large bowel wall with translocation of luminal bacteria resulting in systemic
sepsis.
252
FIG. 28.2: Barium swallowTracheoesophageal fistula
Symptoms
Cough and fever - due to the entry of swallowed food into the respiratory tract.
Signs
Rales and rhonchi.
Barium swallow (Fig. 28.2) allows the contrast to enter the trachea and bronchi, and is diagnostic.
Treatment
Surgical closure of a congenital fistula is usually successful
Malignant fistulae are difficult to handle and death becomes inevitable due to pulmonary infection.
Lymphatic System
29
ACUTE LYMPHANGITIS
In the tropics, the main causes are:
Filariasis
Tuberculosis.
Swelling of the limbs and genitalia associated with fever and rigor
On examination, the limbs are swollen and erythematous with weeping eruptions (Fig. 29.1)
Secondary infections can lead to localized patchy gangrene (Fig. 29.2).
FIG. 29.1: Acute lymphangitis
FIG. 29.2: Gangrenous patches in acute lymphangitis
254
Peripheral smear for microfilaria.
Treatment
Antifilarial treatment and compression bandages.
ACUTE VIRAL AND BACTERIAL LYMPHADENITIS


Caused by viruses (commonly rhinovirus), bacteria

Bacterial infections are secondary to oral cavity infections
Infections may result into abscesses
Common in the neck.
Symptoms
Painful swelling (commonly in the neck, rarely in the axilla and inguinal region)
Fever may be present.
Signs
Single or multiple tender soft to firm swellings with signs of inflammation on the skin (Figs 29.3 and 29.4)
Examination of the drainage area is essential to assess the primary cause e.g. acute pharyngitis or dental
infections causing secondary enlargements of neck glands.
FIG. 29.3: Acute viral lymphadenitis of neck
FIG. 29.4: Acute bacterial lymphadenitis of neck
255
No specific investigation is required in short lived cases

Biopsy may be needed to differentiate persistent swellings from other causes
Diagnostic aspiration is useful in abscesses.
CHAPTER 29 LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Treatment
No treatment is required for short lived cases (viral) as they resolve spontaneously
Bacterial lymphadenitis requires broad spectrum antibiotics
Incision and drainage for abscesses.
ACUTE FILARIAL LYMPHANGITIS

AND LYMPHADENITIS
Caused by thread like, parasitic filarial worms Wuchereria bancrofti or Brugia malayi
Worms lodge in the lymphatic system, and live for 4 to 6 years producing millions of immature microfilariae
that circulate in the blood
Transmitted by mosquitoes Culex fatigans (develop and reach the infective stage in 7 to 21 days and
migrate to biting mouth parts)
Causes severe inflammation of the lymphatics and they settle down in the lymph nodes, commonly in the
inguinal group.
Symptoms
High-grade fever with rigor
Swelling of the lower limbs and groin swellings.
Signs
Inguinal lymphadenopathy (Fig. 29.5)
Presentation with swelling of scrotum (hydrocele) (Fig. 29.6) is common.
Demonstration of microfilaria in the peripheral blood smear (Fig. 29.7) is diagnostic.
256
FIG. 29.5: Acute right inguinal lymphadenitis
FIG. 29.6: Filarial hydrocele left side
FIG. 29.7: Microscopy - Wuchereria bancrofti
Treatment
Medical
Antifilarial drugs like Diethyl carbamazine citrate (DEC) for longer periods of time is useful to control
the attacks of fever
Antibiotics are useful in controlling secondary infection in acute lymphadenitis
Compression bandages are useful in the management of pitting edema.
Surgical
Surgery is required for conditions like hydrocele
Scrotoplasty is performed for filarial scrotums which are grossly swollen
Procedures to divert lymph into the circulation (e.g. nodo-venous shunt) are performed for chronic
non-pitting lymphedema of lower limbs.
30
Skin and Subcutaneous Tissues
HEMATOMA
Injury to the skin and subcutaneous tissue can damage the capillaries in that region, and blood can collect in
the intradermal or subcutaneous plane.
Symptom
Painful swelling.
Sign
Irregular bluish patch, rarely raised above the surface of skin (Fig. 30.1), with history of trauma.
Coagulation profile may be needed for recurrent attacks.
Treatment
Many of them resolve on their own
Thrombolytic creams are helpful.
258
FIG. 30.1: Hematoma of medial aspect of thigh
ERYSIPELAS
This is spreading cuticular lymphangitis of the skin following trauma and infection by Streptococcus pyogenes.
Symptoms
Starts as a rose rash, followed by vesicular eruptions (Fig. 30.2)
When this occurs in regions where loose areolar tissue is found, it resembles cellulitis
The differentiating features of erysipelas and cellulitis are given in Table 30.1.
Table 30.1: Differentiating features of erysipelas and cellulitis

Feature
Erysipelas
Cellulitis
Rose rash
Disappears on pressure
Does not disappear on pressure
Better felt than seen
Better seen than felt
Contain serous fluid
Contain pus
Vesicles
Note: In the face, erysipelas does not involve the pinna whereas cellulitis involves the pinna of the ear.
259
Investigations
Isolation of the organism in culture.
Treatment
Appropriate antibiotics cure the lesion.
FURUNCLE
Infection of the hair follicle by Staphylococcus aureus
Furuncle may be a source of systemic sepsis, in diabetics
Cavernous sinus thrombosis is rare but a serious complication of furuncle on the face above the line
drawn from the angle of the mouth to the tragus of the ear.
Symptom
A painful swelling at the hair root (Fig. 30.3).
CHAPTER 30 SKIN AND SUBCUTANEOUS TISSUES
FIG. 30.2: Erysipelas
260
FIG. 30.3: Furuncle
Signs
Indurated swelling containing pus in due course
Draining lymph nodes may be involved
Cellulitis is seen in immunocompromised individuals and diabetics.
Culture of the pus and identifying the incriminating organism is necessary.
Treatment
The abscess may burst spontaneously
Some may need surgical drainage.
CELLULITIS
Spreading inflammation of the subcutaneous and fascial tissues
Commonly due to Streptococcus pyogenes
Diabetics are mostly affected.
Pathogenesis
Organism gains entry through the broken skin due to trauma, and infection spreads along the subcutaneous
tissue planes.
261
Symptoms
Affected part appears grossly swollen, painful and red (Fig. 30.4)
Constitutional symptoms like fever and toxemia are common.
Signs
It is very tender
The lymphatics may appear inflamed and appear as red streaks and lymph nodes may be enlarged and
tender
Abscesses may form in the subcutaneous plane and skin may undergo avascular necrosis and become
gangrenous.
Organisms should be isolated for culture from discharge if any.
Treatment
Appropriate antibiotics are necessary to control infection.
ACUTE PYOGENIC ABSCESS

Abscess is defined as collection of pus
Incomplete resolution of cellulitis and lymphadenitis are the causes
When this occurs as a part of pyemia, they are multiple in number.
FIG. 30.4: Cellulitis foot
262
FIG. 30.5: Acute abscess leg
Symptoms
A painful swelling (Fig. 30.5)
Constitutional symptoms like fever, rigor and toxemia will be predominant.
Sign
Tender swelling, may show fluctuation, if the pus is liquid.
No special investigation is required, if it is solitary
Isolation of organism in blood by culture if suspected to be part of pyemia
Diagnostic aspiration may be helpful in localizing deep seated abscess.
Treatment
Incision and drainage of pus will be curative under cover of appropriate antibiotics.
CARBUNCLE
An infective gangrene of subcutaneous tissue
Caused by Staphylococcus aureus
Commonly seen in diabetics.
263
Symptom
Commences as a painful swelling with marked induration.
Signs
The skin becomes red and edematous, with the appearance of pustules on it. They burst to form multiple
discharging sinuses like a sieve (Fig. 30.6), a characteristic feature of carbuncle
The slough may involve the deeper structures.
Isolation of organism in pus by culture
Determination of blood sugar levels is mandatory.
Treatment
Control of diabetes is necessary
Drainage of pus and excision of slough under cover of appropriate antibiotics is curative.
BURNS
Definition
Burns is defined as the damage to the skin by coagulation necrosis caused by heat, cold, electricity, radiation
and chemicals.
FIG. 30.6: Carbuncle nape of neck
264
Pathogenesis
Thermal burns: Heat denatures cellular proteins by coagulation necrosis. The damage is directly related to
the intensity of heat and the duration of contact of the incriminating agent. Usually the damage is partial
thickness or full thickness
Electrical burns: Electricity (high and low voltage) causes deep tissue destruction both at the point of
entry and at the point of exit. Muscle tissue destruction is an integral part but it cannot be assessed
accurately in the initial stages
Radiation burns: Radiation causes full thickness dermal injury due to the deep penetration of ionizing
radiation
Chemical burns: Chemicals cause cell necrosis and the damage depends on the concentration of the
chemical and the duration of contact with the skin. The damage ceases only when the agent is chemically
expended, and majority of the times the damage is full thickness.
Clinical Features
The burn wounds are classified into four degrees based on the clinical features (Table 30.2). The clinical
photographs are shown in Figures 30.7 to 30.17.
Table 30.2: Classification of burn wounds and their clinical features
Degree of burn
Layer of skin involved
Tests
Pain
Color
Blisters
Touch
Pressure
Capillary
filling
Severe
Erythema
Absent
Present
Present
Present
First degree
(superficial)
Epidermis
Second degree
(partial thickness)
Superficial (superficial Severe

