Ideas to Implementation | Daniel Xuan

1. ncreased understanding of cathode rays led to the development of television

- explain why the apparent inconsistent behaviour of cathode rays caused debate as to
whether they were charged particles or electromagnetic waves
Cathode rays exhibited behaviour similar to both waves and particles.
-

explain that cathode ray tubes allowed the manipulation of a stream of charged
particles
Cathode rays are deflected by magnetic and electric fields and allowed scientists to
conduct experiments with the rays.

identify that moving charged particles in a magnetic field experience a force

Moving charged particles will force in a magnetic field.
Right hand palm
rule:

identify that
charged plates produce an
electric field
Electric field lines show:
- direction of force on a little positive test charge
- strength of magnetic field (density and spacing of field lines)

describe quantitatively the force acting on a charge moving through a magnetic field

F=qvBsin
-

discuss qualitatively the electric field strength due to a point charges, positive and
negative charges and oppositely charged plates

Work done = force x

distance
= qE x d
= qV
(V = Ed)
-

describe quantitatively the electric field due to oppositely charged plates

E=

V
d

units: NC-1 or Vm-1

Note: Electric field is produced by the potential difference set up by the power source

V=

change potential energy

charge

work done
move charge
q

Ideas to Implementation | Daniel Xuan

force distance
q

qE d
=Ed
q

outline Thomsons experiment to measure the charge/mass ratio of an electron

Method:
Electrons are
accelerated and collimated from cathode to anode. The cathode ray was deflected with
a magnetic field by supplying the Helmholtz coil with a current and the radius of
curvature was recorded: Fmagnetic = Fcentripedal

qvB=

mv 2
r

q
v
=
m Br
In addition to the existing magnetic field, an electric field was applied and both fields
were adjusted so that the deflections created by each field was balanced out: F magnetic =
Felectric

qvB=qE
v=

E
B

From the size of deflection and the values of E and B, the charge to mass ratio was able
to be determined.
Result: He repeated the experiment with different metals and different methods, and
found the same result. The q:m ratio was successfully measured and proved that
electrons have measurable mass and help end the debate whether cathode rays were a
wave or a particle.
Conclusion: The electrons is a:
- fundamental
- subatomic
- negatively charged particle
This contributed to the discovery of electrons and the development of the models of
atoms.
-

outline the role of:

- electrodes in the electron gun
Current heats the cathode causing the cathode to emit a cloud of electrons
(improves thermionic emission). The focusing anode creates an electric field
which focuses the electrons, its cylindrical shape prevents the electrons from

Ideas to Implementation | Daniel Xuan

becoming attracted to the walls. The accelerating anode increases the electrons
velocity as it is more positive.
-

the deflection plates or coils

Vertical deflection plates deflect cathode rays up and down while horizontal
deflection plates deflect the cathode rays left and right.

the fluorescent screen

When exposed to radiation, the phosphor material emits light as it converts the
kinetic energy of the electrons into visible light.

in the cathode ray tube of conventional TV displays and oscilloscopes

Oscilloscopes:
TV:
- Electric fields
- Magnetic fields
- Display and evaluate signal
- Construct complex images
- Requires only a change in current
voltages
- Directly measure potential voltage
to change deflection
- Respond more rapidly to changing
- Circular deflection covers larger
input signals
areas
-

perform an investigation and gather first-hand information to observe the occurrence of

different striation patterns for different pressures in discharge tubes
50.0 mm Hg: violet streamers
5.0 mm Hg: faint cathode glow and positive column
0.1 mm Hg: cathode glow, Crookes dark space, negative glow, Faradays dark space
and striations
Less than 0.1 mm Hg: glass around anode glows

perform an investigation to demonstrate and identity properties of cathode rays using

discharge tubes:
- containing a maltese cross
Wave: Shadow was the cross was seen behind the anodes thus cathode rays
travelled in straight lines.
-

containing electric plates

Wave: Cathode rays were not deflected by electric plates (Hertz) but was proven
wrong later (Crookes).

