Tunnel Systems

systems
NETWORK
ISSUE NO. 78 DECEMBER 2014
A technical journal by Parsons Brinckerhoff employees and colleagues http://www.pbworld.com/news/publications.aspx
PARSONS BRINCKERHOFF
Tunnel Systems
Fire
Table
andofLife
Contents
Safety
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Tunnel Systems
INTRODUCTION
CLIMATE CHANGE AND RESILIENCY
Global Perspectives on Tunnel Systems

John Munro, Kate Hunt, Steven Lai, Argun Bagis..............3
Railway Cooling Challenges

Mark Gilbey .........................................................................60
FIRE AND LIFE SAFETY
Dynamo Enhancing Tunnel Ventilation Modelling

Jolyon Thompson ................................................................63
Subway Tunnel Cross-Passage Spacing:

A Performance-Based Approach
William D. Kennedy, Justin M. Edenbaum, Mia Kang,
Kirk G. Rummel....................................................................10
A Note on Fixed Fire Fighting Systems in Road Tunnels
Anna Xiaohua Wang, Norman Rhodes ...........................13
Fixed Fire Fighting Systems in Road Tunnels
System Integration
Matt Bilson, Sal Marsico ....................................................16
Fire-Life Safety and System Integration: The Functional
Mode Table
Matt Bilson, Andrew Gouge...............................................19
DECEMBER 2014 http://www.pbworld.com/news/publications.aspx
VENTILATION SYSTEMS
Using Quantified Risk Assessment to Inform
Ventilation System Responses
Kate Hunt ............................................................................23
A Risk-Based Approach to Jet Fan Optimisation
Anthony Ridley ....................................................................26
Cost-Effective Ventilation System for a Light Rail
Transit Project
Silas Li, Andrew Louie ........................................................30
Meeting the Challenges of Smoke Duct Fan Selection
for Australian Road Tunnels
Chris Chen ...........................................................................34
Analysis Considering the Conversion of an Existing Road
Tunnel Transverse Ventilation System to Transit Use
Jesse Harder, Andrew Louie, Vamsidhar Palaparthy,
Silas Li...................................................................................37
Long Road Tunnels and Portal Emission Control
Argun Bagis, Duncan Saunsbury ......................................41
Merging Emergency Ventilation System Sound Power
and Pressure Drop Calculations
Michael MacNiven ..............................................................44
Cost-Effective Power Supply Scheme for Tunnel
Booster Fans in Long Tunnels
CC Cheung, Steven Lai ......................................................48
Air Purification System for a Road Tunnel Project
Cathy Kam, Chris Ma, Steven Lai .....................................51
PRESSURE TRANSIENT
Elimination of Portal Flares
Kenneth J. Harris, Bobby J. Melvin, Steve Gleaton ..........52
Comparison of 3-D and 1-D CFD Simulation Approach
for Aerodynamic Effects in a HSR Tunnel System
Dicken KH Wu, Rambo RB Ye ............................................55
ASSET MANAGEMENT AND PROGRAM

SUPPORT
Asset Management Database for the Brooklyn
Battery Tunnel
Ferdinand Portuguez, Debra Moolin..................................67
COMMUNICATIONS / POWER AND

ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
SCADA System Security for Two UK Road Tunnels
Peter Massheder ................................................................71
CCTV Design for a US Road Tunnel
Ryan Williams .....................................................................73
How Alternating Current Interacts with Direct Current
in the Shatin to Central Link Traction Systems in
Hong Kong A Quantitative Approach
Sam Pang ............................................................................76
CONSTRUCTION AND REHABILITATION

Tunnel Inspection Basics for Mechanical and
Electrical Systems
James Stevens, Mark VanDeRee.......................................81
Tunnel Sump Construction Savings Through Drainage
System Design Modification
Kevin Stewart ......................................................................86
LIGHTING
The Modernization of Tunnel Lighting and Controls:
Technology, Challenges, and Cost of Implementing a
Tunnel LED Lighting System
Christopher J. Leone, Jonathan T. Weaver,
Kimberly Molloy ..................................................................89
SES AND MODELING

Evaluating Freeze Protection Needs with CFD
Raylene C. Moreno .............................................................92
Computational Modeling as an Alternative to FullScale Testing for Tunnel Fixed Fire Fighting Systems
Kenneth J. Harris ................................................................96
Latest Enhancements to the Subway Environment
Simulation (SES) Program
Andrew Louie, Tom O'Dwyer, Silas Li ............................. 100
Use of Building Information Modelling (BIM) on Road
Tunnels and Metro Projects
YF Pin, R. Ashok Kumar, Steven Lai ............................... 102
Call for Articles .............................................................. 104
Introduction: Global Perspectives on

Tunnel Systems
Advances in tunnel systems have evolved to account for

a changing world, and Parsons Brinckerhoffs response
has been to ensure that we are both anticipating and
responding to these changes and challenges as they occur and that we continue to provide innovative and robust
solutions to our clients.
Responding to the challenges of climate change, and
the resiliency needed to adapt to a rapidly changing
climate, or providing sustainable energy and environmental solutions require advances in existing tunnel
system technologies and new technologies. Examples
of this could be the design of a sustainable LED lighting solution for the Queens Midtown Tunnel in New York
or using groundwater to cool the rising temperatures
in the London Underground tunnels (see Mark Gilbeys
article in this issue).
Parsons Brinckerhoff remains at the forefront of the
provision of tunnel safety system solutions and their
continued improvement as technology evolves. Our understanding of fire behavior and development in tunnels has increased considerably as a result of testing
1
programs such as the Memorial Tunnel Fire tests1 in

West Virginia, led by Parsons Brinckerhoff, and more
recently the Runehammer fire test program in Europe.
This has allowed us to develop more focused strategies that address individual tunnel fire sizes and specific risks. For example, Parsons Brinckerhoff designed
a tunnel fire suppression system for the Doyle Drive
tunnel project in California. The recently opened Airport
Link tunnel in Australia has emergency exits with builtin voice messages to guide users to safety in the event
of a fire incident.
Although systems technology has advanced significantly
over the years, we must keep asking: What will the needs
be for future tunnel owners, operators, and users and
how do we develop our tunnel systems to respond to
those needs?
The imperative to provide resiliency in our designs and to
ensure that our designs are also energy efficient and sustainable are what drives our solutions. Parsons Brinckerhoff has become a charter member of the Institute for
Sustainable Infrastructure to affirm our commitment to
the underlying principles of sustainable infrastructure, as
well as the specific, evolving practices that characterize
sustainable solutions. Our tunnel systems designers are
trained in sustainability assessment.
We also need to keep researching and innovating. Our
2014 William Barclay Parsons Fellowship winner, Anna
Wang of our tunnel systems team in New York, is developing a model to predict the interaction of fixed fire fighting systems on tunnel fires. The outcome of this work
will be used to achieve more efficient designs leading
to considerable cost savings for our clients. (See Anna
Wang and Norman Rhodes article in this issue.)
Finally, we need to recognize that smart or connected
road and rail vehicles are a rapidly developing part of our
For decades, Parsons Brinckerhoff has been at the forefront of providing innovative tunnel systems solutions
to our clients. In 1973 at the First International Symposium on Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels in Canterbury England, attended by representatives
from 26 different countries, a paper was presented on
the Subway Environmental Simulation (SES) program codeveloped by the late William D. Kennedy. That paper led
directly to a contract for the design of an extension to
the Hong Kong Metro and, out of that project, Parsons
Brinckerhoffs Hong Kong office was established. Over
40 years later in 2015, Dr. Norman Rhodes of Parsons
Brinckerhoff will chair the 2015 16th International Symposium on Aerodynamics, Ventilation, & Fire in Tunnels
to be held in Seattle.
Fire and
Introduction
Introduction
Life Safety
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See Pioneering New Technology: PBs Innovation in M&E Analysis and Design, (Network #34, Spring 1996) for three articles on the Memorial
Tunnel Fire Ventilation Test Program, at the time the most comprehensive full-scale fire ventilation testing undertaken.
Fire andIntroduction
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present and future. Parsons Brinckerhoff is involved
in a program to evaluate connected vehicle technology. The potential for connected vehicles to interact
with tunnel systems is limitless. Imagine a tunnel ventilation system that automatically regulates its airflow
based on the number and type of vehicles travelling
through the tunnel or a deluge system putting out a
vehicle fire without waiting for a tunnel operator to respond to the emergency.
Tunneling Overview in the United States

by John Munro, New York, NY, US, +1-212-465-5588,
munroj@pbworld.com
Standards such as NFPA 130, Standard for Fixed Guideway Transit and Passenger Rail Systems,2 or NFPA 502,
Standard for Road Tunnels, Bridges, and Other Limited
Access Highways, have been a cornerstone guiding the
design of tunnel systems for the last few decades. In
many countries, these have been used as the de-facto
international standards shaping the design of tunnel solutions globally.
In the United States, Parsons Brinckerhoff has been central in shaping the direction of both NFPA 130 and NFPA
502 through active committee participation and chairmanship. Perhaps the most significant development
in recent years is the change from purely prescriptive
standards to standards that allow performance-based
approaches. For example, NFPA 130 states: Nothing in
this standard is intended to prevent or discourage the
use of new methods, materials, or devices, provided that
sufficient technical data are submitted to the authority
having jurisdiction (AHJ) to demonstrate that the new
method, material, or device is equivalent or superior to
the requirements of this standard with respect to fire
performance and life safety.
The change from prescriptive to performance-based
designs has led to a situation where designers can
exercise a greater level of flexibility and innovation in
providing solutions for our clients. For example, previous standards prescribed a fan inlet temperature that
had to be met without regard to the actual temperature
that a fan inlet may experience in a fire. The current
standards require that designers analyze the actual fan
inlet temperatures that would be experienced for the
type of fire that could be realized in relation to the specific rolling stock for that system. Another example is
described in Subway Tunnel Cross-Passage Spacing: A

Performance-Based Approach, by Kennedy, Edenbaum,
et al, which shows that the spacing of cross-passages,
the width of walkways, and the width of cross-passages
all have an effect on the simulated evacuation time from
a train stopped in a tunnel.
Performance-based design challenges designers to
more accurately define inputs and parameters, and thus
create more accurate models. As with any engineering
design, the more accurately you can define and analyze
the situation, the less conservative the design and,
hence, more value is provided to our clients.
An example of Parsons Brinckerhoff adding value for
our clients by more accurately defining design inputs
is in the area of analyzing design fires. Historically, design fires were prescribed, often conservatively, based
on limited information at the time. The advancement
of analysis tools, such as computational fluid dynamics (CFD), coupled with better research data, allows us
to much more accurately define the design fire which
is a major criterion in tunnel system design. CFD and
risk analysis were used on recent projects to determine
the fire curves for the projects, ultimately leading to a
cost-effective design. (See Cost-Effective Ventilation
System for a Light Rail Transit Project, by Silas Li and
Andrew Louie.)
As alternative procurement and delivery methods, such
as design-build, become more frequent in the US, performance-based tunnel systems design can play a central
role in providing value. Design-build projects are essentially outcome-based and innovation plays a central role
in defining their success. The flexibility of performancebased design not only allows but encourages innovation,
making it an ideal design methodology that is suited to
design-build projects. On recent projects, we have been
using the latest fire modeling and heat transfer techniques to refine tunnel structure thickness requirements
due to fire effects. Reducing structural thickness can
reduce construction cost and delivery schedules.
In addition to the design and construction of new tunnels, such as the recently opened Port of Miami Tunnel,
there is an increasing focus in the US on aging infrastructure. MAP-21 (the Moving Ahead for Progress in the
21st Century Act of 2012) includes funding for continued improvement to tunnel conditions that are essential to protect the safety of the traveling public. Parsons
Brinckerhoff has continually developed and refined our
NFPA 130 (2014) and NFPA 502 (2014), National Fire Protection Association, www.nfpa.org
High speed rail projects frequently involve long tunnels and long distances between stations. Parsons
Brinckerhoff can draw on global and local experience
to provide solutions for unique challenges such as
analyzing the pressure waves associated with high
speed trains (see article by Wu and Ye) and providing
cost-effective tunnel ventilation and fire and life safety strategies to accommodate the extended egress
distances of long tunnels.
Tunnelling Overview in the United Kingdom,