dermis)
Er y thema/ Present
pallor
Present
Present
Present
Deep (deep reticular

dermis)
Moderate
Pallor
Usually
absent
Absent
Present
Present
Absent
Pallor
Absent
Absent
Absent
Absent
Skin and subcutaneous Absent

structures
Pallor
Absent
Absent
Absent
Absent
Third degree burn Epidermis and dermis

(full thickness)
Fourth degree
burns
Note: In any patient of burn injury, a combination of degrees occurs. This is important while treating a patient of burns, and
repeated assessment and scrutiny of the wounds is necessary.
265
FIG. 30.9: Superficial partial thickness burns
FIG. 30.11: Mixed second and third degree burns
FIG. 30.8: Superficial partial thickness burns
FIG. 30.10: Second degree burns with blister formation
FIG. 30.12: Deep partial thickness burns (third degree)
FIG. 30.7: Superficial burns
266
FIG. 30.13: Deep burns of the forearm
FIG. 30.14: Acid burns of the face
FIG. 30.15: Chemical (tar) burns

Thermal contact
FIG. 30.16: Electrical burns
FIG. 30.17: Thermal burns caused by hyperthermic

reaction of plaster of Paris
Table 30.3: Burns based on its etiology

Agent
Exposure time
Depth of burns
Appearance
Pain
Hot liquids
Short exposure
Superficial dermal
Wet, pink, blisters
Severe
Long exposure
Deep dermal
Wet, red, dark
Minimal
Flash exposure
Partial thickness
Wet pink blisters
Severe
Direct contact
Full thickness
Dry, white, waxy or brown, black leathery
Minimal
Direct contact
Full thickness
Light brown to light gray
Severe
Flame
Chemicals
Metabolic Effects of Burns

Burn injuries cause severe damage to the body structures and its metabolism. They are shown in Tables 30.4
and 30.5.
Table 30.4: Metabolic disturbances associated with burns (general effects)
Period
Late
General effects
Immediate
Category
Clinical condition
Reason
Hypovolemic shock
Extracellular accumulation of
water and excessive evaporation
from burnt area
Tachycardia, tachypnea,
hypotension, prerenal uremia,
oliguria
Hemoconcentration
Loss of water and plasma from

burnt area
Dehydration
Excessive evaporation of water

from burnt area
Electrolyte imbalance
Retention of sodium and excessive Altered sensorium, uremia, oliguria

excretion of potassium
Asphyxia and cyanosis
Due to burn of respiratory

passages
Difficulty in breathing
Septicemia
(multiorgan failure)
Systemic spread of infection
High grade fever, tachycardia,

tachypnea, hypotension oliguria,
death
Acute renal failure
Fluid loss and electrolyte

imbalance
Altered sensorium, uremia, oliguria

or anuria
Stress ulcers
Reason not known
Hematemesis and melena
Tachycardia, tachypnea,
hypotension, prerenal uremia
oliguria
The depth of burns varies depending on the incriminating agent and its duration of contact with the skin 267
(Table 30.3).
Table 30.5: Metabolic disturbances associated with burns (late effects)

Period
Late
Immediate
Category
Local effects
268
Clinical condition
Reason
Tissue damage
Direct injury of cells
Extensive wounds
Edema
Excessive accumulation of fluid in

the extracellular spaces
Swollen areas surrounding or below

the burnt areas
Water and electrolyte

loss
Excessive loss from the burnt area

from large wounds
Large dry wounds
Local sepsis
Bacterial growth on the burnt

area
Purulent discharge or slough

formation, fever with rigors
Delayed healing
Inadequate and improper

treatment, diabetes mellitus
Chronic wound with unhealthy

granulation (Fig. 30.18A)
Keloid formation
Severe scarring
Elevated thick irregular skin lesion

(Fig. 30.18B)
Marjolins ulcer
Low grade epidermoid carcinoma

arising from the epithelium
covering the scar tissue after
burns
A very slow growing painless ulcer,

on the scar without lymphatic
spread, resembling squamous cell
carcinoma, but the edge is not
raised and floor does not contain
florid granulation tissue
(Fig. 30.19)
Contractures
Fibrosis of burnt areas around

neck, joints
Contracted areas with restricted

mobility (Fig. 30.20)
Disability
Pain and restricted mobility due

to contractures
Extensive fibrotic tissues resulting

in debility (Figs 30.21A to D)
Strictures of tubular
organs
Annular healing by fibrosis of

tubular structures
Dysphagia, if esophagus is involved

and dyspnea, if trachea is involved
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
Clinical examination of a patient of burns should be done quickly but in detail.
Preliminaries Before Examination

The patient should be weighed using a trolley weighing machine (determination of weight is necessary to
calculate the fluid requirement)
The patient should be sedated well after ensuring the airway patency, and if required intubated
The patient should be completely undressed.
Two intravenous portals should be established for fluid resuscitation and medication.
269
FIG. 30.18B: Keloid formation after burns

(Courtesy: Dr K Sridhar)
FIG. 30.19: Marjolins ulcer chest wall

(Courtesy: Dr R Rajaraman)
FIG. 30.20: Postburn contracture of neck

FIG. 30.18A: Infected burns wound
270
FIG. 30.21A: Postburn contractures

FIG. 30.21B: Postburn scarring resulting in

syndactyly (Courtesy: Dr K Sridhar)
FIG. 30.21C: Postburns scarring resulting

in disability (Courtesy: Dr K Sridhar)
FIG. 30.21D: Postburns contracture of

axillary fold (Courtesy: Dr K Sridhar)
INSPECTION
The patient should be examined head to foot, with special attention to the areas like the axillae, groins and the
perineum. The extent of damage both by area and depth should be assessed quickly and precisely, as this helps
in the determination of fluid replacement.
I. Extent of area of burns: This is calculated in two ways:
i. For small, multiple and scattered areas: Rule of hand is used; determination of surface area of burns,
using the patients own hand (with adducted fingers), which is equal to 1 percent
ii. For large areas: Wallaces rule of nine is used (Fig. 30.22A). For children, the rule is modified
(Fig. 30.22B), as the surface of area of the head is bigger relative to the other parts of the body.
FIG. 30.22A: Wallaces rule

of nine for adults
FIG. 30.22B: Modified rule of nine for children
271
Circumferential burn injuries (around the chest and limbs) especially for the third degree burns, escharotomy
will have to be performed or otherwise, respiratory embarrassment and ischemic necrosis of limbs may occur.
272 II. Depth of tissue damage: This can be done by inspecting the burnt area, and reasonable conclusions may be
reached.
It should be remembered that various degrees of tissue damage coexist in the same patient.
Cutaneous sensation is tested by pricking the burnt area (sterile needle test) with a sterile needle. Presence
of sensation is diagnostic of partial thickness burns, but it is not pathognomonic.
Plucking the hair from the burnt area can show the depth. In full thickness burns, the hair can be plucked
easily, whereas in partial thickness burns it is not.