with a florescent screen

Particle: Cathode rays produced fluorescence when it hit the screen thus carrying
kinetic energy

containing a glass wheel

Particle: Glass wheel moved as cathode rays possess momentum and mass

analyse the information gathered to determine the sign of the charge on cathode
rays
Negatively charged as it was deflected towards positive plate in electric field.
Right hand palm can determine the charge of cathode rays in magnetic field

Note:
Wave: Cathode rays were able to pass through gold foil like light through glass
however atoms consist of mainly empty space.
Particle: The speed of cathode rays were also less than the speed of light
-

solve problem and analyse information using:

Ideas to Implementation | Daniel Xuan

F=qvBsin
F=qE

E=

V
d

2. The reconceptualization of the model of light led to an understanding of the

photoelectric effect and black body radiation
- describe Hertzs observation of the effect of a radio wave on a receiver and the
photoelectric effect he produced but failed to investigate
Note: Maxwell proposed that:
- light is an electromagnetic oscillation (from the acceleration of charged particles)
- light is a self-sustaining mutual generation of electric and magnetic fields
(perpendicular to each other and the direction of propagation)
which lead to the idea that medium was not required for propagation and the other
oscillations of electromagnetic radiation may exist (EM spectrum)
Maxwell had also determined the velocity of light to be c
Method: A spark was created between
the brass knobs (spark gap) when a
high voltage was applied to the
transmitter induction coil. The
parabolic metal mirrors focus the
weak electromagnetic wave (radio
wave) to a single point which amplify
the intensity of the EMR. The
frequency of the receiver is adjusted
to match the frequency of the
transmitter.
Hertz showed that these waves were able to be reflected using a metal mirror, and
refracted as they passed through an asphalt prism. By rotating the receiver loop, the
most intense spark was induced only when the receiver loop is parallel to the
transmitter loop, proving that radio waves could be polarised.
Result: Sparks were induced at the spark gap of the receiver.
Conclusion: Radio waves could be interfered with, reflected, refracted, diffracted and
polarised and that radio waves had properties similar to light.
Photoelectric effect: The experiment was conducted in a dark box so that the tiny
sparks could be viewed easier, however Hertz noticed that the sparks were distinctly
weaker. He also discovered that the sparks were more vigorous when exposed to UV
light (photoelectric effect) using a quartz screen.
-

outline qualitatively Hertzs experiments in measuring the speed of radio waves and
how they relate to light waves
Method: Hertz reflected waves of a zinc metal sheet, the incident and reflected waves
interfered and set up standing waves at certain distances. He moved his receiver coil
along the wave, sparks were produced at the anti-nodes (areas of constructive

Ideas to Implementation | Daniel Xuan

interference) and the distance between the anti-nodes is half
wavelength. He then calculated the frequency using the
oscillation of the sparks. The speed of electromagnetic
= h) was then calculated.

a
waves (c

Result: The speed of light was consistent with

Maxwells calculations.
Conclusion: Radio waves have similar
properties to light and that light was indeed
what Maxwells theory had suggested. He
decreased the wavelength and repeated the
experiment with different metals.
With Maxwells equations, scientists predicted the existence of other forms of EMR
which behave similar to light. Hertzs discovery was the first of its kind to identify
another form of EMR and the scientific community to sought out other and develop
many uses of EMR.
-

identify Plancks hypothesis that radiation emitted and absorbed by the walls of a black
body cavity is quantised
Black body ideal physical object which absorbs
and/or emits all electromagnetic radiation
incident upon it
Characteristics for the distribution of energy
for blackbody radiation:
- Intensity varied with wavelength
- Temperature of blackbody increases,
total amount of energy emitted
increases
- Temperature increase, the peak of the
distribution shifts to shorter wavelengths*
- Wavelengths of gamma, x-rays and UV
are not emitted at intensity zero*
*could not be explained using Classical theory
Max Plancks hypothesis:
- Oscillating atoms or molecules can only occupy quantised energy levels the
amount of energy that an atom can gain or lose is discrete and can only occupy
certain energy levels
- Quantum of light carries energy proportional to its frequency energy of light is
quantised [E = hf]