Europe, and the Middle East
by Kate Hunt, Godalming, UK, +44 (0)1483 528966,
huntk@pbworld.com
The UKs tunnelling market has seen substantial and rapid
growth in recent times, with more tunnels predicted in the
near future for the rail, metro, road, and utilities networks.
The 1990s saw a number of significant new tunnelling
projects including the opening of the Limehouse Link
tunnel (road 1993), the landmark Channel Tunnel (rail
1994), the Jubilee Line Extension (metro - 1999) and,
more recently, the High Speed 1 tunnels (high speed
rail 2007), the Lower Lea Valley utilities tunnel (2012),
and the long-awaited Hindhead Tunnel (road - 2011). The
Docklands Light Railway added new tunnels as part of
the Lewisham (rail 1999) and the Woolwich Arsenal
extension (rail 2009). The Crossrail project, a new commuter line railway running East/West below Central London, is also in construction.
In addition, significant investment has been made to
refurbish, upgrade, and improve a number of key road
tunnels around the UK including the Hatfield and Bell
Common tunnels (on Londons M25 orbital motorway),
the Mersey tunnels (Liverpool), Tyne Tunnel (Tyneside),
Saltash Tunnel (in the South-West), and refurbishment is
ongoing or planned for the North Wales Coast Road tunnels and the Brynglas Motorway tunnel (South Wales).
3
Alongside this infrastructure investment, Transport for

Londons metro operator, London Underground, has been
investing heavily in replacing the fleet and increasing the
service levels on all their lines. Parsons Brinckerhoff has a
long and ongoing history of assisting London Underground
in these works. Looking to the future, we are working towards the construction phase of High Speed 2, linking
London with Birmingham and on to the North East and
Scotland; phase 1 of the route alone features a dozen
new high speed rail tunnels ranging in length from just
500 metres (1640 feet) to an impressive 13 kilometres
(8 miles). Other tunnel-related rail projects in the planning stages include the Northern line extension to Battersea, the Bakerloo line southern extension, and Crossrail
Phase 2. In addition, further tunnelled crossings of the
River Thames are being considered, along with a number
of urban road tunnels on the periphery of London.
However, the investment in the UKs tunnels market was
small in comparison to the enterprising projects undertaken in Scandanavia, Istanbul, the Middle East, and Israel. A new fixed link between the countries of Sweden
and Denmark was opened in 2000: the resundsbron
linked the metropolitan areas of Copenhagen in Denmark and Malm in Sweden via a combined rail and road
link consisting of the 8 kilometre long (5 mile) resund
bridge and 4 kilometre (2.4 mile) Drogden tunnel. Similarly, the Marmaray Crossing in Istanbul (opened in 2013)
successfully negotiated the Bosphorus Strait - one of the
busiest shipping lanes in the world - to connect the European and Asian parts of the old city via a 1.5 kilometre
(.9 mile) immersed tube tunnel the worlds deepest at
60 metres (196 feet) below sea level.3
Meanwhile, in the Middle East, more than $279 billion
worth of projects were being planned or underway in
2012. A high proportion of these are in the transport
sector, including metro schemes for Abu Dhabi, Cairo,
Doha, Jeddah, Kuwait, Riyadh, and Tehran.
Similarly, designs for the proposed metro in Israels Tel
Aviv urban district continue to be developed, with the
construction phase drawing nearer. At the same time,
plans for a high speed rail line from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem
are being developed.
Many of our past and current projects involve technical innovations, or cutting edge techniques to address clients
unique challenges. Whether we are providing strategic advice to operators (see the Railway Cooling Challenges
article by Mark Gilbey in this issue), leading discussions
For 18 articles on many aspects of this multidisciplinary project including 5 articles on tunnel mechanical and electrical systems, see Linking Two
Continents: The Marmaray Project, Network #65, June 2007, pp 1-58.
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techniques, including using the latest inspection and asset management technologies, to efficiently assess existing tunnel infrastructure (see articles by Stevens and
VanDeRee; and by Portuguez and Moolin). Following the
assessment, our performance-based methodologies are
used to develop innovative upgrades that provide a level
of safety equivalent to code-compliant solutions and that
minimize or eliminate interruptions to tunnel operations.
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with the UKs Climate Projections group (UKCP), developing a new toolset such as DYNAMO to address a developing market (see Dr. Jolyon Thompsons article in this
issue, a version of which won the 2014 Parsons Brinckerhoff Emerging Professionals Technical Paper competition), developing sustainable designs through the use of
innovative cooling techniques such as groundwater cooling or embedded liners, using the latest risk-based techniques to optimise designs and operations (see articles
in this issue by Kate Hunt and Anthony Ridley), or introducing world-class high speed rail to the UK, our team of
engineers is at the forefront of innovation.
Parsons Brinckerhoff continues to retain its high profile in
tunnel systems capability through many of the major projects being undertaken. Parsons Brinckerhoffs in-depth
knowledge and internationally renowned global team is
able to deliver technical excellence to clients across all
geographies and all sectors. As we engage with WSP,
the challenge in the Europe, Middle East, and North Africa regions is to enhance our service offering across a
broader range of sectors, to embrace the many exciting
opportunities available, and to continue to provide our
clients with the technical excellence they rightly expect of
Parsons Brinckerhoff.
Tunneling Overview in Asia

by Steven Lai, Hong Kong/Singapore, +852-2963-7625

/ +65-6589-3661, lai.steven@pbworld.com
Parsons Brinckerhoff has a rich history of working on

major tunnel projects and designing innovative solutions
for tunnel systems in Asia. Some of these designs, concepts, and challenges are presented below.
Closed systems and platform screen doors. In the
1970s, Parsons Brinckerhoff introduced an energy efficient closed system for the first metro in Hong Kong
thereby providing a comfortable air-conditioned station
environment for passengers. Then in late 1970s, with
the availability of a more advanced signaling system for
accurate train stopping positions, Parsons Brinckerhoff
introduced the platform screen door (PSD) system for the
first metro in Singapore and has continued to be involved
in this design for other metro systems in the region (e.g.,
Japan, India, Mainland China, Taiwan, Thailand, and Vietnam). A PSD system can provide a more comfortable and
less dusty environment inside the station, for example,
25 degrees C instead of 28 degrees C (77 degrees F
instead of 82 degrees F), a reduction of air velocity at the

platform edge and staircases, and a lower noise level.
Better land use and increased carrying capacity. Parsons
Brinckerhoff provided engineering design support in the
conversion of an elevated metro line to an underground
metro line in Taiwan, resulting in better land use and a
better interchange (transfer) arrangement with other metro lines. Parsons Brinckerhoff is also assisting various
clients in increasing the capacity of existing metro lines
through extending the catchment area, modification of rolling stock, and reducing headway of the trains. Subway Environment Simulation (SES), computational fluid dynamics
(CFD) modeling, and evacuation models have been used to
study the impact of these methods on the environmental
control systems (ECS) and the fire and life safety systems
in stations and tunnels and to assist clients in establishing cost-effective design schemes.
Fire engineering approach. Since the mid 1990s, a
performance-based fire engineering approach has been
widely used to analyse the heat release rate from a train,
the tenable environment along the evacuation path, etc.
Parsons Brinckerhoff has adopted this approach for projects in Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Singapore, and was recognized with an award for innovation for the design of a
station with an atrium in Shanghai. Parsons Brinckerhoff
has also assisted metro companies in the integration of
individual operations control centers (OCC) for existing
lines and new lines in the region.
Pressure transient from high speed trains. The high speed
trains in Taiwan and Mainland China travel at 300kph
(186mph) or even greater speeds. The pressure transient
created by high speed trains can create issues for the
passengers inside the trains, stations, and areas around
ventilation shafts and tunnel portals. Parsons Brinckerhoff
has developed various mitigation schemes which have
been used to resolve the pressure transient issues in the
Hong Kong Airport Express Railway, Taiwan High Speed
Railway, West Rail in Hong Kong, several metro systems in
mainland China, and Express Railway Link in Hong Kong.
(See article by Dicken Wu and Rambo Ye in this issue.)
Parsons Brinckerhoffs work on road tunnels includes:
design of the 2km (1.2 mile) Cross Harbour Tunnel in
Hong Kong in which a transverse ventilation system
was used;
design of a longitudinal ventilation systems for road
tunnels in Singapore with the use of the critical velocity concept;
New challenges in tunnel systems. Nowadays, exceptionally long tunnels with large cross-sectional areas
and/or multi-purpose tunnels create new challenges
to engineers. Parsons Brinckerhoff has participated in
the following design of tunnel systems for several special tunnel projects in China:
the 18km long (11 mile) Zhong Nam Shan Tunnel with
very long ventilation shafts, more than 500 meter
(1640 feet);
the 6km long (3.7 mile) Chongming road tunnel which
links Shanghai to the out-lying Chongming Island and
has an upper deck for vehicular traffic and a lower for
the metro line;
the 2km long (1.2 mile) Fuxing East Road Tunnel in
Shanghai which also has an upper deck and a lower
deck both of which are used for vehicular traffic; and
the Macau Sai Van Bridge which has an upper deck
used for vehicular traffic and an enclosed lower deck
used for light rail operation (normal condition) and vehicular tunnel operation (during typhoon conditions).
Value engineering and cost effective design. Parsons
Brinckerhoff has developed various value engineering
schemes and creative approaches to achieve cost effective design for our clients and provide a better environment for the people. These schemes include:
the use of combined ventilation shafts instead of individual ventilation shafts to reduce the constraint on the
station planning and the size of aboveground structures
(Suzhou metro);
the use of a centralized chilled water system to reduce
the overall spatial requirement and result in a more energy-saving system (Tsuen Wan Line in Hong Kong);
the use of higher voltage to supply the power for tun-
nel ventilation equipment in long tunnels to reduce the

cable cost and overall spatial requirement, as described
in an article by CC Cheung and Steven Lai in this issue
(Airport Express Line in Hong Kong, Cheung Ching Tunnel in Hong Kong);
sharing of tunnel ventilation fans for different lines (Taiwan Nankong Extension);
use of Saccardo nozzles to replace numerous jet fans
(West Rail in Hong Kong, KPE in Singapore);
use of tunnel cooling systems for long tunnels to reduce
the number of ventilation shaft structures (Tsuen Wan
Line in Hong Kong); and
the use of water mist systems to cool down long vehicular tunnels (Chongming road tunnel in Shanghai).
Apart from the above, with the use of CFD modelling,
Parsons Brinckerhoff has designed and developed costeffective ventilation systems for various cable tunnels in
Hong Kong, Singapore, and Mainland China.
Building Information Modelling. To increase productivity
and provide a better visualization of complicated engineering solutions to stakeholders, Parsons Brinckerhoff
is the first company in Hong Kong to use building information modelling (BIM) for the tunnel systems of a road
tunnel project. Parsons Brinckerhoff is also the first company in Singapore to use BIM for designing the mechanical and electrical (M&E) systems in a metro project, and
has also used BIM for a cable tunnel project in Singapore. (See article by YF Pin, R. Ashok Kumar, and Steven
Lai in this issue.)
Tunnelling Outlook in Australia and New

Zealand
by Argun Bagis, Sydney, AUS, 61-2-9272 5435,
bagisa@pbworld.com
Australias population is projected to grow significantly by
2050, with Sydney, Melbourne, and Brisbane identified as
cities where the majority of this growth will take place. Accordingly, the development of road and rail infrastructure
has been at the forefront of the Australian governments
priorities and has resulted in the construction of a number of strategic road tunnels, and the safeguarding of rail
corridors, primarily on the eastern coast of Australia.
There are a significant number of tunnelling projects in
the works for the latter half of this decade. Funding has
already been approved for most of the nine new tunnels
minimizing the tunnel construction cost of the 3.9km

long (2.4 mile) Tates Cairn Tunnel in Hong Kong with
the use of construction shafts as permanent ventilation
adits, which also resulted in early completion of this
design-build project;
design of the 2km long (1.2 mile) Western Harbour
Crossing in Hong Kong with optimized mechanical and
electrical (M&E) services and ventilation ducts. This reduced the overall immersed tube tunnel cross-section
and resulted in construction cost savings; and
design of an Air Purification System (APS) for the Central
and Wanchai Bypass project in Hong Kong in order to produce cleaner air at the tunnel portals and the ventilation
buildings. This system has been applied to various road
tunnels in order to achieve a better environment. (See article by Cathy Kam, Chris Ma, and Steven Lai in this issue.)
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8.0 $ Billion
Forecast
Brisbane
Underground (QLD)
Forresteld Airport Rail Link (WA)