General Examination
Examination of sensorium: Usually the sensorium remains normal and not willing to answer may
indicate a psychiatric problem (e.g. depression or withdrawal). Inability to answer may indicate state of
unconsciousness or altered sensorium (e.g. shock, hyponatremia, uremia)
Examination of face:
Eyes: Sunken eyes indicate dehydration and undernutrition. Examination of conjunctivae will reveal
anemia.
Hairy areas: Surging of hair in eyebrow, moustache or over forehead will indicate respiratory burns
Examination of skin: The skin should be examined for dehydration and undernutrition. Generalized
edema may be seen in severely burnt patients.
Examination of tongue: Dry tongue indicates dehydration
Recording of vital signs: Tachycardia may indicate infection or hypovolemia. Elevated temperature may
indicate associated infections and toxemia (usually seen in the second week). Hyperventilation may
indicate hydration, hypovolemia and is predominant in respiratory burns. Hypotension may indicate
hypovolemia.
Examination of oral cavity: A systematic examination of oral cavity is essential (e.g. chemical burns, burns
due to inhalation of gases)
Examination of chest: AuscultationAdventitious sounds may indicate aspiration pneumonitis or
respiratory infections.
Hematology
Hemoglobin for anemia
Total and differential leukocyte count, e.g. infections
273
ESR may be raised in infections and malignancies
Note: Hemoglobin levels initially remain normal due to hemoconcentration and serial determinations
are necessary on subsequent days.
Biochemistry
Blood sugar: Required especially in diabetics. Repeated determination is required in patients on
hyperalimentation
Liver function tests: Reduced levels of serum proteins indicate loss of proteins through burn wound
and will help in the replacement with blood or plasma
Renal function tests: Uremia and creatininemia indicate deranged renal status due to dehydration and
hypovolemia
Serum electrolytes: Determination of serum levels of electrolytes is important in the management of
burns, as electrolyte disturbances are commonly found in burns, due to evaporation during injury and
later through wound.
Blood grouping and crossmatching: It is important as the requirement of blood may be immediate.
Radiology
Chest X-ray is useful (e.g. aspiration pneumonitis, inhalation injuries of lungs)
Contrast studies
Barium swallow may be required at later stages to rule out esophageal strictures
Bronchogram also may be required to rule out strictures of tracheobronchial tree.
Endoscopy
Esophagoscopy and bronchoscopy may be required in some cases to assess the esophageal and
bronchial injuries respectively, especially when injuries occur due to inhalation of toxic fumes
Gastroscopy may be needed to diagnose stress ulcers of stomach.
Electrocardiogram (ECG): To rule out disturbances of heart especially in electrical burns, and may have to
be repeated frequently.

Treatment
Resuscitation
Basic principles of the burns victim are the same as for any other patient.
Problems are specifically related to thermal injuries to airways, large fluid losses and potential for infection:
Cover burn areas with sterile drapes or plastic film to reduce infection and fluid loss
Give humidified oxygen by mask
Endotracheal intubation is required for airway injuries
Monitor hematocrit and electrolytes
Blood may be required to maintain hematocrit
274
Good IV access is needed for fluid administration

IV analgesia
IV fluids
Examples of fluid regimens for resuscitation of burn victims
Mount Vernon formula
Parkland formula
4.5% albumin
Ringer lactate
Volume (ml) = 0.5 wt (kg) % burn
Volume (ml) = 4 wt (kg) % burn
Over six consecutive periods of 4, 4, 4, 6, 6, and 12 hours each
Given over 24 hours
NECROTIZING FASCIITIS
A rapidly spreading soft tissue infection, which can affect any part of the body
It follows, usually a minor trauma but the exact etiology is not fully understood
Causative organismsMixture of gram-negative and anaerobic organisms (bacteroides and Clostridium
sp. anaerobic streptococci) and/or group A streptococcus.
Pathogenesis
The infection spreads along the fascial planes causing necrosis of skin and subcutaneous tissues. Muscle layers
are usually spared. The infection may spread rapidly and can be fatal in few hours.
Symptom
Painful discolored area.
Sign
The affected area is discolored and indurated.
Isolation of organism in pus by culture
Determination of blood sugar levels is mandatory.
Treatment
Control of diabetes is necessary
Emergency excision of slough and necrotic tissue under cover of appropriate antibiotics is curative.
Section VI
Special Procedures and

Situations
31. Emergency Surgical Procedures
Passing a Nasogastric Tube

Peritoneal Tap
Pericardial Aspiration
Intubation of Trachea
Percutaneous Tracheostomy
32. Preparing the Patient for

Emergency Surgery
Cricothyroidotomy/
Minitracheostomy
Insertion of Chest Drains
34. Death
33. Antibiotics
Antibiotics and Emergency Surgery
31
Emergency Surgical Procedures
PERICARDIAL ASPIRATION
Pericardial aspiration (Pericardiocentesis) is indicated in:
Cardiac tamponade
Large pericardial effusion
For diagnostic pericardial fluid.
Materials Required
Sterile gowns and gloves
10 ml syringe with needle
Pericardial aspiration kit
Sutures
Securing tapes.
Procedure

Position: Supine with 20 degrees head-up

Establish IV access
Adequate sedation
With full aseptic technique, infiltrate the point of needle entry (just below and left of xiphisternum,
between the xiphisternum and left costal margin)
Introduce the needle directed to the left shoulder, and keep aspirating (Fig. 31.1)
SECTION VI SPECIAL PROCEDURES AND SITUATIONS
278
FIG. 31.1: Pericardial aspiration
Once a straw colored fluid is drawn, keep the needle in that position, pass the guidewire and withdraw the
needle
Pass the catheter over the guidewire into the pericardial space and attach a 3-way tap
Using a 50 ml syringe, aspirate the effusion or attach to a closed drainage system
Suture the drain in place and strap.
Complications
Pneumothorax
Ventricular tachycardia
Myocardial puncture
Damage to coronary arteries.
Small pericardial effusions not causing hemodynamic instability do not require pericardiocentesis
Repeat chest X-ray and ECG
INTUBATION OF TRACHEA
Materials Required
Self-inflating bags (Ambu bag)
Face mask
Oral/nasal airways
Suction apparatus and suction catheters
Laryngoscopes
Endotracheal tubes (or various sizes)
Sterile lubricant
Syringe
Anesthetic drugs/muscle relaxants
Emergency drugs (atropine, adrenaline).
Procedure
Oxygenate the patient well with 100 percent oxygen for about 3 to 4 minutes, which will wash out the
nitrogen and fill the functional residual capacity with oxygen, thereby increasing the safety margin
Keep the head in position (neck flexed, atlantoaxial joint extended on a firm pillow sniffing the morning
air position)
Give sedative/muscle relaxant as appropriate
Hold the laryngoscope in the left hand and insert the blade into the right of the mouth sweeping the
tongue under it. As the blade reaches the base of the tongue, the epiglottis is seen. Apply traction to gently
draw the epiglottis forward exposing the V-shaped glottis behind
Pass the endotracheal tube between the vocal cords so that cuff is distal to them
Withdraw the laryngoscope gently
Inflate the cuff of the endotracheal tube with air so that the tube snugly fits into the trachea
Check the position of tube by auscultation and by observing the chest movements.
CHAPTER 31 EMERGENCY SURGICAL PROCEDURES
Though this procedure is performed by the anesthetists it is better for the surgeons and surgical students to
know, as this pertains to life-saving situation. They fall into three groups for which it is required.
Relieving airway obstruction (e.g. tumors, head and neck trauma, surgery, airway edema)
Protection of airway from aspiration (e.g. obtunded conscious level, impaired cough impulses)
Facilitation of ventilation of airways (e.g. anesthesia and surgery, multiple organ failure, major trauma
and brain injury).
279
280
Complication of Endotracheal Intubation

Immediate

Hypoxia (due to repeated attempts)

Misplacement of tube
Obstruction of airway
Trauma to airway, teeth.
Late

Accidental displacement of tube

Ventilator associated pneumonia
Injury to vocal cords
Tracheal stenosis.
Tracheal intubation is to done only if the student is familiar with this and has done with a senior in the past.
PERCUTANEOUS TRACHEOSTOMY
Conventional tracheostomy was performed only after patients had been intubated for about 10 14 days for
fear of laryngeal and subglottic injury. Percutaneous tracheostomy has come into practice as the benefits are
many.
Advantages of Tracheostomy