h=Planc k ' s constant=6.626 1034 J s

The ultraviolet catastrophe:
- In order to emit short wavelengths (UV, X-rays, gamma) atoms will need to
undergo a change in energy that corresponds to the energy of emitted radiation.
- Short wavelengths (high frequencies) radiation cannot be emitted because such
large energy changes do not exist in atoms at typical temperatures.
- When an electron absorbs enough energy it may be emitted causing ionisation
Existence of peak radiation:
- Intensity of radiation (number of quanta) emitted is proportional to the number
of atoms undergoing a change in energy.
- The existence of peak radiation is due to certain changes of quantum state of
atoms being more probable at a certain temperature. The more probable
changes in energy result in more intense emission of the corresponding
wavelength

Ideas to Implementation | Daniel Xuan

Classical theory:
Frequency: Electrons should be emitted at any frequency, given the intensity is high
enough.
Intensity: Electrons will consistently absorb kinetic energy until theres enough to jump to
next energy level.
Kinetic energy: As intensity increases, the kinetic energy increases.
Emission time: At low intensity, electrons would require some time to absorb incident
radiation before being emitted from the surface of the metal.
-

identify Einsteins contribution to quantum theory and its relation to black body
radiation
Photoelectric effect phenomenon in which electrons
(photoelectrons) are emitted from the surface of the metal
when light is shone on the metal
Einstein extended Plancks concept of quantisation of
electromagnetic waves, he postulated that light (EMR) of
frequency f can be considered to be a stream of photons
which possess discrete energy packets. The collisions
between the photon and electron lead to the photoelectric
effect.
Photons with energy above the work function of the metal can dispel electrons from the
surface as electrons exist in quantised energy levels. The minimum frequency the light
must have to cause the photoelectric effect is called the threshold/cut-off frequency
whereas the kinetic energy is determined by E = hf. A photon can either transfer
enough energy or none at all, if the frequency is below threshold, the energy of the
photo is insufficient to eject the electron.

E=hf

=work function of metal

When light is shone on the cathode is ejected and travels to the anode, and the flow of
charge carriers allows current. If the polarity of the electrodes were reversed, the
emitted electrons are repelled (stopping potential voltage required to prevent
electrons from cathode travelling to anode). For current to occur, the kinetic energy of
electron overcome the work done by the electric field (KE < qV).
Note: Graphing the photoelectric equation:
To covert Joules into electron volts, divide the number of joules by the charge of an electron.
The maximum kinetic energy of the electron (eV) is equal to the stopping potential (V).
In a maximum kinetic energy (J) vs frequency graph, the gradient is the Plancks constant,
the x-intercept is the threshold frequency and
-

explain the particle model of light in terms of photons with particular energy and
frequency
Light can be reflected, refracted, deflected, interfered and polarised which proves that
light is a transverse wave. However, based on quantum theory proposed by Planck,
light consists of quantised packets of energy which suggests that light is composed of
particles. This phenomenon where by light can behave as both waves and particles is
known as the wave-particle duality.
Photon theory of light:

Ideas to Implementation | Daniel Xuan

-

Frequency is related to the amount of energy each photon carries

Intensify is related to the number of electrons

Frequency: If the frequency of the photon is not equal to or greater than the work
function, the electrons cannot be ejected regardless of intensity. Threshold frequency is
the minimum frequency required to eject an electron it determines the energy
possessed by the photon (E hf).
Intensity: There is a 1:1 photon-electron interaction, the number of electrons emitted is
proportional to the intensity of light but only if the light frequency is above threshold
frequency.
Maximum kinetic energy: KEmax = Ephoton -

Emission time: Electron are emitted instantaneously.