6.0
M4 East (NSW)
Toowoomba Range Second Crossing (QLD)
Lane Cove
Tunnel (NSW)
Legacy Way (QLD)
2.0
East-West Link
Eastern Section (VIC)
CityLink Western (VIC)
M1 to M2
Link (NSW)
Cross
City Tunnel
(NSW)
03
05
Year ended June
East-West
Link
Western
Section
(VIC)
M5 East (NSW)
North-South Bypass
Tunnel (QLD)
East Link (VIC)
0.0
East-West
Link (QLD)
North West Rail Link (NSW)
Airport Link (QLD)
4.0
M4 South (NSW)
Melbourne Rail Link (VIC)
07
09
11
13
15
17
19
21
23
Source: BIS Shrapnel, ABS Data
Figure 1 Major road and rail projects with tunnel components (value of work done)
currently being planned along the east coast of Australia, with the west coast expecting some movement as
well with the planning of an extension to the existing
metro system.
In addition, the Australian government is focused on

shifting the transportation of freight from road to diesel
rail. This raises the need to upgrade existing rail infrastructure as well as to develop new rail routes to relieve
the already congested east coast rail network. Rail projects linking the city of Brisbane with Melbourne over a
new inland rail path, the extension of this rail path to
the Port of Brisbane, and the Maldon to Dombarton rail
link in New South Wales are initiatives that have been
brought to the forefront of infrastructure spending. Tunnel ventilation and fire & life safety are key aspects in
the successful delivery of these projects.
Figure 1 provides both a summary and a forecast for
the tunnelling sector in Australia, from 2003 through to
2023. As is evident from the graph, the outlook for tunnel projects from 2014 onward is looking very positive,
and there will be a strong need for specialist engineering services, such as in tunnel ventilation. Brisbane,
QLD in particular became (and continues to be) a major centre for tunnelling construction in Australia, with
the construction of the M7 Clem Jones Tunnel (Clem
7), Airport Link and Northern Busway, and Legacy Way
(still under construction) road tunnels. Parsons Brinckerhoff has been involved in the detailed design work on
many unidirectional traffic tunnels. Chris Chens article
on Meeting the Challenges of Smoke Duct Fan Selec-
tion for Australian Road Tunnels describes the unique

fan duty requirements for this type of tunnel ventilation
system, employing a combined longitudinal and distributed smoke extraction ventilation (smoke duct) system
for fire emergencies.
In New Zealand, the Waterview Connection for Aucklands
Western Ring Route is the largest road project ever undertaken in the country, including a 2.5-km long twin-tube
tunnel with three lanes in each tunnel. Parsons Brinckerhoff is a member of the Well-Connected Alliance which is
both delivering the project, and operating and maintaining
the facility for 10 years after the opening. Kevin Stewarts
article on Tunnel Sump Construction Savings through
Drainage System Design Modification describes how this
DBOM project structure gave all parties an interest in costeffective design for both construction and maintenance.
Parsons Brinckerhoff has diversified into non-traditional
road and rail tunnel services. The re-development of existing rail stations, provision of post construction services to tunnel operators, and even mine ventilation have
been markets where Parsons Brinckerhoff has delivered
successful outcomes. Other examples of technical challenges include:
The planning and design of longer tunnels which is gaining momentum in Australia. A reduction in vehicle emissions, traffic fleet composition, and recent innovations
in ventilation plant design have enabled the design of
tunnel lengths to be almost double that of existing Australian tunnels, with fewer intermediate tunnel ventila-
nels. Climate projections beyond 2030 and 2050 are

now commonly used for the design of tunnel ventilation systems.
Overall, the future demand for tunnel ventilation and tunnel systems in Australia looks strong, with funding for
major road and rail tunnel projects already confirmed.
The challenge remains to fully utilise Parsons Brinckerhoffs capability outside of the traditional concept phase
by taking on leading roles in the detailed design, construction, and operation phases, as on the Victoria Park
Tunnel and the Waterview Connection projects.
John Munro
Director, M&E
New York, NY, US
Steven Kam-Hung LAI

Director, Infrastructure, China Region
Hong Kong
Kate Hunt
Service Leader, Tunnel Ventilation &
Fire Engineering (RMS), Rail & Transit
Godalming, UK
Argun Bagis
Principal Engineer, Tunnel Systems
Australia, New Zealand
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tion plants. There are currently three tunnels in the early

design phase with lengths expected to be in the 8-9
kilometre (5-5.6 mile) mark.
The current Australian policy to limit emissions at
tunnel portals (see the article on Long Road Tunnels and Portal Emission Control in this issue) continues to be a major factor in increased energy use
in Australian road tunnels.
The relatively hot Australian climate, principally in mid
to north Australia, has made the effects of climate
change a key consideration in the design of tunnel
ventilation systems, particularly in relation to rail tun-
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Subway Tunnel Cross-Passage Spacing:

A Performance-Based Approach
by the late William D. Kennedy; Justin M. Edenbaum, Toronto, Canada, +1-917-225-6314, Edenbaum@pbworld.com;
Mia Kang (formerly of Parsons Brinckerhoff); and Kirk G. Rummel (formerly of Parsons Brinckerhoff)
William D. Kennedy, an internationally recognized expert in tunnel ventilation, died in June 2012. During a 46year career with Parsons Brinckerhoff, he was instrumental in the development of tunnel ventilation systems
for road and rail tunnels worldwide. His reputation in tunnel ventilation was recognized in March 2012 by the
International Symposium on Tunnel Safety and Security, which awarded him its 2012 Achievement Award,
citing his long and illustrious career in ventilation engineering of tunnels and calling his lifetime body of work
a shining example of wedding practice and theory in the design of tunnels.
This abstract is condensed from a paper that was originally prepared for the 2006 APTA Rail Conference and
has been updated to reflect the current 2014 version of NFPA 130.
10
The US National Fire Protection Association's Standard

130, "Fixed Guideway Transit and Passenger Rail Systems," requires that tunnel-to-tunnel cross-passages shall
be spaced a maximum of 800 feet (244 meters) apart.
No guidance is provided on how the actual spacing should
be determined. Intuition says that the spacing should vary
with the length of the train, the number of passengers on
board the train, the walkway width, the design fire scenario,
etc. This paper presents a performance-based approach
for calculating cross-passage spacing for downstream
emergency evacuations from the fire site, and discusses
NFPA 130 compliant methodologies for reducing the numbers of cross-passages required. The performance-based
calculations include the use of computer software for analyzing and comparing exiting strategies. The simulations
account for the geometry of a bored tunnel.
Introduction
Based on earlier emergency ventilation studies, it was
concluded that the maximum cross-passage spacing
should be such that those downstream of the fire could
evacuate to a point of safety within the time that it
takes for the floor of a train car to burn through (which
leads to flashover of the entire train car).
This leads to the conclusion that increasing the car-floor
burn-through time would allow greater tunnel-to-tunnel
cross-passage spacing and possibly reduce costs. This
is suggested in NFPA 130 (Section 8.5.1.3.2(1)). Another
possibility is wider walkways or cross-passage doors to
speed passenger movement away from the fire site.
It also leads to the inference that an interior or post-flashover fire should not be allowed to stop a train in a tunnel.
Driver override should allow the movement of the train
to the nearest station even if a passenger activates the
emergency brake. The analysis for this paper assumes
that this is the circumstance and that the only fire that
will stop a train in a tunnel is a below-car fire that critically
damages the propulsion system or derails the train.
Physical Scenario for Computer Model

Physical scenarios are simulated using computer modeling to predict the evacuation times for passengers
downstream of the fire site to reach a point of safety.
Seven cross-passage spacings, ten walkway widths, and
one passenger load were analyzed. The computer model
accounts for the unique geometry of a bored tunnel by
considering shoulder space requirements. The simulation results provide sample engineering information to
develop a sample of cost-effective alternatives without
compromising safety.
The physical scenario for modeling is selected to be typical of a heavy- or main-line rail passenger system. The
results of this type of analyses are affected by many specific project factors. Therefore, the results provided in
this paper MUST NOT be directly applied to any projects.
See Figure 1 for data used.
A number of assumptions were made in the model in order to be conservatively safe and simulate a reasonable
worst case situation, such as:
Bored Tunnel Geometry
The location of the fire is in the middle of the train.

The to-be evacuated train has a fire that is aligned with
a cross-passage.
A population of rail passengers consists of typical
commuters with a range of demographics and
walking speeds. (When the given walkway is wide
enough, the model allows faster individuals to overtake slower walkers.)
The fire scenario was assumed to be:
- Time 0 minutes, fire ignition;
- Time 5 minutes, fire reaches below-car fire heat
release rate;
- Time 10 minutes, fire stops train; and
- Time 15 minutes, evacuation begins.
Cross-passage spacing is particularly important in bored

tunnel construction where cross-passages have to be
mined in poor soil. Costs to construct each cross-passage in this situation can be high. The SIMULEX model
inputs are adjusted for a bored tunnel construction. This
leads to the concept of Constructed Width vs. Effective Width. Constructed Width is the actual width of walkway on the ground. Effective Width refers to the width
entered into the SIMULEX model to accurately simulate
the evacuation, relating to factors such as walkway width
at shoulder height and the natural inhibition of walking
near the edge of an empty track.
Figure 2 presents the results of the simulations for 250
people per car and seven cars being evacuated.
Therefore, when calculating the minimum car-floor burnthrough time required, 10 minutes (15-5) should be
added to the evacuation time. This does not include any
allowance for modeling accuracy.
Some observations
Clearly the spacing of cross-passages has a significant

impact on evacuation times. For the assumed data, any
evacuation times required to be lower than 30 minutes,
with train capacities in this study range, and with reasonable walkway and cross-passage widths, require spacing
of cross-passages significantly shorter than the 800 foot
maximum in NFPA 130. Other variables such as walkway
or cross-passage width would also have an impact.
There are significant benefits of wider walkways and
wider cross-passage doors at cross-passage intervals
above 700 feet or so. This is because the wider walkway after the train allows faster passengers to overtake
slower passengers. In general, wider walkway widths
help evacuation scenarios when the spacing has crosspassage doors that are not adjacent to the train and
The evacuation method was assumed to be all doors open

to the walkway with movement to the nearest cross-passage downstream or adjacent to a stopped car. The passengers were considered to reach a point of safety after
reaching 10 feet (3048 mm) inside of the cross-passage.
Downstream
595' (181 m)
Under-Car Fire
W
X
X= Cross Passage Spacing
Upstream
X
(200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, and 800 feet)
(61, 91, 122,152, 183, 213, to 244 meters)
W= Constructed Walkway Width (36, 38, 40, 42, 44, 46, 48, 50, 52, and 54 inches)
(914, 965, 1016, 1067, 1118, 1168, 1219, 1270, 1321, to 1372 mm)
Figure 1 Evacuation Scenarios
"SIMULEX Users Manual"; 1998, Integrated Environmental Solutions, Limited; 141 St. James Road, Glasgow G4 0LT, Scotland.
William D. Kennedy, Norris A. Harvey, and Silas K. Li, Simulation of Escape from Rail Tunnels Using SIMULEX, American Public Transportation
Association (APTA), Boston, Massachusetts, June 2001.
These observations are based on the sample data and

should not be directly applied to other projects.
The emergency exiting analysis was done using the

computer program SIMULEX1, which simulates the emergency exiting of people. The program algorithms for the
movement of individuals are based on real-life data and
predict realistic flow of people. It simulates the escape
movement of each person instead of using a mathematical formula for uniform flow rates and average speeds of
groups of people. This program is well-validated and has
been used to model rail system emergency evacuations
for a number of years2.
Fire and Life Safety
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11
are located far away from the end of the