More comfortable than the oro/nasotracheal tubes

Need for muscle relaxants is less
Switching from IPPV to T piece is easy without extubation
Effective endotracheal suction can be done
Speech is possible with cuff deflation or speaking tube.
Indications
Actual or impending airway obstruction
Difficult intubation
Need for prolonged ventilator support.
281
Contraindications
Materials Needed for Percutaneous Tracheostomy

Skin disinfectant
Local anesthetic
Syringe
10 ml normal saline
Basic surgical instruments
Suture
Securing tapes
Emergency drugs
Percutaneous tracheostomy kit (Fig. 31.2).
Procedure
Position: supine with neck extended over a pillow
Palpate the cricothyroid membrane and sternal notch
FIG. 31.2: Percutaneous tracheostomy kit
Distorted/abnormal anatomy
Significant hemodynamic instability.
282
Infiltrate with local anesthetic

Make a 2 cm transverse incision over the membrane at the midline
Puncture the trachea (between the first and third tracheal rings) with the introducer needle
Confirm its position with a syringe aspiration (air/mucus)
Pass the guidewire through the needle and remove the needle
Dilate the trachea
Insert the endotracheal tube
Remove the guidewire
Suck out all the secretions and blood clots in the trachea
Inflate the cuff
Place two stay sutures through the wings of tracheostomy tube, to prevent slippage, and secure with tapes
Check the position of the tracheostomy tube (symmetrical chest expansion, X-ray).
Complications
Early
Bleeding
Tube misplacement
Mucus plugging
Late
Tracheal stenosis
Tracheoesophageal fistula.
CRICOTHYROIDOTOMY/MINITRACHEOSTOMY
Cricothyroidotomy is an emergency procedure to access the airway, when measures like intubation have failed.
It involves the insertion of a small tube through the cricothyroid membrane for attaching to the ventilator.
Minitracheostomy involved the use of a small bored and noncuffed bore, with an internal diameter of
4 mm. Kits are available for both procedures.
Indications
Cannot intubate
Cannot ventilate
Severe midfacial trauma
Cervical spine injuries

Chemical inhalation injuries.
283
Inability to identify landmarks (cricothyroid membrane)

Underlying anatomical abnormality (tumor)
Acute laryngeal disease
Tracheal transection
Small children.
Materials Required
Skin disinfectant
Sterile drape
Syringe with local anesthetic
Cricothyroidotomy (Fig. 31.3)/Minitracheostomy kit
Suture
Securing tapes.
FIG. 31.3: Cricothyroidotomy kit
Contraindications
284
Procedure

Palpate the cricothyroid membrane

Clean the skin
Infiltrate over the cricothyroid membrane
Make a skin incision
Introduce needle into trachea and aspirate air
Pass guidewire and remove needle
Pass the introducer over the guidewire and slide the cricothyroidotomy/minitracheostomy tube off the
introducer
Remove the introducer and guidewire together, leaving the tube in situ
Suck any blood or mucus
Place two stay sutures through the wings of tracheostomy tube, to prevent slippage, and secure with tapes
Check the position of the tracheostomy tube (symmetrical chest expansion, X-ray).
Complications
Early
Bleeding
Tube misplacement
Mucus plugging
Late
Tracheal stenosis
Tracheoesophageal fistula.
INSERTION OF CHEST DRAINS

Insertion of a chest drain is required as an emergency treatment of life-threatening tension pneumothorax.
A large bore tube preferably a 14-gauge cannula is used for this purpose.
Indications
Draining of:
Pneumothorax
Hemothorax
Pleural effusion
285
Empyema
Chylothorax.
Chest drains are of two types:

1. Large bore tubes
2. Seldinger drains.
Site of Drain
This is partly decided by the position of the collection clinically and radiographically.
For draining the pneumothorax, the tube is placed in the 2nd intercostal space in the midclavicular line
(Fig. 31.4).
For draining the fluid collections, the tube is placed in the 5th intercostals space just anterior to the
midaxillary line (Fig. 31.4).
FIG. 31.4: Placing the chest drains
Type of Drain
286
Materials Required
Skin disinfectant
Skin drapes
Syringe
Local anesthetic
Basic instruments
Chest drain
Silk sutures
Adhesive tapes
Underwater seal.
Procedures
Through Thoracostomy (Figs 31.5A to F)

Position: supine with arm lifted, with a pillow behind the back
Clean the field with sterile preparation
Infiltrate the local anesthetic at the chosen site
Make a small skin incision
The intercostal muscles and the pleura are dissected out and plunged with artery forceps
The chest drain is inserted into the pleural cavity
The drain is connected to the underwater drain (Fig. 31.6)
The drain is secured with sutures to the skin
Adhesive strapping is done
Order for a X-ray and the position checked.
Seldinger Technique

Position: supine with arm lifted, with a pillow behind the back
Clean the field with sterile preparation
Infiltrate the local anesthetic at the chosen site
Use the chest drain kit (Fig. 31.7)
Advance the needle through chest until blood/fluid/air is aspirated
Pass chest tube/pigtail catheter over guidewire
Attach to the underwater seal
Secure well and dress.
287
FIGS 31.5A to F: Method of placing the chest drain
Never clamp the chest drain, as clamping may produce a tension pneumothorax
While shifting the patient, the underwater drain should be kept below the level of chest
PASSING A NASOGASTRIC TUBE

Nasogastric tube is generally used to decompress the stomach and also for feeding.
Indications
To deflate the stomach
To aspirate gastric contents
To provide enteral nutrition.
288
FIG. 31.6: Three chamber underwater drain
FIG. 31.7: Seldinger chest drain kit
Contraindications
289
Materials Required

Gloves and mask

Nasogastric tube
Lubricating jelly
Laryngoscope (needed for unconscious patients).
Procedure (Fig. 31.8)

Position: supine and head neutral or semirecumbent

Lubricate the nasogastric (NG) tube well
Keeping in alignment with the long axis of the patient, introduce the tube into the nostril
If the patient is cooperative, ask him to swallow
The tube generally flows down along with the swallowing movement
Confirm the tip of NG tube in the stomach by auscultation or aspiration of contents
Secure NG tube in position with adhesive tape.
PERITONEAL TAP
Peritoneal tap is required to obtain samples for diagnostic purposes and also relieve the tension of a tense
ascites.
Materials Required
Skin disinfectant
Sterile drapes
10 ml syringe with local anesthetic
Pig tail drain
Sutures
Adhesive strapping
Ultrasound.
Severe coagulopathy.
290
FIG. 31.8: Nasogastric tube insertion
291
Procedure

Clean the skin with disinfectant

Confirm the presence of fluid by percussion or by ultrasound
At the chosen site, inject the local anesthetic
Introduce the syringe and aspirate fluid to confirm its presence (Fig. 31.9)
Introduce pig tail drain using Seldinger technique
Connect the drain to collecting bottle
Strap the drain.
FIG. 31.9: Peritoneal tap
Preparing the Patient

for Emergency Surgery
32
Any patient for surgery needs optimization, especially so the patients for emergency surgery, as the parameters
are never normal. This optimization becomes necessary to reduce the perioperative complications. The
optimization requires:
Fluid and electrolyte corrections
Correction of hematological and metabolic disturbances.
General Measures

Nil by mouth
Good intravenous access
Appropriate intravenous fluid replacement
Appropriate antibiotics
Adequate analgesia
Measures for DVT prophylaxis
NG tube insertion where stomach needs to be decompressed
Urinary catheterization
Central venous line access
Informed consent.
Investigations Support
Complete blood count (CBC)
Urea and electrolytes
Electrocardiogram (ECG) and Chest X-ray (CXR).
Situations which Need Special Attention
293
Uncontrolled glycemic status

Ketoacidosis
Cardiovascular complications
Altered conscious level
Jaundiced patient with coagulation abnormalities
Patient on steroids
Patient on anticoagulants.
CHAPTER 32 PREPARING THE PATIENT FOR EMERGENCY SURGERY
Antibiotics
33
ANTIBIOTICS AND EMERGENCY SURGERY

Antibiotics become necessary to prevent an infection or control an infection. Prevention becomes necessary
so that sepsis related complications, which carry high morbidity and mortality are averted.
Prophylactic antibiotics are administered within 1 hour before the start of the surgical procedure. Second
dose becomes necessary only when contamination is encountered or the blood loss exceeds 1 liter, since it is
shown that antibiotic clearance is slower in patients undergoing surgery. Postoperative administration is only
required when there is heavy contamination.
Which Emergency Surgical Procedure should have Antibiotic Prophylaxis ?