-

identify the relationships between photon energy, frequency, speed of light and
wavelength:

E=hf

c=f
E=
-

and

hc

perform an investigation to demonstrate the production and reception of radio waves

Method: Radio waves are produced due to oscillating electric charges in an induction
coil connected to a 12 V DC power source and a spark was induced about 2 cm
between its terminals. As the charges oscillate, the field they produce is distorted and
propagates away from the charge at the speed of light. The changing electric field is
associated with and perpendicular to the magnetic field component of EMR which is
received by the antenna on the radio. The coil is placed 1.5 m away from the radio and
the spark was turned on. This is repeated between AM and FM stations and also at 10
m.
Result: The loudness of the static interference was decreased as the distance increase.
The FM band also experience less static than the AM band.
Conclusion: Radio waves obey the inverse square law and by placing at a greater
distance, the intensity of the wave received was much less, resulting in less loud static
interference on the radio. There was much less static interference on the FM band
because the radio waves produced by the spark vary significantly and the variations
produce the stronger interference on the AM band which decodes amplitude variation
as sounds. There is no variations in frequency by the spark so no interference is heard
on the FM band.

identify data sources, gather, process and analyse information and use available
evidence to assess Einsteins contribution to quantum theory and its relation to black
body radiation
-

identify data sources, gather, process and present information to summarise the use of
the photoelectric effect in:
- solar cells
Solar cell converts sunlight into electrical power (photovoltaic effect movement
of charged particles through semiconducting material). The photons are
absorbed by the electron-hole pairs in the depletion zone and this provides

Ideas to Implementation | Daniel Xuan

sufficient energy to free these pairs. The electrons and the positive holes are
then influenced by the induced electric field in the depletion layer and electrons
accelerate towards the n-type and the hole accelerate to the p-type. This
disrupts electrical neutrality which causes potential difference across the crystal
and therefore when external is applied, the movement of electrons and holes,
the voltage can be harnessed.
-

photocells
Photocells are electric devices with resistance that alter in presence of light. It
consists of a low pressure glass bulb, in which is embedded an anode and a large
cathode is coated with photoelectric material. When a circuit is connected, the
gap between the cathode and anode prevents current flow despite a supplied
voltage. When light shines on the light sensitive cathode, electrons are emitted,
as a result of the photoelectric effect, and travels towards the anode. This is used
in alarm systems and automatic doors.

solve problems and analyse information using:

E=hf
c=f

and

Note: Stationary charges produce own electric field, charge moving at a constant
velocity produces a magnetic field and accelerating/oscillating charges produce EMR.
-

process information to discuss Einstein and Plancks differing views about whether
science research is removed from social and political forces
Einstein was a pacifist while Planck strongly support the German cause.

3. Limitations of past technologies and increased research into the structure of

the atom insulted in the invention of transistors
- identify that some electrons in solids are shared between atoms and move freely
Rutherfords model of the atom:
- Dense central core called nucleus consisting of closely packed protons
- Orbiting electron undergoes uniform circular motion therefore must be accelerating
- According to James Maxwell, accelerating charged particles emit EMR
- Electrons lose energy and spiral into nucleus
Bohrs model:
- When atoms absorb energy, electrons may be excited to a new energy level (change
in quantum states)
- In returning to a lower, stable energy state, the atom emits radiation corresponding
to the change in quantum sates
Insulators: Atoms in the lattice are held strongly by covalent bonds in which electron
pairs are shared between atoms and are held tightly. This sharing means electrons are
not available to conduct electricity through the lattice.

Ideas to Implementation | Daniel Xuan

Conductors: Metal structures consists of cation lattice surrounded by a sea of
delocalised electrons. The valence electrons are free to randomly move. Under the
influence of an electric field, the random motion of the electrons decreased and begin
to have a net motion in the opposite direction of the field, carrying current.
Ionic lattice structure: Valence electrons transfer from metallic atoms to non-metallic to
fill up valence shells. The charged ions are held by relatively strong electrostatic
attractions with no free moving charges in solid state.
Conductivity depends on the:
- number of electrons in the conduction band
- charge of an electron
- electron mobility
Conductivity = no. of electrons x charge of an electron x electron mobility
-