36:00
1200-foot Cross Passage Spacing
train. Under these circumstances, wider
walkways can be considered as an alterCross
30:00
native to shorter cross-passage spacing.
Passage
Spacings
In the scenario adopted for analysis, it
(feet)
is obvious that shorter cross-passage in800
24:00
700
tervals (in the range of 200 to 500 feet)
600
result in one to three cross-passages
500
400
adjacent to the train immediately ac18:00
300
cessible as soon as the evacuees move
200
onto the walkway. Because the train can
discharge passengers at a greater rate
12:00
than they can exit through cross-passages, the effect of wider walkways in these
06:00
shorter intervals is minimal.
34
38
42
48
50
54
While not immediately apparent from the
Constructed Walkway Width (inches)
data shown, the effect on evacuation
times due to varying passenger travel Figure 2 Time vs. Width
speeds is significant, again, at the lonpassage locations and widths, this approach could be
ger intervals; of interest where continuous movement
used to select car-floor burn-through times when cars
is occurring as opposed to the accumulated congesare retrofitted or new rolling stock is ordered. For future
tion immediately next to the train that dominates the
designs, this approach could be used to develop a cost
shorter spacing cases. Thus, if performing analysis
analysis combining cross-passage spacing and widths,
around cross-passage spacings that are beyond the
car-floor burn-through time, and walkway width; possibly
train, careful attention must be given to the model
increasing the cross-passage spacing beyond the NFPA
inputs for evacuation speeds.
130 maximum of 800 feet (244 meters).
Finally, the model examines the paths of evacuation
up to the point of safety - the cross-passage. A close
Recommendation
examination of the dynamics of the evacuation paths
After peer review this approach could be used to develsuggests that a project-specific application might want
op an enhancement to NFPA 130. This enhancement, in
to consider the entire evacuation pathto whatever
relating cross-passage to other project characteristics,
ends: a rescue train, a station platform, the opposite
could provide a more logical basis for cross-passage
bore trackway, etc. The effects of the complete path
spacing that could be greater or lesser than the current
should be modeled to study if there is an adverse af800-foot requirement (244 meters).
fect of the evacuation in the non-incident tunnel. At
a minimum, such analysis could suggest appropriate
William D. Bill Kennedy was instrumental in the development
instructional and training emphasis.
Evacuation Time (min:sec)

12
NETWORK
Conclusion
A performance-based approach for estimating evacuation times downstream from a tunnel fire site and minimum car-floor burn-through times has been presented.
It allows the trade-off among cross-passage spacing,
car-floor burn-through time, and walkway and cross-passage door width. For existing systems with fixed cross-
of tunnel ventilation systems for road and rail tunnels worldwide

and he led the development of the Subway Environmental System (SES) software program, widely considered the standard tool
for the analysis and design of transit systems.
Justin Edenbaum is a Supervising Mechanical Engineer in the
Toronto office of Parsons Brinckerhoff specializing in tunnel ventilation and fire life safety.
A Note on Fixed Fire Fighting Systems in

Road Tunnels
by Anna Xiaohua Wang, New York, NY, US, +1-212-465-5756, wangx1@pbworld.com; and
Norman Rhodes, New York, NY, US, +1-212-613-8861, rhodesn1@pbworld.com
Historically, the disappointing results of the Ofenegg Tunnel fire tests (1965, Switzerland) had a negative impact on
sprinkler application in tunnels. The tests, which employed
pools of aircraft fuel, led to the view that visibility was
much reduced by the sprinkler systems and hot steam
was generated that could cause scalding at long distances
from the fire. The steam production also displaced smoke
more quickly causing temperatures to be higher than without sprinklers. After extinguishment the fuel continued to
evaporate, reaching critical concentrations within about 20
minutes. Subsequent deflagrations occurred that created
air velocities of up to 30 meters per second.
It was the impact of this experience that was reflected
in the World Road Association (PIARC) recommendations
which, between 1983 (World Road Congress in Sydney)
and 2004, consistently advised against the installation
of fixed fire fighting systems (FFFS) in road tunnels, and
this position was reflected in US standards.
One of the factors that maintained this attitude against
the application of FFFS in tunnels was the fire sizes generally used. The fire sizes chosen on which to base the
design were relatively small20 to 30 MWtypical of
a bus or truck fire. Such fires were regarded as manageable and ventilation systems were sized to control
smoke for such events.
Several severe road tunnel fires - the Mont Blanc Tunnel
(France/Italy, 1999), the Tauern Tunnel (Austria, 1999),
the St. Gotthard Tunnel (Switzerland, 2001), and the Frejus Tunnel (France/Italy, 2005) - resulted in loss of life,
injury, and infrastructure damage that were far more extensive than if they had occurred on surface roadways.
These fire incidents demonstrated that fire sizes could
be much larger than 20-30 MW and completely changed
the perception of the design fire size. Since then the
maximum design fires utilized in tunnel design have increased as much as tenfold in some cases. These re-
cent incidents have emphasized the need for further improvement to be made in tunnel fire management; the
FFFS is one technique that is actively being promoted.
Types of FFFS
Several types of FFFS have been used in road tunnels
worldwide:
Sprinkler/spray (water deluge) systems, based on dense
water jets consisting of large-size droplets;
Water mist systems, based on very fine water droplets;
and
Foam water suppression systems.
Water sprinkler type FFFS have been installed in road
tunnels of significant length for many years in Japan and
Australia. Tunnels that have water deluge fixed fire fighting systems installed can also be found in the United
States, Norway, Canada, and Sweden. These have been
found to be effective in preventing fire spread and enhancing cooling of the tunnel structure. In 1999, two fires
occurred in the underwater tunnels of the Tokyo Metropolitan Expressway and the FFFS helped control the fires
so firefighters could approach and eventually extinguish
the fires. The deluge system in Sydney Harbor Tunnel in
Australia is reported to have worked well during a van fire
in 2004. Another example is the Burnley Tunnel fire in
2007; the deluge system was activated quickly and this
was deemed by firefighters to have kept the fire under
control. Based on this experience, and the development
of alternative types of FFFS, PIARC re-evaluated its position with regard to FFFS and at the same time the European Community undertook research programs to examine
fire suppression and the impact of larger design fires.
Several relevant European research programs, including
UPTUN (Multinational European Research Project) and
the SOLIT (Safety of Life in Tunnels) Project, have demonstrated through independent tunnel fire tests that, with
early activation, high pressure water mist systems can be
effective in controlling potential 200 MW solid fuel fires
Introduction
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13
NETWORK
and 200 MW diesel oil pool fires. The water mist systems
have been installed in the A86 tunnel in Paris, the M30
tunnel in Madrid, the Roertunnel and the Tunnel Swalmen
in the Netherlands, and other tunnels in Europe.
Therefore, FFFS are now increasingly being considered
in the design of tunnel systems worldwide. This position
is also reflected in changes to the recent NFPA 502 and
PIARC documentation.
Choosing a Fire Suppression System
Figure 1 Water sprinkler nozzles in the tunnel
Choosing the type of fire suppression system for a road

tunnel is not an easy decision to make. Some of the different aspects of the systems are as follows:
Water Sprinkler Fire Protection System

The water sprinkler fire protection system (see Figure 1)
has existed for over 100 years and is a commonly used
and reliable technology; deluge water sprinkler systems
are the common FFFS in Australia and Japan. The system
performs very well for Class A (solid fuel) fires, but is considered to be less suited for Class B (liquid fuel, oil) fires
or where "splashing" of the fuel is to be avoided.
14
Water Mist Fire Protection System

Compared to the water sprinkler system, the water mist
system (see Figure 2) generates much smaller water
droplets and therefore has advantages in promoting
more efficient gas-phase cooling and uses 2 to 3 times
less water for road tunnels (depending on the system
used). Both the water mist and water vapor system can
measurably reduce radiant heat flux to objects near
the fire - this helps firefighters approach the fire and
provides better conditions for evacuation. However, because the system contains fine water particles, it may
be less efficient in cooling or wetting the fuel surfaces;
therefore, the system is less efficient to combat solid
fuel fires compared with the water sprinkler system.
Figure 2 Water mist nozzles in the tunnel
Piping Network
Proportioning
Controller
Figure 3 Schematic of a foam-water sprinkler system
CAF Generation
Water
Releasing Controller
Air
Piping Network
Mixing Chamber
Foam Concentrate
Fixed Foam-Water Fire Suppression Systems

Fixed foam-water fire suppression systems may be another alternative to combat tunnel fires. A foam agent
is especially suited for the control and extinguishment
of flammable and combustible liquid-type fires. There are
two types of foam-water fire suppression systems proposed for road tunnels:
the foam-water sprinkler system (see Figure 3); and
the compressed air foam (CAF) system (see Figure 4).
The use of the foam-water sprinkler system against diesel pool fires was investigated in the Memorial Tunnel
Nozzles
Alarm Check
Valve
Main Control
Valve
Water Supply
Bladder
Tank
CAF
Nozzles
Figure 4 Schematic of a compressed air foam (CAF) system
in West Virginia by Bechtel/Parsons Brinckerhoff. The

foam-water sprinkler deluge system has been installed
in several tunnels in Seattle, Washington. The compressed air foam (CAF) system has been tested in road
tunnels in the Netherlands. For both types of foam-water
suppression systems, corrosion protection is required
for the storage tanks and the pipe systems, and the
system can be costly in the long run because of the corrosion problem associated with the use of foam agents.
for the foam-water sprinkler system, the delivery time

of the foam may be too long as the foam tanks have to
be installed at the tunnel portals and it may take time
for the foam to reach the fire if the fire is located in the
middle of the tunnels; and
for the CAF system, additional mechanical rooms need
to be installed at specific intervals of length in the tunnels which increases the initial capital cost of the installation of a CAF system.
Conclusion
The FFFS is also being considered in road tunnels to reduce the size of the ventilation system required. When
authorities prepare to permit all types of traffic, such as
dangerous goods or heavy goods vehicles, to cope with increasing economic activities, mitigation options that can
combat 200 - 300 MW fires would be necessary for tunnels, as recommended by NFPA 502 and most European
standards. Without FFFS, large fires (such as 200 - 300
MW) dictate the need for a very powerful ventilation system, increasing space requirements and adding significant cost. In addition, FFFS, unlike a ventilation system,
can provide benefits for firefighting, tunnel system protection, and operational continuity.
Although the benefits of FFFS are clear, many design issues
remain, such as: the reduction in the design fire size with the
inclusion of the FFFS and the subsequent reduction in ventilation requirements; the impact of the FFFS on the structural
protection system; the performance of the FFFS under operational conditions that have not been tested in the tunnel
fire experiments; and the impact of the FFFS on the overall
tunnel safety concept and operation procedures.
The most reliable method available to date for those unsolved design questions is full-scale testing, but that is
extremely expensive and impractical for new or existing
tunnels. A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) fire modeling approach is an alternative and holds great promise
once a reasonable correlation between numerical simulations and full-scale tests has been achieved.
References
Haerter, Fire Tests in the Ofenegg-Tunnel in 1965,
International Symposium on Catastrophic Tunnel
Fires, Boros, Sweden, November 2003.
PIARC 2008: Road Tunnels: An Assessment of Fixed

Fire Fighting Systems.
UPTUN, Fire development and mitigation measures,
Work Package 2 of the Research Project UPTUN, 2008.
Starke, H., Fire Suppression in Road Tunnel Fires by
a Water Mist System Results of the SOLIT Project,
Fourth International Symposium on Tunnel Safety and
Security, Frankfurt am Main, Germany, March 17-19,
2010.
Water Mist Fire Suppression Systems for Road Tunnels, Final Report, The SOLIT Research Project, 2007.
NFPA 502, Standard for Road Tunnels, Bridges, and
Other Limited Access Highways, 2014 Edition, National Fire Protection Association.
Huijben, Ir. J.W., Tests On Fire Detection Systems
And Sprinkler in a Tunnel, ITC Conference Basel 2-4,
December 2002.
Liu, Z.G., Kashef, A., Lougheed, G., Kim, A.K., Challenges for Use of Fixed Fire Suppression Systems
in Road Tunnel Fire Protection, NRCC -49232, Suppression & Detection Research Applications A
Technical Working Conference (SUPDET 2007), Orlando, Florida, 2007.
Quenneville, R., The Emergence of CAF Fixed-Pipe
Fire Suppression Systems, Fire & Safety Magazine,
Spring, 2006.
Memorial Tunnel Fire Ventilation Test Program, Test
Report (section 8.10), Massachusetts Highway Department, by Bechtel/Parsons Brinckerhoff, Nov. 1995.
Lemaire, A.D. and Meeussen, V.J.A., Effects of Water
Mist on Real Large Tunnel Fires: Experimental Determination of BLEVE-risk and Tenability during Growth
and Suppression, Rept. 2008-Efectis-R0425, Efectis
Nederland BV, June 2008.
Grant, G., Brenton, J., Drysdale, D., Fire Suppression
by Water Sprays, Progress in Energy and Combustion
Science 26 (2000), 79-130.
Tunnels Study Center (CETU), "Water Mists in Road
Tunnel," State of knowledge and provisional assessment elements regarding their use, June 2010.
NFPA 15, Standard for Water Spray Fixed System for
Fire Protection, 2007 Edition, National Fire Protection
Association.
Dr. Anna (Xiaohua) Wang is a Principal Technical Specialist in
Parsons Brinckerhoffs New York office.
Dr. Norman Rhodes is the Technical Director of the Parsons
Brinckerhoff Mechanical/Electrical Technical Excellence Center.
For longer tunnels, the use of foam-water fire suppression systems may be challenging:
NETWORK
15
NETWORK
Fixed Fire Fighting Systems in Road