Antibiotic prophylaxis is recommended for the following emergency surgical procedures
Colorectal surgery
Appendicectomy
Hernia surgery (use of mesh)
Open biliary surgery
Lower limb revascularization surgery.
The surgeries are classified based on the contamination at the time of surgery, and the infection rates vary
differently (Table 33.1).
Surgical site infections (SSIs) are defined as infective complication occurring within 30 days of surgical
procedure. The infection is caused by various organisms and some antibiotics are effective against these
organisms (Table 33.2).
295
Table 33.1: Classification of surgeries related to contamination

Type of surgery
Wound infection rate
Clean
Surgery in noninflamed tissue, and bowel not opened
<2%
Clean contaminated
Surgery of hollow visus other than colon, with minimal contamination
10%
Contaminated
Surgery through a hollow viscus with gross spillage
20%
Dirty
Fecal peritonitis, traumatic wound contaminated for >4 hrs, frank pus
40%
Table 33.2: Relationship of surgical procedures with potential organisms and sensitive antibiotics
Surgical procedures
Organism
Antibiotics
General surgical procedures
Staphylococcus aureus
Flucloxacillin, ciprofloxacin, clindamycin
Beta hemolytic streptococci
Ciprofloxacin, clindamycin
Upper GIT
Enteric Gram-negative bacilli
Cefuroxime, co-amoxyclav, gentamycin
Lower GIT
Enteric Gram-negative bacilli
Cefuroxime, co-amoxyclav, gentamycin
Anaerobes
Metronidazole
Coagulase + staphylococci
Vancomycin + removal of prosthesis
Procedures using prosthesis
Table 33.3: Antibiotics related to Gram staining

Gram stain
Antibiotic
Gram-negative rods
Cefuroxime + / gentamycin +/ metronidazole
Gram-positive cocci (Streptococci)
Amoxicillin
Gram-positive cocci (Staphylococci)
Flucloxacillin (Vancomycin / Teicoplain)
Gram-negative cocci
Ceftriaxone
Prior to full culture reports becoming available, a Gram stain may provide information to the likely
organism. Empiric antibiotics can be used on Gram stain with fair accuracy (Table 33.3).
Infection prevention and control measures must be adhered to
Sepsis is usually bacterial in origin, though fungi and viruses should be considered
Obtaining appropriate microbiology samples will help to use the right antibiotic
Choice of antibiotic should be carefully considered.
CHAPTER 33 ANTIBIOTICS
Classification of case
Death
34
A death is certified only when the following are documented:

Absent respiratory rate for 3 minutes
Absent pulse and heart sounds for 1 minute
Fixed dilated pupils.
Breaking the News

Breaking a bad news especially of the impending death or after death is very tricky. This will upset the family
which inherently is stressed. Well informed family will accept but ill informed or less informed will not take it
very easy. To overcome this situation, the clinician should appear:
Competent
Honest
Clear.
It is better to choose a suitable environment for discussion with the close relatives. Crowding of all family
members and relatives should be politely discouraged. While discussing this it is better to:
Review the case record in full
Prepare the anticipated questions with your colleagues
Keep a colleague or nurse alongwith
Understand the current level of understanding
Explain in detail
Ask if there are any doubts and questions

Be a good listener
Do not lose your cool
Be patient in answering all the questions, and this point of time no question is a dumb question
Assure them that you will be of help at anytime, which will take you a long way.
297
CHAPTER 34 DEATH
Index
Page numbers followed by f refer to figure and t refer to table
A
Abdominal
compartment syndrome 78
disease 107
injuries 68
lump 137, 196
pain 129t, 166, 194
X-ray 11
Abnormal movements of fingers 10
Absence of abdominal pain 194
Accidental displacement of tube 280
Acid
burns of face 266f
peptic disease 192
Activated protein C 19
Acute
abdomen 124
abdominal pain 247
abscess leg 262f
amebic typhlitis 137
anal fissure 199
appendicitis 129, 134-136, 141,
154, 158t, 159
bacterial lymphadenitis of neck
254f
breast abscess 119, 119f
cecal diverticulitis 134
cholangitis 130, 143
cholecystitis 130, 132, 133, 140,
142, 151, 157
colitis 130, 132, 133
colonic diverticulitis 160
congestive dysmenorrhea 134
cystitis 134-137
dentoalveolar abscess 99, 100

distension of bladder 137
diverticulitis 134, 161f
edematous cholecystitis 141f
empyema thoracis 109
epididymo-orchitis 229
extradural hematoma 35
filarial
lymphangitis and
lymphadenitis 255
scrotum 236, 236f
fissure in ano 200f
gastritis 132, 133
hemorrhagic pancreatitis 149
hepatitis 130, 132, 133
hyperacidity 130, 132, 133, 151
inflammation of diverticulum of
large bowel 160
intestinal
ischemia 211
obstruction 166
intussusception 170, 248
laryngeal disease 283
limb ischemia 209
liver abscess 132, 133, 138
lower abdominal pain 134, 137
lung abscess 115
lymphangitis 253, 253f
Meckels diverticulitis 134, 137,
162
mediastinitis 105
mesenteric
adenitis 134, 136, 137, 157
lymphadenitis 159
odontogenic infections 99
pancreatitis 130, 132, 133, 143,

152f, 184
peptic ulcer 129
periapical abscess 99, 100
pericoronal abscess 99, 100
periodontal abscess 99, 100
pleuritis 106
prostatic abscess 221
prostatitis 221
pyogenic abscess 261
radiating pain 121
renal
colic 184
failure 267
respiratory distress syndrome 21
retention of urine 214
right
inguinal lymphadenitis 256f
pyelonephritis 141
salpingitis 246
scrotal
abscess 233
pain 223, 225
severe pain in scrotum 223
solitary cecal diverticulitis 164
subdural hematoma 35
suppurative
appendicitis 155f
parotitis 102f
sialadenitis 101
thrombosis 209
torsion of ovarian cyst 245
typhlitis 137
ulcerative colitis 164
upper abdominal pain 130
300 urethritis 215, 220, 220f

viral
and bacterial lymphadenitis
254
lymphadenitis of neck 254f
Adhesions of small bowel 178f
Adhesive tapes 286
Adrenaline 16, 20
Advantages of tracheostomy 280
Aggravating factors of abdominal
pain 127t
Air in biliary system 169f
Airway
and cervical spine control 27
management and oxygen 20
Allergies 8
Ambu bag 279
Amebic liver abscess 138, 139f
Amenorrhea 135, 137
Amoxicillin 295
Anal pain 215
Anaphylactic shock 17, 19
Anatomy of
hernia 243f
hernial sac 242
Anemia 9
Angiodysplasia 192
Anterior
cord syndrome 48
cranial fossa 36
Antibiotic
and emergency surgery 294
prophylaxis 294
Anticholinergics 184
Antihistamine 20
Aortic
hiatus 62
rupture with upper rib fractures
63f
Aphthous ulcers 9
Appendicectomy 135, 294
Appendicolith 158f
Appendicular
abscess 136, 138
colic 135
mass 158f
Application of pressure in left iliac
fossa 155
Arrhythmias 64
Arterial
blood gas analysis 11
trauma 209
Ascaris blocking pancreatic outflow
149
Aspiration 21
down tracheobronchial tree 115
pneumonia 113
right lung 114f
Association of fever 130, 193
Avulsion of nails by crush injury 94f
B
Base of
penis 189, 219f
skull 31
Basic surgical instruments 281
Battles sign 32
Becks triad 64
Benign
polyps 193
stricture of CBD 144f
tumors 192
Bilateral
hemothorax 60f
pulmonary contusion 62f
Biliary colic 130, 133
Black eye of head injuries 9
Bladder
injuries 83t
neck hypertrophy 215
outlet obstruction 137
Bleeding
duodenal 196
hemorrhoids 204f
Blood
and CSF
otorrhea 32
rhinorrhea 32
gas analysis 21
loss 18
pressure 18
sugar 11, 273
tests 11
transfusion 19
Blue
color of central cyanosis 9
line of lead poisoning 9
Bluish discoloration 8
Blunt
abdominal trauma with full
bladder 83
injuries 61, 64, 65, 68, 72, 88
Boass sign 141
Bone and joint injuries 96
Boutonnire deformity of little finger
95f
Brain injury 34
Breast 118
hematoma 118
Bronchiectasis 115
Bronchodilators 20
Brown-Sequard syndrome 48
Bruising over mastoid 32
Burning pain 125
Bypass surgery 149
C
Calculus in Whartons duct 102f
Capsular tears 72
Capsule endoscopy 198
Carbuncle 262
Carcinoma
colon 136
of head of pancreas 149
stomach 131, 132, 192
Ciprofloxacin 295
Classification of
burn wounds 264t
hypovolemic shock 18t
Cleft palate 9
Clindamycin 295
Closed
and tension pneumothorax 58
blunt abdominal trauma 79
injuries 68
pneumothorax 55
Clot retention 215
Coagulation disorders 150
Coital injuries 90
Colicky pain 225
Collagen vascular disease 107
Collection of pus 138
in tunica vaginalis sac 231
Colocolic intussusception 171f
Colon cut-off sign 152f
Colonic
diverticulitis 160
malignancy 135, 137, 194
Colorectal
malignancies 194
surgery 294
Combined renal and splenic injuries
of automobile accident
74f
Complete
blood count 11, 292
cord injury 48
Complicated hernias 241
Complication of endotracheal
intubation 280
Compound
depressed fractures 36
fractures 36
Compression fracture vertebra 47f
Concussion brain 34
Congenital
malformation of articular
processes 122
pyloric stenosis 250
Congestive dysmenorrhea 135