describe the difference between conductors, insulators and semiconductors in terms of

band structures and relative electrical resistance
Electrons orbit around the nucleus due to the electrostatic attraction between opposite
charges. Electrons in the inner shell are held stronger than those in the outer shells and
occupy lower energy levels.
When atoms are closely packed in a lattice structure, electrons in a single atom will
interact with neighbouring electrons or even nuclei of other atoms. This results in their
highest electron energy levels overlapping in a continuous fashion. These regions are
called energy bands.
Energy gap separation between the outmost filled band and the empty bands and
electrons cannot occupy this region and requires a certain amount of energy for
electrons to jump from the valence band to the conduction band.
Valence band made up of the energy
levels of the valence electrons of
individual atoms and has higher energy
levels than the energy bands formed by
the electrons in inner shells
Conduction band when valance electrons
gain energy, they might move up into
higher energy shells that were previously
empty
Only a partial-filled bands contribute to the conductivity as it allows electron-hole pairs
to move. When the conduction band is full, there is no space for the electrons to move
and thus cannot carry any charge. This also applies to a full valance band.
Conductors have a small energy gap of 0.001 eV. The valance and conduction band
overlap with no forbidden energy gap and the relative number of free electrons that
can travel between bands is high.
Semiconductors have an energy gap of 1.0 eV. The valence band is almost filled and
some electrons can acquire thermal energy to jump into the conduction band. There is
a small number of electrons in the conduction band and its number increases as
temperature increases this resistivity increases.

Ideas to Implementation | Daniel Xuan

Insulators have a large energy gap of 10 eV
and has the highest resistance. At room
temperature, the conduction band is empty
and no electrons is able to jump from the
valence band.
-

identify the absences of electrons in a nearly

full band as holes, and recognise that both electrons and holes help carry current
When an electron moves from the valence band to the
conduction band, it leaves behind a positively charged, vacant
crystal site called a hole. The hole moves in the direction of
the electric field and act as positive charge carriers as valence
electrons from a nearby bond can move to fill the hole and
leaving another one in its original place. The charge carriers of
semi-conductors are called electron-hole pairs.

compare qualitatively the relative number of free electrons that can drift from atom to
atom in conductors, semiconductors and insulators
Conductors have the most number of free electrons while insulators have no free
electrons in the outer shell.

identify that the use of germanium in early transistors is related to lack of ability to
produce other materials of suitable purity
Germanium was used at first because it can be early purified however it was replaced
with silicon because silicon semiconductors exhibited consistent behaviour under heat
unlike germanium and was also in abundance. Germanium has a smaller energy band
gap 0.7 eV compared to silicons 1.1 eV.

describe how doping a semiconductor can change its electrical properties

Doping refers to the addition of a small number of suitable replacement atoms into
intrinsic (pure) semiconductors to improve the conductivity of semiconductors. Doped
semiconductors remain electrically neutral.
N-type: Group 15 or pentavalent atom (donor) is added to the
silicon and an electron is donated (n because most of the
charge carriers are electrons). The pentavalent atom forms
bonds with four silicon atoms and one electron is left over. The
fifth electron cannot fit in the occupied valence band and has
an energy level, (donor level) just below the conduction band
and requires very low energy for the electron to jump into the
conduction band (~0.05 eV).
P-type: Group 13 or trivalent atom (acceptor) is added to the
silicon and an electron is accepted (p because the majority of
charge carriers are positively charged holes). The trivalent atoms
forms bonds with three silicon and accepts a proton from a silicon
and thus a hole is formed. As a result, an empty energy level
(acceptor level) is established. It requires very low energy for
electrons to jump to the acceptor level from the valence band where
holes are
formed (~0.05 eV). In presence of an electric field, the holes drift as positive flow.
p-n junction: 2-layer device by sticking a piece of p-type to a piece of n-type semiconductor.
Concentration gradient occurs due to the difference in the number of positive and charges,
and results in electrons moving from n-type to p-type semiconductors known as diffusion.
All mobile charge carriers have been lost and gives rise to the depletion layer/depletion
region. The n-type conductors loses electrons and become positively charged and p-type
conductors gain electron electrons and becomes negatively charged and thus an electric
field is established. The electric field causes electrons to move from n side to p side