Tunnels System Integration
by Matt Bilson, New York, NY, US, +1-212-465-5510, bilsonm@pbworld.com; and
Sal Marsico, New York, NY, US, +1-212-465-5576, marsicosa@pbworld.com
Introduction
Fires that occur in road tunnels can grow rapidly and
reach very high heat release rates. As a result, road
tunnels are designed with mitigation technology and
procedures to help reduce the detrimental effects that
can occur.
The main goals of the mitigation measures are to:
Provide a tenable environment for motorist evacuation;
Assist firefighters with their operations; and
Maintain the structural integrity of the tunnel.
A fixed fire fighting system (FFFS) is one type of mitigation measure implemented to help achieve these goals.
The major components of the FFFS include water delivery infrastructure (pumps, pipes, valves, and nozzles
divided into separate zones for water delivery) and also
components for water removal (drainage, pumps, pipes,
water treatment).
A FFFS is typically installed to help reduce the fire growth
rate and air/smoke temperature, which helps to prolong
occupant tenability and provides structural protection.
Proper integration of the FFFS with other tunnel fire-life
safety systems is essential to achieve the FFFS goals.
Poor system integration can lead to a reduction in FFFS

performance and fire safety.
System Integration with Fixed Fire Fighting

Systems
CCTV
Activation of the FFFS at an early stage of a fire incident is
the best way to assure optimal performance, and this is
Plan view of roadway:
179
178
CCTV vision example:

LEGEND
Zone N178 is in the foreground

Zone N179 is in the background
Figure 1 Example of good CCTV and FFFS integration
16
The first important question in FFFS integration is whether or not the tunnel has a full-time operator. In many tunnels with FFFS, a full-time operator is present. In this article the integration question is considered in the context
of a full-time operator being present, but it is noted that if
an operator is not present there will be different integration considerations. Tunnel systems and functions that
require particular attention for integration with a FFFS,
with full-time operator present, include:
Closed circuit television (CCTV);
Ventilation systems;
Egress provisions;
Drainage;
Fire alarm systems, control systems, heat detection
systems; and
Traffic and operations.
Fixed camera
Trafc and airow
Deluge zone/ventilation zone
Linear heat detector
Tunnel wall
Roadway
Bndry ampua kg/m2

10.00
Application
criterion is 8 kg/
2
m in one minute
Extra water due

to zone overlap
Plan view of tunnel water
accumulation at roadway level
AIRFLOW
9.00
8.00
Airow is right to left

30m (100 ft.)
30m (100 ft.)
FFFS Zone
FFFS Zone
7.00
NETWORK
6.00
5.00
4.00
Jet fans
Water overshooting zone of application
(overshoot by up to 15m)
Jet fans
Water not reaching entire zone of
application (up to 5m of a zone missed)
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
Figure 2 Example of FFFS and tunnel ventilation integration-CFD results
The figure shows an example of good systems integration

with camera locations relative to their proximity to FFFS
zones. Placing a camera within a zone, instead of at zone
boundaries, may generate confusion for the operator because, instead of the CCTV image showing the start of a
zone, the image would be starting halfway along the zone,
requiring the operator to cycle through views to confirm
the location.
Ventilation
The ventilation system in a tunnel is used to direct heat
and smoke away from the egress path by producing a longitudinal tunnel air velocity flow in one direction (longitudinal ventilation); extracting the heat and smoke through
vents along the tunnel (transverse ventilation); or a combination of the two.
The air velocity can cause water in the FFFSs water delivery region to shift away from the active zones. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) results in Figure 2 show an
example of the extent of water delivery drift for a longi-
tudinal ventilation system. In this example, activation

of both the FFFS zone where the fire is located and one
zone upstream mitigates drift effects. Careful zone activation can mitigate the effect of drift and provide assurance that water will reach the target. Jet fans near
the FFFS zone should be activated only if necessary.
In the region near a jet fans outlet there will be high
velocity relative to the average velocity of the tunnel,
which will exacerbate the water delivery drift.
Egress Provisions
Egress points (e.g., exit doors to escape passages)
are generally positioned equidistant from each other
along the tunnel and should be placed at the ends of
the FFFS zones and not within active FFFS zones where
egress may be hindered by visibility reduction, noise
(the active FFFS is in fact very loud), physical restriction, and psychological stress. Placing egress points at
the ends of a FFFS zone contributes to more streamlined egress. Firefighters using these egress points to
enter the tunnel could experience significant disorientation if entering an active FFFS zone, thereby slowing
their subsequent response.
Drainage
Drainage is another aspect to consider when installing
an FFFS. In some systems, the very large flow rates of
water mean that not all of the FFFS water will be captured at the drains within the zone of discharge, and
practically there may be few design options to achieve
this. The travelling fuel can create a risk of fire spread
since the water can transport the fuel away from the
typically accomplished through manual activation by the

tunnel operator. The tunnel operator relies on the CCTV
system to assist in identifying the fire location, as the
CCTV system would typically detect smoke or stalled traffic well before a heat detector senses the fire. Once the
fire has been located, the operator activates the corresponding FFFS zone. It is imperative that operators can
easily and accurately identify the fire locations. Figure 1
provides an example of effective design integration between a CCTV and FFFS system.
17
NETWORK
Figure 3 Effect on visibility due to FFFS
fire site. The fuel draining away from the fire site would
be unshielded by vehicles and so it will typically be suppressed, if it is burning, prior to exiting the FFFS zone.
Flame traps in the drainage system are sometimes used
to prevent a secondary fire moving through the drain
pipe network.
18
Fire Alarm Systems, Control Systems, and

Heat Detection
Road tunnels can be fitted with automatic and/or manually activated FFFS. In a manually operated system, operators are provided with a CCTV system to identify the
fire location, so that they are able to activate the FFFS
in the appropriate zone(s), as described above. In some
instances a back-up automatic activation system is provided. This system typically uses a linear heat detector
(LHD) to identify the fire location. Once the LHD signal is
received at the control panel, a countdown timer activates.
If no response is made by the operator within the allotted
time, the FFFS is deployed.
The LHD is an addressable sensing cable which can detect absolute temperature or rate-of-rise, with each detection zone coincident with a specific FFFS zone. In the case
of an automated response, the following items support
good system integration:
FFFS and LHD zones are to be coincident.
The FFFS should activate in the first LHD zone to detect
heat and the adjacent zone upstream.
Any further LHD activations must not trigger any additional FFFS zone activations (as explained below).
The system must be programmed such that the operator can override an automated response if necessary.
Automated systems are capable of executing ineffective
responses, so it is up to the operator to make the final
operational decisions. For example, in a tunnel, heat will
travel over a large number of FFFS zones and trip the LHD
in zones remote from the incident. If all of these zones

were to discharge water, there may not be enough water
capacity available in the incident zone to suppress the fire
(a FFFS can be feasibly designed with enough water supply
capacity to feed two or three zones). Conversely, the fire
can propagate or the operator may need to correct their
choice, which means the operator needs to have the ability to shut zones off and start others.
Traffic and Operations
After a fire is identified, traffic must no longer be allowed
to flow into the tunnel. In unidirectional traffic, the vehicles
downstream of the fire are expected to exit the tunnel
while those upstream are expected to stop (a common
assumption in tunnel fire-life safety design).
The system must be designed so that the FFFS is never
activated over live traffic. An activated FFFS will reduce
motorist visibility and vehicle traction, which increases
the chance of a vehicle collision and exacerbates the
emergency, or worse still, creates an unsafe situation
(see Figure 3).
Conclusion
An FFFS is a useful fire safety tool for a road tunnel. Good
integration of the FFFS with other tunnel systems and functions, using the principles outlined above, assists in bringing to fruition its purported benefits for tunnel fire safety.
In addition to the engineered systems, it is important that
the tunnel operator is well-trained and that tunnel systems
are well-maintained to assure good performance.
Matt Bilson is a Principal Technical Specialist in the field of
tunnel ventilation and fire-life safety in the New York office of
Sal Marsico is a Mechanical Engineer in the field of tunnel
ventilation and fire-life safety in the New York office of Parsons
Brinckerhoff.
Fire-Life Safety and System Integration:

The Functional Mode Table
by Matt Bilson, New York, NY, US, +1-212-465-5510, bilsonm@pbworld.com; and
Andrew Gouge, New York, NY, US
Introduction
INCIDENT AND
MODE ID
A fire or other emergency situation in a tunnel environment can be a serious threat to human life and the infrastructure. One of the main tasks of the fire-life safety
(FLS) engineer is to develop a response strategy to
manage or prevent such events. The strategy will frequently rely on many sub-systems such as ventilation,
lighting and signage, traffic management, alarms, operator responses and coordination, and communication
with emergency services agencies (e.g., the fire department). The harmonious and correct operation of the subsystems is essential to protecting life and infrastructure
during an incident; clear and concise system integration
is needed to achieve this goal.
Incident ID
(as per the
operators
incident
response plans)
Requirements and
Architecture
Trafc
Devices
Automatic
Communications
Escalation
Modes
Lighting/
Signs
Fixed Fire
Fighting System
Figure 2 Functional Mode Table concept outline
Functional Mode Table (FMT) is proposed herein as a

tool to assist in this exercise.
The FMT, in principle, is a high-level computer program for
tunnel operation during a given emergency scenario. It is a
matrix of instructions that spells out in a detail how each
sub-system must respond for a given emergency incident.
It is based on an incident type, the
means of detection, and the sub-system responses required (see Figure 2).
Operation and
Maintenance
System Verication
and Validation
Detail
Integration Test
and Verication
Detailed Design
Manual
Implementation
Time
The goal of the FMT is to assure that

all major players in the tunnels fire-life
safety the FLS engineer, the implementation engineers, the operator,
and emergency services workers will
work to a common framework, thereby
improving implementation, commissioning, training, thereby maximizing
the probability of a favorable outcome
if an emergency occurs. Subsequent
system responses for an incident can
be pre-programmed using the FMT,
reducing the complexity and burden
placed on the tunnel operator.
Concept
SUB-SYSTEM
RESPONSES
Ventilation
Integration is not a new concept as exemplified by the