Conjunctiva for anemia 136, 194
Constipation 129
Contact lenses 32
Continuous
pain 125
positive airways pressure 16
Control of hemorrhage 18
Contusion
and lacerations of brain 34
of abdominal wall 68
of brain 35
Cord hemisection 48
Coronary arteries 278
Corrosive poisoning. 192
Cranial nerve lesions 9
Cricothyroid membrane 283
Cricothyroidotomy 282, 283
kit 283f
Crohns disease 137, 199
CSF fistula 34, 39
Culex fatigans 255
Cullens sign 151, 151f
Cut off sign 152
Cystic swelling 138
Cystoscopy 216
Cytomegalovirus 149
D
Deep
burns of forearm 266f
partial thickness burns 265f
Deformed joints of rheumatoid
arthritis 10
Degenerative diseases of disk and
facet joints 120
Dehydration 267
Delayed healing 268
Depressed fracture 36
of vault 36
Depression of left main stem
bronchus 63
Description of renal pain 217f
301
INDEX
Cardiac
failure 107
monitoring 65
tamponade 28, 65, 277
Cardiogenic shock 17, 20
Catarrhal appendicitis 154
Cauda equina syndrome 120
Causes of
acute retention of urine 215t
gastrointestinal bleeding 191f
hematuria 216t
intestinal obstruction 166t
mechanical obstruction of biliary
system 143f
paralytic ileus 184t
Cecal
diverticulitis 137
malignancy 137
volvulus 180
Ceftriaxone 295
Cefuroxime 295
Cellulitis 99, 260
foot 261f
Central
cord syndrome 48
venous pressure monitoring 15
Cervical
fibroid 215
spine injuries 283
tenderness 137
Charcots triad 143
Chemical inhalation injuries 283
Chest X-ray 11, 21
Chinese liver fluke 149
Cholangiocarcinoma 145f
Cholangitis 133
Choledochal cyst 133
Choledocholithiasis 133
Chronic
appendicitis 135
constipation 203
duodenal ulcer 194
fissure 199
in ano 200f
302 Diabetes mellitus 137

Diabetic crisis 184
Diaphragmatic injuries 66
Diarrhea 129, 137
Diethylcarbamazine citrate 256
Difficult pelvic surgery 83
Diffuse axonal injury 34, 35
Dilated pelvicalyceal system 138
Direction of impact force 34
Displaced mandibular fracture 44f
Dissecting
aneurysm of thoracic aorta 213f
aortic aneurysm 212
Distended
gallbladder 132
neck veins 28
urinary bladder 136, 137
in cystitis 136
Distension of
jugular veins 64
large bowel 168f
Diverticulitis 192
of colon 161f
of sigmoid colon 162f
Diverticulosis 135
Dobutamine 16
Dopamine 16
Dopexamine 16
Duodenal
atresia 166
ulcer perforation 141
Duplication cyst in bowel wall 248
Dupuytrens contracture 10
Duration of hematemesis 193
Dysmenorrhea 135
Dyspnea 65
E
Edematous gallbladder of acute
cholecystitis 142f
Electrical burns 266f
Electrolyte imbalance 267
Emergency surgical procedures 277

Endoscopic retrograde cholangio
pancreatography 149
Endotracheal tubes 279
Enteric gram-negative bacilli 295
Epididymo-orchitis 223, 224
Epigastric
hernia 241
pain 130
tenderness 196
Epstein-Barr virus 149
Esophageal
injuries 65
varices 192, 196
Esophagoscopy 66
Exophthalmos of thyrotoxicosis 8
Extension of adjacent suppurative
focus 115
Extensor tendon injuries 95
Extrusion of nucleus pulposus
protrusion pressing
nerve 121f
Eyelids 9
F
Facet joint disease 121
Facial injuries 41
Familial polyposis 194
Fatty necrosis 149
Fecal impaction 215
Female genital injuries 90
Filarial
hydrocele left side 256f
leg 10
Fine needle aspiration cytology 118
Fissured fracture 36
Flail chest 32, 53
Flank tenderness 196
Flexor tendon injuries 96
Floating fracture 41
Floor of orbit 41
Flucloxacillin 295
Foreign bodies
in penile urethra 87
in respiratory tract 112
Fourniers gangrene 223, 224, 234, 235f
Fracture of
5th sacral vertebra 47f
anterior cranial fossa 37f
clavicles and ribs 32
condyle of mandible 44f
frontal
bone 38f
sinus 38f
laryngeal cartilage 28
long bones 29
lower ribs 51f
mandible 32, 42, 42f, 129
maxilla 41f
midfacial skeleton 41
orbital bones 45f
ramus of mandible 44f
skull 34, 36
Fracture
pelvis 83
penis 237, 237f
rib 51f
sternum 55f
Frequency
in micturition 129
of vomiting 128
Fulminating infections 99
Fungal infections 150
G
Gallstone ileus 168, 169f
Ganglion blockers 184
Gangrene of
acute ischemia of left lower limb
210f
fingertip following crush injury
94f
glans penis 87f
Gangrenous patches in acute
lymphangitis 253f
H
Hand injuries 92
Hard palate and soft palate 9
Head injuries 34
Heart rate 18
Heberdens nodes of osteoarthrosis 8
Hematemesis 190, 192
Hematocele 230
Hematochezia 190, 192, 193
Hematoma 39, 257
of medial aspect of thigh 258f
Hematuria 129, 215
Hemophilus influenzae 74
Hemorrhage 32, 150
Hemorrhagic shock 7
Hemorrhoids 193, 203, 207
Hemothorax 56, 59
Hepatic failure 107, 193, 194
Hernia 241
surgery 294
High
dependency units 3
intestinal obstruction 129
transverse 42
Hirschsprungs disease 166
Hollow organs 68
Hospital acquired pneumonia 115
Hutchinsons teeth of congenital
syphilis 9f
Hydrothorax 56
Hypercalcemia 149
Hypoglossal nerve palsy 9
Hypoglycemia 30
Hypokalemia 184
Hypoproteinemia 10, 107
Hypotension 19
Hypovolemia 30
Hypovolemic shock 17, 267
Hypoxia 30, 184
Hypoxic ischemic injury 35
I
Idiopathic scrotal edema 232
Ileocecal tuberculosis 137
Ileoileal intussusception 170f, 171f
Incarcerated
left inguinal hernia 134
right inguinal hernia 134
Incisional hernia 241
Increased intracranial pressure 30
Indeterminable injuries 92
Infected burns wound 269f
Infection of pancreatic necrosis 150
Infective necrosis of pulp 99, 100
Infiltrate over cricothyroid
membrane 284
Inflamed
appendix 158f
hemorrhoids 205f
Inflammatory bowel disease 193,
194, 196
Inguinoscrotal hernia 223
Injuries of
cranial nerves 34
duodenum 75
large intestine 77
liver 69
mesentery 74
myocardium 64
penile skin 86
small intestine 76
spinal cord 48
spleen 72
thoracic aorta 62
Intensive care units 3
Internal
herniation of small intestines
183f
rotation of small bowel 178f
Intestinal
colic 136
obstruction 167t, 182
strictures 177
Intra-abdominal sepsis 223
Intracranial hematomas 35
Intraperitoneal rupture 75
of urinary bladder 83f
Intrasplenic hematomas 72
Intravenous urography 216
Intubation of trachea 279
Intussusception 172f, 192, 207, 249f
of small bowel 172f
Ischemic disease 192, 193
J
Jaundice 131, 144
Joint injuries 96
Jugular
vein catheterization 26
venous
distension 64
pressure 10
303
INDEX
Gastric
lymphoma 192
polyps 192
ulcer 133, 196
volvulus 182
Gastrograffin swallow 66
Gastrointestinal hemorrhage 190
Genitalia 132, 189f, 219f
Gentamycin 295
Glasgow coma scale 10f, 31
Gram-negative
cocci 295
rods 295
Gram-positive cocci 295
Grey Turners sign 151, 151f
Groin hernia 241
Grossly dilated intrahepatic bile ducts
145f
Ground glass appearance of
peritonitis 176f
Guerins fracture 41
Gunshot injuries 88
304
K
Keloid formation 268
after burns 269f
Ketoacidosis 293
Klebsiella pneumoniae infections 113
Kleins sign 159
Koilonychia of iron-deficiency
anemia 10
L
Laceration of
liver and perisplenic collection
52f, 73f
penis and scrotum with exposure
of left testis 89f
Laceration penile skin 87f
Large
bore tubes 285
intestinal obstruction 129
pericardial effusion 277
Laryngeal crepitus 28
Leaking aortic aneurysm 151, 223
Left
hemothorax 60f
hypochondrial pain 130, 133
iliac fossa 134
lobar hepatomegaly 131, 132
lower abdominal 136
ovarian
cyst 136, 137
malignancy 137
pneumothorax with fractures of
ribs 58f
renal
colic 130, 133
injury 80f
upper
abdominal 131
quadrant 132
ureteric colic 134, 137
Leukemia 239
Leukocyte count 18
Leukocytosis in infective pathologies