Ideas to Implementation | Daniel Xuan

(diffusion current) and causes holes to move from p side to n side (drift current).
-

identify the differences in p and n-type semiconductors in terms of the relative number
of negative charge carriers and positive holes
The main charge carriers in n-type are electrons while in p-type semiconductors are
holes.
Note: The net charge on n-type, p-type semiconductors and p-n junction is neutral.
describe the differences between solid state and thermionic devices and discuss why
solid state devices replaced thermionic devices
Thermionic devices: A current is run through a heating filament which heats up the
cathode so that electrons are boiled off and forms a cloud of electrons which travel
through a vacuum towards anode.
Transistors: Uses the same principles as p-n junction
Thermionic devices
Conducting material (metals)
Charge carriers move through vacuum
Act as switch or amplifier
Large
Fragile (glass)
Inefficient (produces waste heat)
Complex construction
Short-life
Expensive
Difficult to integrate into circuits

Solid state devices

Semiconducting materials (doped silicon)
Charge carriers move through material
Act as switch or amplifier
Microscopic
Robust
Efficient
Simple Construction
Long-life
Cheap
Easy to integrate into complex circuits

perform an investigation to model the behaviour of semiconductors, including the

creation of a hole or positive charge on the atom that has lost the electron and the
movement of electrons and holes in opposite directions when an electric field is applied
across the semiconductor
Method: Place two halves of an egg carton top-bottom (conduction and valence band
respectively) at 5 cm difference in height (energy gap). Place a marble (electron) in
each egg hole in the lower half. Shake (increase in temperature) the lower half so that a
few marbles jump into the upper carton and creates holes in the bottom half. Raise one
end of the carton (applied potential difference) and the movement of the marbles
represent in flow of charge carriers. Marbles move in the opposite direction of the
electric field, while the electron holes move in the direction of the field.

gather, process and present secondary information to discuss how shortcomings in

available communication technology lead to an increased knowledge of the properties
of materials with particular reference to the invention of the transistor
In electrical appliances, there is often a need to control the direction of current flow,
convert AC into DC, switch current flow on or off, amplify a current or increase the
voltage of signals. Prior to the invention of solid state devices, thermionic devices were
used.

identify data sources, gather, process, analyse information and use available evidence
to assess the impact of the invention of transistors on society with particular reference
to their use in microchips and microprocessors
The invention of transistors benefitted the society greatly and lead to the invention of
integrated circuits and other electric components which could be constructed on a
microchip and microprocessor. Information was able to be stored, transferred ad
processed faster. Through computers and mobile phones, allowed improved transport
and communication methods. This technology is also used in medical equipment and
introduced imaging and other surgical machines.

Ideas to Implementation | Daniel Xuan

The advancement of technology also meant that the demand for electronic goods
increases and resources are allocated into manufacturing, resulting in greater
environmental damage. The unemployment rate increased due to the fact that many
laborious tasks were computerised and our dependency on technology also increased.

4. Investigation into the electrical properties of particular metals at different

temperatures led to the identification of superconductivity and the
exploration of possible applications
- outline the methods used by the Braggs to determine crystal structure

Ideas to Implementation | Daniel Xuan

Diffraction wave phenomenon where the wavefronts spread out
and bend around an obstacle
Diffraction is only obvious when the wavelength is comparable to
the spacing of the slits
Thomas Youngs double slit experiment produced light and dark
parallel bands. Where there is dark, there is destructive
interference and where there is light, there is constructive
interference.
For constructive interference to occur, the waves must be in phase by m where m is a
positive integer (path difference, e.g. path difference is zero at the centre because the
distance the waves travel is the same
Diffraction grating device used to analyse
light sources and consists of a large number
equally spaced lines
dsin = m (m is a positive integer)