V diagram (see Figure 1) which is a well-known concept in systems engineering. However, FLS relies on
more than just systems integration; it is also necessary
to combine the emergency incident plans with the design concepts and operator training. The concept of the
The functional mode table is

set out between Concept and
Requirements/Architecture phases.
It is then used at every
level of the process.
DETECTION
METHODS AND
LOCATION
NETWORK
Figure 1 The V diagram and the Functional Mode Table relationship
19
NETWORK
Case Study An Urban Road Tunnel
To illustrate the FMT concept, a virtual case
study of an urban road tunnel several kilometers long is used. For the present discussion
the tunnel is taken to have the following principal system features:
Unidirectional traffic;
Longitudinal ventilation;
Egress points at 200 meter spacing (to an
adjacent tunnel);
CCTV system;
Fixed fire fighting system;
Communications (phones, public address),
lighting, traffic controls; and
Full-time tunnel operator.
Response
Sub-systems available
Operator
Activate sub-systems and

adjust response as incident
progresses, contact re
department and other
emergency services, and
deploy staff where possible.
Human-machine interface.
Trafc
management
Stop vehicles upstream of

the re and have vehicles
downstream exit the tunnel.
Lane use signs, signals,

portal barriers, and
variable message signs.
Ventilation
Direct smoke downstream

of the re, away from people
upstream.
Jet fans and axial exhaust

fans.
Lighting
Provide direction to exits, assist Low-level lights, door

with exit identication.
strobes, tunnel lights, and
door identication lights.
Detection and
Identify incident, and then
Radio rebroadcast, tunnel
alarms
initiate and direct evacuation.
public address, variable
The ventilation system plays a major role in
message signs, CCTV,
life-safety, directing smoke downstream of
and heat detectors.
the fire so that people upstream are protectFixed re
Activate system in the correct
Valves and pumps, and
ed (see Figure 3). However, the ventilation
ghting
location.
CCTV for identication.
system
system alone will not necessarily produce
a favorable outcome; a successful outcome
needs several provisions to operate correctly. Table 1 Sub-system response for a road tunnel fire
During a major incident, ventilation operation
During an emergency an operators capacity to
is only one of several important steps that need to be
perform sophisticated system adjustments may be
taken, as explained in Table 1.
limited by the enormous flow of information among
the operator, the motorists, and the emergency
Overcoming Operational Complexity The FMT and a
agencies. An operators attention becomes focused
One Button Response
on specific events and as a result may fail to take into
Table 1 outlines a number of sub-systems required
account the broader situation, a condition referred to
to operate during an emergency, and a major tunnel
as attention tunneling.
will typically have a full-time and well-trained operator.
Emergencies do not occur frequently and so the operator
However, it is not reasonable to expect the operator
has limited practice at performing the required actions.
to manually perform all of the actions required for the

Emergency situations are high stress events within the
following reasons:
control room. Designers of the systems need to be
mindful of the possibility for an operator to lock up
Operators are typically not engineers and therefore not
which could further delay the correct response.
versed in tunnel systems design.
Jet fans are used

to direct smoke downstream
Egress: back up
the tunnel and via exit
Trafc upstream is told

to stop
Figure 3 Road tunnel fire-life safety concept
20
System
Fire
Trafc drives out of

the tunnel downstream
Fire-Life
Safety and
Ventilation
Concept Design
Operator Emergency
Services Occupants
Control
System
Design
FUNCTIONAL
MODE TABLE
Systems
(Detection, Alarm,
Egress, Trafc Light,
Lighting, Ventilation)
FUNCTIONAL
MODE TABLE
Mechanical
Design
Electrical
Design
Figure 4 Functional Mode Table links
Figure 5 Functional Mode Table design links
System integration and programming of the control

system to automate much of the incident response
is required for the essential actions to take place.
It is critical that the responses required with each
sub-system for defined emergency scenarios have a
simple yet methodical procedure. The FMT provides
this procedure. It is the connection among the fire
safety engineer, the programmers developing the control systems detailed automatic routines, the system
hardware, and the tunnel operator (see Figure 4). The
FMT also forms a critical link at the design level (see
Figure 5).
Generating a one button response requires that all stakeholders in the emergency response system are aware of
the realistic information available during an emergency situation and the order of actions to be taken. As fire-life safety
engineers, it is our responsibility not only to define the spectrum of data and available actions, but also to define the
data with language, terminology, and structured presentation that is easily communicated and understood by other
stakeholders. This task is challenging but not out of reach.
Given the number and complexity of tunnel systems, the

burden on the tunnel operator needs to be minimized.
If the operator has too many clicks to initiate at his/
her interface, it will slow the response and increase the
chances of errors. In the one button response the
systems are configured in a way that, once the operator provides essential information, a pre-programmed
response is enacted. The FMT provides a framework for
this and a simple example is provided in Table 2.
Detection Devices
ID
Comment
For example, with a well-designed FMT and incident response plan, during a fire in a road tunnel the operator would need to answer some basic questions at each
stage in order to then activate the physical tunnel systems. Table 3 provides a simplified account of the response stages, questions, and system actions.
The outline of questions in Table 3 minimizes the amount
of information that the operator must give, thus reducing the time it takes for a response and maximizing the
chances that the correct system actions will be taken
and all the essential sub-systems will be activated.
Trafc Devices Incident Tunnel
Egress
Devices
Ventilation
Manual
Auto
Escalation
mode
Upstream
from
incident
Dstream
from
incident
Portal
Lights, PA,
VMS
Jet fans
Suspected
re
CCTV
Heat
sensor
Mode 2
Stop trafc
Exit
with
caution
Stop trafc
N/A
On,
emergency
mode
Conrmed
re
Operator
N/A
N/A
Stop trafc
Exit
with
caution
Stop trafc
On,
egress
mode
On,
emergency
mode
Incidents and
Response Plans
NETWORK
Table 2 Functional mode table example (showing a limited number of incidents and devices)
21
NETWORK
Stage of response
Operator inputs (to generate the

one button response)
Pre-programmed system actions once incident conrmed

(via the Functional Mode Table programs)
1. What kind of incident?

Initial suspected
re in roadway
2. Where is the incident (camera ID)?
Activate radio rebroadcast message warning people.
3. Conrm incident?
Activate emergency ventilation mode.
Operator has provided enough

information, and the system can now
simultaneously execute commands to
operate the many sub-systems.
Close tunnels to traffic, change traffic signals and

messaging in tunnel to tell people to stop if they are
upstream of the fire.
Secondary
evacuation required
Is evacuation required?
Tertiary xed re
ghting required
Is xed re ghting needed?
Activate messaging, public address and radio rebroadcast to

require evacuation.
Activate lighting to guide people and warn vehicles in the other
tunnel.
Activate the system based on the incident location determined
from the camera ID or linear heat detector zone.
Table 3 Operator response concept one button concept
The operator may need to make adjustments later, possibly manual adjustments, but with this framework the
initial response and activation of critical systems for firelife safety are certain.
The example presented assumes an automated control

system that will activate all appropriate systems. However,
in preliminary discussion with tunnel operators that work
with antiquated or ill-equipped control systems, a similar
approach can be taken with the use of clearly defined hardcopy instructions. In summary, the format, language, and
terminology of the FMT are critical for operator interpretation and response in an actual emergency situation.
22
Fire-Life Safety Standards

NFPA 502: Standard for Road Tunnels, Bridges, and
Other Limited Access Highways 2014 edition requires
that a road tunnel have an emergency response plan,
developed by the agency responsible for operating the
tunnel. The standard requires that the plan state how
the various systems will operate for a given incident.
The FMT paradigm encourages a one-to-one match between the emergency response plan incidents used by
the operator, and the subsequent incidents used by the
system developers in the system programming. This can
have significant advantages for an integrated response
between the operator and the system programmers because both parties are working to the same terminology.
In addition, NFPA publishes a standard that is pertinent
to the role of the FMT. NFPA 3: Recommended Practice for
Commissioning and Integrated Testing of Fire Protection
and Life Safety Systems, outlines a systematic approach
for the owner and the design team to provide documented

confirmation that fire protection and life safety systems
function as intended. The standard addresses the procedural concepts of fire-life safety system commissioning and also provides direction on the integrated system
teststasks with which the FMT can assist.
Conclusion
A well-integrated tunnel system will provide better functionality at all stages of a project including planning,
implementation, commissioning, training, and operation.
The FMT is a tool to assist with integrating the key stakeholders in the tunnel system design process including
the operator, the designer, people who use the facility,
the implementation staff, and emergency services. One
of the greatest advantages of the approach is that it
can be used to simplify the operators actions during an
emergency, thereby improving the chances of a favorable
outcome and greatly contributing to public safety.
As a leading consultant in fire-life safety engineering,
Parsons Brinckerhoff is well placed to improve the delivery and perception of fire-life safety training and operation within tunnels for our clients. The FMT can help to
achieve this and provide a safer road or rail facility.
Matt Bilson is a Principal Technical Specialist in the field of
tunnel ventilation and fire-life safety in the New York office of
Andrew Gouge is a Senior Controls Engineer in the field of tunnel
ventilation and fire-life safety. He left Parsons Brinckerhoff in
2014 to pursue an MBA.
Using Quantified Risk Assessment to

Inform Ventilation System Responses
by Kate Hunt, Godalming, UK, +44 (0)1483 528966, huntk@pbworld.com
The tunnel ventilation system for the metro line described

in this article was designed in the late 20th century. It
provides comfort cooling and smoke control and was
based on a fixed block signalling system that allowed
only a single train in any ventilation section. Commercial
pressures to enhance timetable capacity resulted in a
signalling upgrade to train-based control (moving block
signalling), which permits up to three trains to simultaneously occupy a ventilation section. The client wished to
understand the risk impact of this change and in particular how the ventilation system should now be operated to
best effect in the unlikely event of a tunnel fire.
Parsons Brinckerhoff performed a comparative quantitative risk assessment (QRA), using available fire frequency
data, to understand the impact of the ventilation system
operation on the level of risk. This article describes the
work and presents our findings.
Review of available fire frequency and

consequence data
The client had comprehensive data covering fire events
on its network over the past 20 years. Of the 7,291 records reviewed, 384 related to the line on which we were
working and only 18 related to the area of interest.
Electrical arcing initiated the majority of the relevant fire
events, at 175 (45.6 percent); arson accounted for 32
fires (8.3 percent); overheating equipment a further 22
(5.7 percent); and the remainder had a variety of causes,
or were listed as other/unknown.
The data demonstrated that the operator experiences a
modest number of fire events, the vast majority of which
are small events that are managed by day-to-day operational staff with minor to insignificant consequences for
passenger and staff safety.
We concluded that fires could be categorised broadly as:
Small in-car fires (up to around 200kW) common

arson events using readily available materials such as
newspapers and unlikely to cause a major fire;
Small undercar/track/tunnel fires;
Large in-car fires (greater than 1MW) determined
arson events involving a quantity of accelerant and sufficient to cause a major conflagration (thankfully, to date
no such event has occurred on the network); and
Large undercar/track/tunnel fires.
The QRA analysis

A set of event trees was developed, using known initiating events and with various possible outcomes shown on
different branches. The significant inputs were as follows:
Frequency of initiating fire event (small or large fire, incar or undercar/track/tunnel);
Number of trains in section (1, 2, or 3);
Train reaches next station (yes/no);
Ventilation mode selected (remain in comfort cooling,
switch off, select optimum smoke control mode, select
sub-optimal smoke control mode);
Smoke control achieved (yes/no);
Smoke ingress into passenger compartment (yes/no);
Driver controls passengers (yes/no);
Passengers remain on train (yes/no); and
Protection implemented for evacuating passengers
(yes/no).
The probability of each outcome was determined in consultation with the client. Some were easy to define, such
as the number of trains in a single ventilation section (33
percent probability of each possibility under new signalling system), while others required more detailed consideration, for example the probability of smoke being
drawn into the passenger compartment.
The clients own modelling team undertook computer
analyses to determine whether smoke control would be
achieved with multiple trains in a ventilation section.
Abstract
Ventilation
Fire Tunnel
and
Water
Life
Systems
Systems
Safety
Power
NETWORK
23
Ventilation
Fire and Life
Systems
Safety
NETWORK
Event
Small in-car re
Large in-car re
Small under-car /
tunnel re
Large under-car /
tunnel re
Trains in section (1, 2, or 3 max)
33.3%
33.3%
33.3%
33.3%
Train reaches next station

(not immobilised)
(IT = incident train),
AT = adjacent train,
TT = third train)
IT 99.8%
AT 99.8%
TT 99.8%
IT 99%
AT Null
TT Null
IT 95%
AT Null
TT Null
IT 66.5%
AT Null
TT Null
Change of ventilation mode

(4 modes)
(No change, Off, Optimal smoke control mode,
Other smoke control mode)
25%
25%
25%
25%
IT = 10% or Null
IT = 5% or 50%
IT = 10% or Null
IT = 5% or 50%
AT & TT = 50% or Null
Critical velocity achieved