133
Ligamentum arteriosum 62
Linear fracture 36
Liver
abscess 115
failure 194
function tests 11, 196, 273
injury with hemoperitoneum 71f
Local tenderness and obliteration of
liver dullness 133
Location of pain 130, 224
Long
bone fractures 29
common duct 149
Loss of aortic knob 63
Low intestinal obstruction 129
Lower limb revascularization surgery
294
Ludwigs angina 103, 104f
Lumbar
canal stenosis 121
degenerative disease 120
hernia 241
Lymphatic system 253
M
Magnetic resonance imaging 245
Male
genital injuries 86
genitalia 223
Malignant
growth of colon cause for
intussusception 171f
tumors 192, 193
Mallory-Weiss tears 192
Marjolins ulcer 268
chest wall 269f
Massive hemopnuemothorax 63
McBurneys point 155, 157, 163
Meatal stenosis 215
Meckels diverticulum 162, 163f, 166,
248
Meconium ileus 166

Mediastinal emphysema 65f
Meningitis 39
Menstrual irregularities 137
Mesenteric
adenitis 136
lymphadenitis 160f
Metabolic abnormalities of glucose
35
Metastatic
colonic malignancy 194
liver 133
Method of placing chest drain 287f
Metronidazole 295
Middle cranial fossa 36
Midgut volvulus 181
Migrating pain 126
Minitracheostomy 282
Mixed second and third degree burns
265f
Modified rule of nine for children
271f
Mottled yellow color of fluorosis 9
Mottling of ischemic limb 210f
Movements of chest 32
Mucocele gallbladder 133
Mucus plugging 284
Multiple
organ failure 150
sclerosis 215
Murphys sign 141
Myocardial
contusion 64
infarction 141, 151
injuries 64
puncture 278
N
Nail injury 93
Nasal bleed 44
Nasogastric
intubation 49
O
Obliteration of liver dullness 136
Obstructed
hernia 132
inguinal hernia 183f
inguinoscrotal hernia 224
ureteric stone 138
Obstruction of airway 280
Obstructive appendicitis 154
Obturator hernia 241
Occult bleeding 190
Opaque abdomen 138
Open
biliary surgery 294
injuries 68, 69
pneumothorax 55, 58
Operative injuries 72
Oral cavity 9, 99
Osteoarthritis 122
of posterior joints 122
Ovarian cyst torsion 138
P
Pain in
breast 118
right iliac fossa 137, 155
Palpable lump 196
Palpate cricothyroid membrane 284
Pancreatic
abscess 150
calculi 153f
fistula 150
necrosis 150
pseudocyst 150
Pandas eyes 32
Paracolic abscess 138
Paralysis 210
Paralytic ileus 183
Paramyxovirus 149
Paraphimosis 234, 238, 239f
Paraumbilical hernia 241
Passage of blood stained stools 129
Passing nasogastric tube 287
Pathogenesis of foreign body
obstruction in lower
respiratory tract 112t
Pelvic inflammatory disease 134,
135, 137
Penetrating
injuries 61, 64, 65, 83
trauma 115
Percutaneous tracheostomy 280, 281
kit 281f
Perforated
appendicitis 134
and diverticulitis 136, 138
with generalized peritonitis
136
bowel pathologies 174
cholecystitis 133
duodenal ulcer 130-132
peptic ulcer 151
ulcer 133
Periampullary carcinoma 193
Perianal hematoma 206, 206f

Pericardial aspiration 278f
kit 277
Perineal hernia 241
Peripheral
antineutrophil cytoplasmic
antibody 146
tap 289, 291f
Peritonitis 138
Periumbilical pain 157
Periurethral extravasation of urine
234
Placing chest drains 285f
Plain X-ray abdomen 133, 138, 190
Pneumomediastinum 28, 65
Pneumonia 21
Pneumoperitoneum 176f
Pneumothorax 55, 278
in absence of rib fracture 65
Poikilothermia 210
Polyarteritis nodosa 149
Portal hypertension 194
Post hemorrhoidectomy 215
Postburn
contracture 270f
of axillary fold 270f
of neck 269f
scarring resulting in
disability 270f
syndactyly 270f
Posterior cranial fossa 36
Postoperative ileus 184
Primary
brain injury 34
brainstem injury 34, 35
carcinoma in adults 69
sclerosing cholangitis 146
Prolapse
of rectum 207
rectum 208f
Prolapsed hemorrhoids 204f
Prominence of eyeballs 8
Prostatic surgery 83
305
INDEX
tube
in chest 67
insertion 290f
Nature of
injuries 25, 81
pain 125, 135, 224
vomitus 128
Nausea 157
Neck veins 60
Necrotizing
enterocolitis 250
fasciitis 274
Neisseria gonorrhoeae 229
Nerve
damage 93, 96
injuries 96
Neurogenic shock 17, 20
Nicotine staining of chronic smokers
10
Nontender hepatomegaly 133
Nonviable testis 226
306 Proximal colonic malignancy 196

Pseudokidney appearance 249
Pulmonary
artery 21
catheterization 15
wedge pressure 21
contusion/laceration 61
embolism 107, 116
Pulsus paradoxus 64
Puncture wounds 72
Pyloric stenosis 166
Pyogenic liver abscess 138
Q
Quantity of vomitus 128
R
Radiation
colitis 192
enteritis 192
Recurrent
malignancy of GIT 194
perianal abscess 202f
Referred pain 126, 126f
Reflux esophagitis 192
Regions of abdomen 125f
Relieving factors of abdominal pain
128t
Removal of prosthesis 295
Renal
angle 217f
colic 217
failure 107, 150
function tests 273
injuries 79
stones 133
vascular trauma 79
Respiratory
failure 150
rate 18
Restoration of fluid volume 18
Retroperitoneal malignancy 184
Retroverted gravid uterus 215