Braggs used X-rays (wavelength of 0.1 nm) and

shone it on a crystal lattice (atomic spacing of a
solid is approximately 0.1 nm). They examined the
patterns (Laue pattern) produced by the x-rays after
the rays passed through the crystal and hit a
photographic screen and used to determine the
internal structure of the lattice. The incident X-ray is
represented by two parallel beams of X-rays A and B
which are initially in phase. However, ray B strikes
the second plane of the crystal and travels a further
distance of 2dsin which was then used to derive
Braggs equation.
Braggs contribution to understanding crystal
structure:
- Calculation of angles between bright spots allowed the determination of internal
crystal structure
- Evidence for the periodic atomic structure
- Method to determine crystal structures
- Mathematical expression (Braggs Law: n = 2dsin where n is an integer)
-

identify that metals possess a crystal lattice structure

Through Braggs diffraction of X-ray on metal salts, the crystal lattice structure of the
metal can be determined.

describe conduction in metals as a free movement of electrons unimpeded by the

lattice
Delocalised electrons do not interact with cations except for collisions, where the
velocity of the electron is abruptly changed as a result. They maintain thermal
equilibrium throughout the lattice and do not interact with each other.

of

Ideas to Implementation | Daniel Xuan

-

identify that resistance in metals is increased by the presence of impurities and

scattering of electrons by lattice vibrations
The flow of electrons is inversely related to the resistance of the metals.
Type of metal: The resistivity varies with the type of metal.
Purity: Impurities modify the crystal lattice of the metal and consequently disrupt the
flow of electrons.
Temperature: At room temperature, cations oscillate about their equilibrium positions
and the lattice oscillation produce phonons (packets of vibration energy). Phonons are
exchanged between electrons and cations (electron-phonon interaction) and impedes
with the flow of electron. As the temperature increases, electrons and cations have a
greater kinetic energy so there are more inelastic collisions and results in the transfer
of energy to the lattice thus the resistivity is increased.

describe the occurrence in superconductors below their critical temperature of a

population of electron pairs unaffected by electrical resistance
Superconductivity property of zero resistance exhibited at very low absolute
temperatures
Critical temperature (Tc) is the temperature below which an object exhibits
superconductivity.

Critical temperature of mercury (type I superconductor) is 4.125K

Magnetic properties of superconductor:
Meissner effect: A superconductor has zero DC resistance
and as a result there cannot be any magnetic field inside a
superconductor. When the metal becomes superconducting
in presence of a weak external magnetic field, the field was
expelled from the superconductor. As the external magnetic
field increases, the current will increase to prevent external
magnetic field penetration.
Superconductors lose their superconductive behaviour
above a certain temperature dependant critical magnetic
field.
Critical magnetic field of mercury is 0.0411 T.
-

discuss BCS theory

BCS theory states that:
- single electrons do not carry electric current in superconductor
- Cooper pairs paired electrons carry current
Conduction of current in superconductors:
1) Electron-phonon interaction: Phonons are exchanged
between electrons and cations during collisions.
2) Lattice distortion: At below critical temperatures,
electrons move slowing through the lattice and attracts
the surrounding cations to create a more positively
charged region.
3) Cooper pair formation: A second electron is then
attracted to the charge distortion and the two
electrons are indirectly attracted to each other (the
two electrons must be travelling in opposite direction).
The weak attraction caused by the distortion creates a
bound state of the electrons and thus a Cooper pair is formed.