IT = Null
IT as appropriate
Smoke ingress into passenger compartment
Null
Driver effectively controls passengers (client data)
96.367%
96.367%
96.367%
96.367%
Passengers remain in situ
85%
85%
85%
85%
Protection implemented for evacuation
96.7%
96.7%
96.7%
96.7%
Maximum fatalities per incident
IT = 3
AT = 0
TT = 0
IT = 1400
AT = 1050
TT = 700
IT = 3
AT = 0
TT = 0
IT = 1400
AT = 1050
TT = 700
AT & TT 0% or 100%
as appropriate
As appropriate
AT & TT 0% or 100%
as appropriate
Figure 1 Probabilities and consequences used in the QRA event trees
These analyses suggested that critical velocity1 would

be met with two trains in section but if three trains were
present, critical velocity would be lost at the incident
train but achieved at the non-incident trains due to cooling of the smoke along the tunnel length. The probabilities agreed are shown in Figure 1 above. Four event
trees were then constructed and the resulting relative
risk levels were reviewed.
Results of the QRA

Figure 2 shows the impact on each scenario of leaving
the ventilation in a comfort cooling mode (no change),
switching it off, setting it to a non-optimal mode, and setting it to the optimal smoke control mode. Note that with
a moving block signalling system, the following trains
could be close to the train in front (around 25 metres
apart). The train positions shown in Figure 2 are not intended to convey an accurate location for each train.
Shaded results show an appreciable increase in risk due
to the ventilation configuration selected. The worst case
outcome for a small fire was essentially the same for all
ventilation configurations: operating the ventilation system gave no material benefit, regardless of the number
of trains in the ventilation section. However, there was no
disadvantage in using it. Therefore, since staff may not
know whether a fire is small or large, the ventilation

response derived for large fires was considered acceptable for small fires as well.
For large fires, the presence of additional trains has a
marked effect on likely risk level. For a single train event,
there is a modest benefit in operating the ventilation system in the optimal mode (although for a fire near the
centre of the train, even the optimal mode may incur a
large loss of life). When there are multiple trains in a section, however, the impact of using the optimal ventilation
mode offers a substantial benefit for a large fire incident,
even if critical velocity is lost over the incident train.
Conclusions and recommendations

The comparative QRA proved an important tool for decision making. The structured event trees allowed various
ventilation options to be tested and the clear outcome
guided changes to maximise safety on this railway. It
showed that the optimal smoke control mode gave a significant benefit for large in-car and undercar fires, with
the greatest benefit when there are multiple trains in the
ventilation section. For small undercar fires, using the optimal smoke control mode also gave a fractional benefit,
since it reduced the tendency for smoke ingress into the
incident train.
Critical velocity the air flow required to prevent smoke from moving upstream of the fire location.
24
Results: Worst case average number

of fatalities per 1000 years
Direction of travel
critical
velocity
met
Scenario
No
Change
Switch
Off
NonOptimal
Optimal
Small in-car re (common

arson event)
2.34
2.60
2.60
2.60
Small undercar/track/
tunnel re
26.35
29.27
30.90
30.90
Large in-car re
(determined arson event)
1.21
1.27
1.27
0.46
Large undercar/track/
tunnel re
29.24
30.78
32.49
4.28
Ventilation
Fire and Life
Systems
Safety
NETWORK

Direction of travel
critical
velocity
met
critical
velocity
met
Scenario
No
Change
Switch
Off
NonOptimal
Optimal

arson event)
2.34
2.60
2.60
2.60
tunnel re
26.35
29.27
30.90
30.90
Large in-car re
118.97
125.23
125.23
0.46
tunnel re
98.35
103.53
105.24
4.28

Direction of travel
critical
velocity
lost
critical
velocity
met
critical
velocity
met
Scenario
No
Change
Switch
Off
NonOptimal
Optimal

arson event)
2.34
2.60
2.60
2.60
tunnel re
26.35
29.27
30.90
30.90
Large in-car re
197.48
207.87
187.88
0.68
tunnel re
144.42
152.02
153.73
8.58
Figure 2 Impact of differing ventilation responses to various scenarios

Incident train condition
Recommended actions
Incident train can move to next station
Move train to next station using any driving mode.

Evacuate train and respond to re incident at station.
Incident train cannot move (incident train

immobilised or platform not available)
1) Establish drivers intended evacuation direction.

2) Use optimal smoke control mode to move smoke in opposite direction.
3) Evacuate train and respond to re incident in situ.
2 or more
Incident train can move to next station
1) Use optimal smoke control mode to move smoke forward, and

2) Move train(s) in front to the next station at low speed, and
3) Move incident train to next station using any driving mode. Evacuate train
and respond to re incident at the station.
4) Move or evacuate trains behind the incident on a case-by-case basis.
2 or more
Incident train cannot move (incident train

immobilised or platform not available)
1) Use optimal smoke control mode to move smoke forward, and

2) Move train(s) in front to the next station at low speed, and
3) Evacuate train and respond to re incident in situ.
4) Move or evacuate trains behind the incident on a case-by-case basis.
Figure 3 Table of recommended actions
When there is one train in a ventilation section, the optimal smoke control mode should be determined based
on the fire location along the train and the drivers intended direction of evacuation. When there is more than
one train in the ventilation section, trains in front of the
incident train should be driven forward at low speed, out
of the ventilation section. The preferred direction of ventilation should then be forward, to avoid passing smoke
over the trains that follow. Figure 3 summarises the

recommended actions.
Kate Hunt is the Tunnel Ventilation & Fire Engineering Service
Leader for the UK. She has over 20 years experience in the
design and analysis of tunnel ventilation systems and in developing operational strategies for tunnel ventilation systems for road,
rail, metro, and cable tunnel applications.
Number of trains in section
25
Ventilation
Fire and Life
Systems
Safety
NETWORK
A Risk-Based Approach to Jet Fan

Optimisation
by Anthony Ridley, Godalming, UK, +44(0)1483-52-8661, Anthony.ridley@pbworld.com
Introduction
In addition to providing adequate air quality and maintaining temperatures within acceptable limits, tunnel ventilation systems need to be designed to move smoke in
the event of a fire with a good level of confidence. Wind
and other meteorological forces can negatively affect the
performance of the ventilation system, but for how much
wind force should the system be designed?
Parsons Brinckerhoffs UK tunnel ventilation team is

working on a large railway project with a number of tunnels, so it was important to answer this question confidently and with a solid basis. Risk analysis was used as
a tool to help the decision-making process.
26
This article focuses on the optimisation of a range of rail

tunnels that would utilise jet fans to provide smoke control in the form of longitudinal ventilation. Longitudinal
ventilation prevents smoke from back-layering, providing
a tenable evacuation environment upstream of the fire.
In total, seven tunnels with lengths ranging from approximately 500 metres to 3 kilometres were analysed.
was provided to handle other random failures. A further

question arose as to the probability of both a high wind
and a failed jet fan. Was the investment in the redundant
jet fan warranted? A quantitative risk analysis was therefore undertaken to understand the acceptability of this
risk of removing the redundant jet fan.
The combination of a fire in the tunnel, a high wind force,
and a failure of one of the required jet fans might lead
to the back-layering of smoke within the tunnel. Backlayering occurs when the ventilation flow rate is not high
enough to meet critical velocity1 (CV). The critical velocity
will depend on factors such as the fire heat release rate
and tunnel gradient. The consequences associated with
providing less than critical velocity required evaluation.
Methodology
An event tree was generated to consider the probability of
various scenarios (see Figure 1). Each branch or scenario
of the event tree had an overall predicted event frequency
and consequence assigned. This was subsequently used to
estimate risk.
The optimisation was carried out after an initial design

phase where the tunnels were found to be sensitive to
atmospheric wind. At that stage of the design, questions
still remained as to whether the wind force that was being designed for was reasonable. We based the design
on a 1 percent probability of exceedance in any year,
but should it be 10 percent, 1 percent, 0.1 percent, or
something different?
A tunnel fire frequency rate was estimated through interpretation of statistical data from the UKs Railway Safety
and Standards Board. Various probabilities were then
assigned to each scenario.
The design included an assumption that the jet fan

nearest the fire was inoperable. In the emerging design,
approximately one jet fan per portal was required to
overcome the wind forces, two jet fans were required to
control the smoke, and one standby/redundant jet fan
Bulk-flow simulations were undertaken using the Subway Environment Simulation (SES)2 software for three
representative tunnels. This provided information about
the tunnel air flow rate for every different configuration
of ventilation mode, train location, fire heat release rate,
Each event path required an evaluation of consequences to passengers. The consequence analysis was broken down into two constituent parts:
Critical velocity the air flow required to prevent smoke from moving upstream of the fire location.
Subway Environmental Design Handbook. Volume II. Subway Environment Simulation Computer Program (SES). Part 1. Prepared by Parsons
Brinckerhoff as part of a joint venture for the U.S. Department of Transportation, in 1975.
1
2
Common
Tunnel fire
Ventilation
frequency with cause failure mode achieved
consequence
No
Design
Fire
magnitude
Wind direction
7MW
Adverse
Wind strength Consequence

(percentage
exceedance)
Consequence*final
event frequency
10%
1%
Ventilation
Fire and Life
Systems
Safety
NETWORK
0.1%
0.01%
Beneficial
All
1MW
30MW
Base
Fail
SUM
Yes
ventilation direction, and wind force that was tested.

From this, average percentage of critical velocity was
determined for each combination of tunnel, ventilation
mode, and wind condition.
A 3-D analysis was then performed on a characteristic short tunnel section using the Fire Dynamics
Simulator (FDS) software. The evacuation model was
enacted within the software which allowed the coincident location of the smoke and passengers to
be predicted. These simulated the evacuation of
1,100 passengers within the tunnel with different
fire heat release rates and air flow rates. Predicted
effects or consequences to passengers during the
evacuations were recorded based on the Fractional
Effective Dose (FED) method, but adjusted for these
simulations to also account for the effects of irritant gasses. The simulations were undertaken for
different airflow rates to allow the outcomes to be
mapped to the SES simulations.
Results
The results of the consequence analysis can be seen in
Figure 2.
It is evident that for the larger fires simulated there is always a base equivalent fatality rate of approximately 55
persons. This represents the inherent consequence involved with longitudinal ventilation systems; there is a risk
that passengers may be located downstream of the fire
location. To minimise passenger numbers downstream of
the fire, the ventilation direction is decided by the fire location. To model a condition where an average number
of passengers were downstream of the fire, the fire was
set to be a quarter of the length down the train. As the
percentage of critical velocity achieved reduces, the backlayering of the smoke advances. This process is illustrated
in Figure 3. The jump in the predicted number of equivalent
fatalities from 55 to 250 as seen in Figure 2 was due to
the back layering of smoke past an upstream passenger
exit (illustrated by scenario C in Figure 3).
Figure 1 - Event tree (dotted arrows represent uncompleted branches of the tree, only one complete branch is fully shown)
27
350.0
300.0
Equivalent Fatalities
Ventilation
Fire and Life
Systems
Safety
NETWORK
250.0
30MW
200.0
7MW
150.0
1MW
100.0
50.0
0.0
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
% Critical Velocity
Figure 2 - Predicted relationship between percent of critical velocity achieved and total passenger fatalities and weighted injuries for
different fire magnitudes.
a) CV is achieved
b) CV not achieved but no additional passenger fatalities (60 - 100% CV)
c) CV not achieved and resulted in additional passenger fatalities (<60 % CV)
28
LEGEND
Ventilation
direction
Walkway
Train
Train/
Tunnel exit
Fire
Untenable
conditions
Evacuation
route
Figure 3 - Illustration of evacuation scenarios: a) CV is achieved, b) CV not achieved but no additional passenger fatalities (60-100% CV), c)
CV not achieved and resulted in additional passenger fatalities (<60% CV).
Risk analysis
The UK rail industry has acceptance criteria for the
probability of injury for individuals as well as methods
to evaluate the so called societal risk that can occur for low-frequency high-consequence events such as
tunnel fires.
The risk to an individual passenger was predicted to be
1 in 240,000,000orders of magnitude lower than the
broadly acceptable limit of 1 in 1,000,000 in the UK.
Societal risk was evaluated using frequency/severity
(FN) curves where the value plotted on the y-axis is
the cumulative frequency of experiencing N (passenger
fatalities). These are assessed graphically and were