Rib fractures 50
Richters hernia 192
Right
basal pleurisy 141
hematocele 231f
hypochondrial pain 130, 132
iliac fossa 134
lower
abdominal 136
rib fractures 71f
ovarian
cyst 136, 137
malignancy 137
pathology 157
pneumothorax 57, 111f
renal colic 130, 133
tension pneumothorax 58f
upper
abdominal 131
quadrant 132
ureteric colic 134, 157
Road traffic accident 88
Rovsings sign 155
Rupture of
lutein cyst 247
parenchyma 72
urethra 215
Ruptured
appendicitis 136
ectopic gestation 134-137
empyema of gallbladder 142f
S
Scalp injuries 34
Sciatic hernia 241
Sclera 9
Scleral hemorrhage 32
Sclerosing cholangitis 147f
Scrotal
abscess 223, 224, 234f
laceration 88
Second degree burns with blister

formation 265f
Secondary brain injury 34, 35
Securing tapes 277, 281, 283
Seldinger
chest drain kit 288f
drains 285
technique 286
Selective arteriography 198
Sentinel
loop sign 152
pile 200
Septic shock 7, 17, 18
Septicemia 115
Serum electrolytes 273
Severe
acute respiratory distress
syndrome 113
coagulopathy 289
midfacial trauma 282
respiratory distress 63
Severely swollen neck 103
Severity of acute pancreatitis 153
Sherrens triangle 155
Short duration 193
Sickle cell disease 239
Sigmoid volvulus 179, 180f
Signs of life-threatening thoracic
conditions 28t
Silk sutures 286
Simple fractures 36
Skin
and subcutaneous tissues 257
damage 93
disinfectant 281, 283, 286
drapes 286
injuries 94, 96
Small children 283
Smooth tongue of vitamin B12
deficiency 9
Snake bite 149
Soft tissue injuries 29, 32
Solid organs 68
Surgery of urinary tract 229

Surgical emphysema 32
Swallowed foreign bodies 173
Swan-neck deformity 95f
Sympathetic dysfunction 184
Systemic lupus erythematosus 149
T
Tablet in bronchus 113f
Tachycardia 19, 60
Teicoplanin 295
Tendons injuries 96
Tension pneumothorax 28, 56, 57f
Testicular
torsion 224
tumor 223
Thalassemia 239
Third degree hemorrhoids 204f
Thoracic injuries 50
Thoracotomy 65
Thorax 32, 105
Three chamber underwater drain
288f
Thrombosed and ulcerated pile
masses 205f
Tidy injuries 92
Tityus trinitatis 149
Tongue for anemia 136, 194
Tooth in bronchus 113f
Torn annulus fibrosus with disk bulge
121f
Torsion of
appendages of testis 224f, 228
cyst of
left ovary 134
right ovary 134
hydatid of Morgagni 223
left ovary 136
omentum 186
ovarian cyst 246f
right ovary 136
testis 223, 226, 227f
Toxic
307
gases 21
megacolon 165f
Tracheal
deviation 28
intubation 49
stenosis 280, 284
transection 283
Tracheoesophageal fistula 251, 252f,
284
Traumatic
amputation of
entire index finger 93f
tip of middle finger 93f
gangrene of
little finger 94f
middle finger 94f
orchitis 230
Treatment of
flail chest 54t
focus of sepsis 19
hypovolemic shock 18
Tremors of thyrotoxicosis 10
Trophic ulcers 10
Tubercular infection 159
Tuberculosis 107
Types of
drain 285
gastrointestinal hemorrhages 191
liver injuries 70f
pneumothorax 56f
INDEX
Sphincterotomy 145f
Spigelian hernia 241
Spinal
anesthesia 215
cord
injuries 48t
lesions and trauma 239
injury 184
Spine and spinal cord injuries 46
Splenic
abscess 148, 148f
infarct 130, 133
injury with lower rib fracture 73f
Spondylolisthesis 122, 122f, 123
Spondylolysis 122
Spontaneous pneumothorax 110
Stages of prolapse of intervertebral
disk 121f
Staphylococcus aureus 113, 259, 262,
295
Sterile
drape 283
gowns and gloves 277
lubricant 279
Sternal fracture 54
Stone in gallbladder 142f
Streptococcus pyogenes 260
Stress ulcers 267
Subcapsular hematoma 72
Subconjunctival hemorrhage 43f, 44
Subcutaneous emphysema 28
Subdural hematoma 35, 38f
Subhyoid hemorrhage 32
Submandibular salivary gland abscess
102f
Subzygomatic fracture 42
Sudden onset pain 125
Sunken eyeballs 8
Superficial
burns 265f
partial thickness burns 265f
Superior mediastinitis 106f
Suprazygomatic fracture 42
U
Ulcerated perianal hematoma 206f
Ulcerative colitis 196
Ulcers 10
Umbilical
hernia 241
tenderness 196
Uncontrolled glycemic status 293
Untidy injuries 92
Upper GI malignancy 196
308 Ureteric
calculus 138
colic 134, 135, 189f, 218, 219f, 223
injuries 80, 81t
stone 138
Urethral
catheterization 49
discharge of gonococcal
urethritis 220f
fistula 84f
injuries 84
stenosis 215
stricture 215
Urethroscopy 220
Urinary
bladder injuries 82
catheterization 26
Urine examination for infection 216
Urological injuries 79
Urticarial rash 19
Uterine fibroid 134, 136
V
Vaginal bleeding 90
Vancomycin 295
Various
positions of appendix 156f
types of hernia 242f
Vascular
injuries 34, 29, 94, 96
malformations 196
system 209
Ventilator associated pneumonia 280
Ventral hernia 241
Ventricular tachycardia 278
Vesical calculus 138
Viable testis 226
Visual acuity 32
Vocal cords 280
Volvulus 179
Vomiting 130
von Recklinghausens disease 8
W
Wallaces rule of nine for adults 271f
Water and electrolyte loss 268
Wuchereria bancrofti 256f
Y
Yellow discoloration 8
Z
Zygomatic fracture 45f
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General Surgical Emergencies

S Devaji Rao MS MNAMS FICS

JAYPEE BROTHERS MEDICAL PUBLISHERS (P) LTD.

Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd.

Jaypee-Highlights Medical Publishers Inc.

Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd.

Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd.

SECTION THREE: CRITICAL CARE

SECTION FOUR: TRAUMA

SECTION ONE: INTRODUCTION

GENERAL SURGICAL EMERGENCIES

Trauma Reception Team

GENERAL SURGICAL EMERGENCIES

12. Urological Injuries

SECTION FIVE: ORGANS AND SYSTEMS

17. Head and Neck

GENERAL SURGICAL EMERGENCIES

GENERAL SURGICAL EMERGENCIES

GENERAL SURGICAL EMERGENCIES

25. Male Genitalia

GENERAL SURGICAL EMERGENCIES

30. Skin and Subcutaneous Tissues

29. Lymphatic System

GENERAL SURGICAL EMERGENCIES

Insertion of Chest Drains

32. Preparing the Patient for

Assessment of Surgical Emergencies

MAKE THE PATIENT LIE DOWN COMFORTABLY

ELICIT A QUICK HISTORY

Make a Thorough Clinical Examination

CHAPTER 2 ASSESSMENT OF SURGICAL EMERGENCIES

Puffiness (e.g. trauma, renal pathology)

Hands and feet

Come to a Quick Working Clinical Diagnosis

Ask for Essential Meaningful Investigations

The radiological tests should include:

Admit the Patient where Thought to be Required

Put the Patient in Intensive Care Whenever Required

Collect Investigation Reports at the Earliest

Start Emergency Treatment

CHAPTER 2 ASSESSMENT OF SURGICAL EMERGENCIES

The blood tests in general should include:

Ask for Expert Opinions

Critically Ill Patient and Critical Care

Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome

Critically Ill Patient

SECTION III CRITICAL CARE

Shock is defined as inadequate organ perfusion and tissue oxygenation.

SECTION III CRITICAL CARE

Table 4.1: Classification of hypovolemic shock

<15% (up to 750 ml)

1530% (750 1500

3040% (1500 2000

>40% (>2000 ml)

Treatment of Hypovolemic Shock

Symptoms and Signs

Symptoms and Signs

SECTION III CRITICAL CARE

Stop the cause if found

Incidence and Etiology

SECTION III CRITICAL CARE

11. Abdominal Injuries

12. Urological Injuries