Ideas to Implementation | Daniel Xuan

The lattice distortion establishes an electric force attraction between the electron and
positive charge density which is greater than the repulsive forces between electrons.
This results in electron pairing and an assisted passage through the lattice with zero
energy loss as there is no collision with the lattice. Cooper pairs carry supercurrent
relatively unobstructed and facilitated by thermal vibrations.
-

discuss the advantage of using superconductors and identify limitations to their use
Advantages
Disadvantages
Type I
- Malleable/ductile
- Low critical temperature
- Can withstand physical impact
(requires intense cooling)
- Easily produced
- Cost to maintain
temperature
Type II
- Liquid nitrogen can cool below
- Brittle
- Not ductile
critical temperature
- Chemically unstable in
- Higher critical temperature
some environments
- Difficult to manufacture
Both
- Cheaper to run using electricity
- Efficient (no resistance = no
energy loss)
Superconductors are used in medical equipment (MRIs) for detecting brain disorders.
However, they are very expensive to manufacture and to run (cooling).

process information to identify some of the metals, metal alloys and compounds that
have been identified as exhibiting the property of superconductivity and their critical
temperatures
Type II superconductors are compounds formed from the elements of the transition and
actinide series. They are characterised by two critical magnetic fields (B c1 and Bc2).
When the applied field is less than Bc1, the material is superconducting and there is no
flux penetration. When the applied field is between B c1 and Bc2, the material is in a
mixed state known as the vortex state.
Vortex state: Vortex regions are filaments of
normal material that allow flux penetration.
The material still has zero resistance.
The Bc2 of type II superconductors is much larger
than the Bc of type I superconductors.
YBa2Cu3O7 has a critical temperature of 93K

perform an investigation to demonstrate magnetic levitation

Method: Cool superconducting material below critical temperature using liquid nitrogen
and place a small magnet on top.
Result: The magnet levitates above the superconductor.
Conclusion: Repulsive force between magnet and superconductor is equal to the weight
force of the magnet.

analyse information to explain why a magnet is able to hover above a superconducting

material that has reached the temperature at which it is superconducting
Cooper pairs form when the temperature of the superconductor is reduced to below
critical temperature, and allows the electron pairs to travel through lattice unimpeded.
In presence of an external magnetic fields, the electron pairs begin to create current

Ideas to Implementation | Daniel Xuan

loops that produce a magnetic field to prevent flux penetration of the rare earth
magnet into the superconductor (Meissner effect). As the type II superconductor
experiences a change in flux, surface currents (no resistance) are induced to produce a
strong magnetic field equal in magnitude and opposite direction to the field of the
magnet (Lenzs Law). The repulsive force between the magnet and superconductor
counteract the weight force of the magnet.
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gather and process information to describe how superconductors and the effects of
magnetic fields have been applied to develop a maglev train
Maglev trains levitate from the guide way (corresponding to the rail tracks of
conventional railways) by using electromagnetic forces between superconducting
magnets on board the train and coils on the ground. Since there is no contact, there is
no friction between the surfaces and allows higher speed.
1) Magnetic levitation A superconductor is place at the bottom of the train and when
the train passes, an electric current is induced within the coils under the rails, which
then act as electromagnets temporarily. As a result, there are forces which pushes
and pulls the superconducting magnet upward simultaneously.
2) Lateral guidance When the train passes, an electric current is induced in the coils
and displaces the train laterally, There is a repulsion and attractive force on both
sides of the train which allows it to position the train in the centre of the track.
3) Propulsion Propulsion coils located on the sideways are energised by a three-phase
alternating current creating a shifting magnetic field which repels and attracts the
train forward.

process information to discuss possible applications of superconductivity and the

effects of those applications on computers, generators and motors and transmission of
electricity through power grids
Computers: Integrated circuits can process large amount of data and only takes a small
amount of space. The speed and further miniaturisation of computer chip are limited by
the generation of heat. Supercomputers are able to perform extremely complex
operations at much enhanced speed. However, it requires coolants to run.
Motors and generators: The low resistance means that with any given voltage, the net
current flow in motors will be greater. Since there is no loss of energy, motors are more
efficient and smaller as it does not require an iron core.
Power transmission and transformers: There is no energy loss during power
transmission and can carry three times more current. This would reduce cost of power
and satisfy the growing demand for electricity. However, due to their brittle nature and
the requirement to cool superconductors below critical temperatures, superconductors
are not used as transmission lines.