compared to the current national railway risk profile of
the UK railway (see Figure 4). The FN risk should be
below this line.
System failure points on the bottom right of the FN graph
represented scenarios where the ventilation system had
suffered complete failure. The points were slightly higher
than the baseline risk of the UK railway. The majority of this
risk was predicted to be due to the calculated human error
in operating the ventilation system correctly in the event of
an incident. Figure 5 shows an FN plot where the element
of human error has been removed. This suggests a strong
benefit in providing a fully automatic control system.
Ventilation
Fire and Life
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Safety
NETWORK
1.E+00
1.E-01
Frequency (yr-1)
1.E-02
1.E-03
1.E-04
Inherent
Longitudinal
risk
Wind risk
1.E-05
1.E-06
1.E-07
0.10
1.00
10.00
Fatality Weighted Injuries
short tunnels societal risk
System
failure
100.00
1000.00
UK railway societal risk 2013
Figure 4 - Breakdown of societal risk profile of three representative tunnels.
1.E+00
1.E-01
1.E-03
1.E-04
1.E-05
1.E-06
1.E-07
0.10
1.00
10.00
100.00
Fatality Weighted Injuries
short tunnels societal risk
UK railway societal risk 2013
1000.00
Figure 5 - Societal risk with the removal of human error from the operation of the ventilation systems.
Conclusions
It was concluded that the fire hazard could be managed so
far as is reasonably practicable with the proposed ventilation approach of using the spare jet fan to also overcome
wind forces. There was no strong case for adding further
jet fans to reduce the risk. Eighteen (18) jet fans were
eliminated from the ventilation system design, potentially
saving many millions of pounds.
It was also concluded that if efforts were made to reduce

the human factor from the operation of the ventilation
system, the societal risks attributed to the higher consequence events could be significantly reduced.
Anthony Ridley is a Graduate Tunnel Ventilation Engineer in Godalming. He joined the tunnel ventilation team two years ago
after completing his MEng in Aeronautics at Durham University.
Frequency (yr-1)
1.E-02
29
Ventilation
Fire and Life
Systems
Safety
NETWORK
Cost-Effective Ventilation System for a

Light Rail Transit Project
by Silas Li, New York, NY, US, +1-212-465-5217, lisilas@pbworld.com and
Andrew Louie, New York, NY, US, +1-212-631-3767, louiea@pbworld.com
An underground light rail transit system project in the US

includes two new stations and connecting tunnels of 3.3
miles in length (5.28 kilometers) that require emergency
ventilation to provide a tenable environment along the
egress path in the event of a train fire.
The cut-and-cover station is a center island platform that
is 395 feet (120 meters) long. Each train consists of four
cars. The platform level is served by two sets of escalators, one at each quarter point of the platform, that lead
up to the mezzanine level. From the mezzanine level, two
stair/escalator combinations lead up to two separate
entrances at the street level. In addition, enclosed emergency exit stairways located at both ends of the platform
lead to exits at grade level (see Figure 1). Due to the
similar design of both stations, only one station ventilation analysis is presented here.
Original Ventilation Concept
Figure 2 shows the airflow schematic for the original ventilation concept with two ventilation systems:
30
1. Station ventilation system - The intent of the station

ventilation system design is to exhaust smoke and hot
gases from a fire on a train stopped at the station. The
smoke would rise up into the atrium and the station
ventilation system would extract the smoke near the
top of the atrium via the station ventilation dampers.
The station ventilation system includes four bi-directional fans each delivering 100,000 cfm (50 m/s).
2. Tunnel ventilation system - The intent of the tunnel
ventilation system design is to exhaust smoke and
hot gases from a fire on a train stopped in the tunnel between stations or between the station and
portal. The tunnel ventilation dampers are located
near the ends of the station platforms to extract the
smoke before it enters the station public area. The
tunnel ventilation system includes four uni-directional fans each delivering 250,000 cfm (125 m/s).
The original station design consists of ventilation fan
plants located directly over the trainways at the ends of
the station platform. There is a large atrium in the middle
of the station where station ventilation dampers connect
the station ventilation fans to the atrium area via dampers in the fan room level walls. At the ends of the station,
there are tunnel ventilation dampers located in the ceiling
of the trainway that connect the trainway region to the tunnel ventilation fans.
Modified Ventilation Concept with Station

Ventilation Fans Eliminated
A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis was performed to determine if the four station ventilation fans
can be eliminated by re-configuring the tunnel ventilation fans and associated ducts and plenums so that
the tunnel ventilation fans can exhaust smoke and hot
gases from a tunnel fire or from a station fire (Figure
3). The design requirements precluded the need to design for simultaneous station and tunnel fires.
The CFD analysis used to model the station, fire, and
ventilation system was a software package FDS1. The
ventilation criteria is to maintain a tenable path of
egress from the incident train to a point of safety for at
least six minutes, which is the maximum time it should
take passengers to evacuate from the platform to a
point of safety2. The design fire for this station is a
13.2 MW fire that follows a medium growth rate fire
curve and reaches peak fire heat release rate at 17.7
minutes. The average soot yield of the fire is 0.1245
kgsoot/kgfuel burnt. The fire properties used are representative of the light rail vehicles. The ventilation system is
served by four fans, two fans at each end of the station, each fan delivering 250,000 cfm (125 m/s). The
Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS) Version 5.5.3, 2010, (CFD Software), Building and Research Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST), 100 Bureau Drive, Stop 8600, Gaithersburg, MD 20899-8600, USA.
2
NFPA 130, "Standard for Fixed Guideway Transit and Passenger Rail Systems", 2010 Edition, published by the National Fire Protection Association, 1 Batterymarch Park, Quincy, MA 02269-9101, USA, August 2009.
Ventilation
Fire and Life
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Street Level
Fan Room Level
Mezzaninie Level
Platform Level
Figure 1 - Section View of Station
Tunnel Ventilation
Dampers (typ.)
Tunnel Ventilation Fans (typ.)
Trainway
(below)
Station Ventilation
Dampers (Typ)
Mezzanine
To Outside
Station Ventilation Fans (typ.)
Ventilation Shaft to Outside
LEGEND
Tunnel
Ventilation System
Station
Ventilation System
Figure 2 - Airflow Schematic for Original Ventilation Concept
Tunnel Ventilation
Dampers (typ.)
Ventilation Fans (typ.)
Trainway
(below)
Mezzanine
To Outside
To Outside
Ventilation Shaft
to Outside
Station Ventilation Dampers (typ.)
Figure 3 - Airflow Schematic for Modified Ventilation Concept
Ventilation Shaft to Outside
LEGEND
Tunnel
Ventilation System
Station
Ventilation System
To Outside
Ventilation Shaft
to Outside
31
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Emergency Exits
Original
Vent
Concept
Stairs to Mezzanine
Emergency Exits
30.0
Platform
Fire Car
4
minutes
27.0
Modied
Vent
Concept
24.0
21.0
Original
Vent
Concept
6
minutes
18.0
15.0
Modied
Vent
Concept
12.0
9.00
Original
Vent
Concept
32
20
minutes
6.00
3.00
Modied
Vent
Concept
0.00
Figure 4 - Comparison of Visibility at Platform Level
fans are activated two minutes after the fire starts, and
reach full operational capacity after 180 seconds.
criterion. Un-shaded regions are within the visibility criteria, while regions that are shaded violate the criteria.
Figure 4 shows the CFD results at the platform level, 8.2

feet (2.5 meters) above the platform for a fire ignited on
a train stopped in the station. The simulation results for
the original ventilation concept and the modified ventilation concept are shown in comparison. Only the contours of visibility are shown, as that is the controlling
The result of the CFD analysis shows that the modified

ventilation concept performs just as well as the original ventilation concept for the critical first six minutes
during passenger evacuation. It outperforms the original
ventilation concept when the fire has reached its maximum fire heat release rate. This is due to the increased
Conclusion
The CFD results were presented to the authority having
jurisdictions (AHJ). The AHJ approved the modified ventilation concept with the elimination of station ventilation
fans. The modified ventilation design saved approximately US$6 million in mechanical and electrical costs, in addition to lowered maintenance costs due to less equipment. Additional savings were realized by the elimination
of fan room space and ventilation shafts.
The CFD analysis also provided insight into key station
design elements that impact the effectiveness of the ventilation system. For this type of station, the large atrium
functions as a smoke reservoir and locating the smoke
extraction dampers near the top of the atrium is effective

in removing smoke from the station during the evacuation
period. In addition, locating the tunnel ventilation dampers at the ends of the station is effective in preventing the
spread of smoke from a tunnel fire to the station.
Andrew Louie is a Professional Associate in Tunnel Ventilation who has worked on tunnel ventilation projects for Parsons
Brinckerhoff for the past 9 years across the US and England.
He is currently one of the main developers of the SES program.
Silas Li is Manager of the Parsons Brinckerhoff US Tunnel Ventilation Analysis Group and chairman of the NFPA 130 ventilation
task group. He has 29 years of experience in the design and
simulation modeling of fire/smoke management and ventilation
systems for numerous projects involving transit, rail, and road
tunnels in seven countries.
ventilation capacity of the tunnel ventilation fans over

the station ventilation fans.
Ventilation
Fire and Life
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33
Ventilation
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Meeting the Challenges of Smoke Duct

Fan Selection for Australian Road
Tunnels
by Chris Chen, Sydney, AUS, +61 2 9272 5082, chenc@pbworld.com
Introduction
Parsons Brinckerhoff has been involved in the detailed
design work on some recently completed major Australian road tunnels. A number of these unidirectional traffic tunnels, including the M7 Clem Jones Tunnel (Clem
7), Brisbanes Airport Link Tunnel, and Legacy Way (under construction), employ a combined longitudinal and
distributed smoke extraction ventilation (smoke duct)
system for fire emergencies. This type of system can result in unique tunnel ventilation fan duty requirements.
This article describes the challenges and analysis approaches to account for a wide range of parameters that
can affect the fan requirements, including:
fire location in the tunnel (distance to fans);

fire heat release rate;
thermal losses;
tunnel section and grade at the fire site; and
duct leakage.
Fan selection will be based on achieving multiple fan duties (airflow and
pressure capacities), and analysis
is required to ensure all parameters
are accommodated.
Combined Ventilation Design

The longitudinal ventilation system
provides air flow at or above the critical velocity upstream of the fire to
prevent smoke from backlayering,
and the smoke extraction system
captures smoke downstream of the
fire site. The longitudinal ventilation
is primarily achieved by in-tunnel jet
fans. The jet fans can operate with
active controls (with a tunnel air velocity feedback system) to achieve
a predetermined critical velocity. Ex-
cess longitudinal flow needs to be avoided to contain

the smoke at the fire incident site (i.e., no overshoot).
The smoke extraction system is provided to protect occupants downstream of the fire during congested traffic
conditions. This is achieved by opening sets of smoke
dampers located immediately downstream of the fire. A
specific mass of air flow has to be exhausted from the
tunnel. This mass flow equates to the volume of air at
ambient conditions required to prevent backlayering of
smoke upstream of the fire and overshoot downstream
of the fire. Values for this air volume flow are typically
on the order of 3 metres (10 feet) per second and 1
metre (3.3 feet) per second respectively. This value is
also known as the critical velocity, determined by CFD
modelling and/ or empirical equations.
Figure 1 shows the typical configuration of this longitudinal ventilation and smoke extraction system. In order
Case A: 50% and 50% split of total airow at pressure loss of P1a=P2a
Path 1 with duct
pressure loss P1a
Smoke duct
Path 2 with duct

pressure loss P2a
Open dampers
1m/s (3.4ft/s)
Critical velocity
Case B: 30% and 70% split of total airow at pressure loss of P1b=P2b
Path 1 with duct
pressure loss P1b
Smoke duct
Critical velocity
Path 2 with duct

pressure loss P2b
Open dampers
1m/s (3.4ft/s)
Figure 1 - Typical configuration of a longitudinal ventilation and smoke extraction system
34
Fire size, location, and thermal effects

The fire size (heat release rate) and location of the
fire in a tunnel are major factors in determining the
required extraction, the smoke duct system pressure,
and the fan duty. Dependent on project requirements,
by increasing design fire size, a higher critical velocity of air needs to be supplied to prevent backlayering
of smoke. Additionally, for fires located in larger cross
sectional areas of the tunnel, or in caverns where
there are traffic off/on ramps diverging/merging with
the mainline tunnel, the critical velocity may still need
to be maintained. Both of these factors will require a
larger air flow volume and hence increased smoke duct
system capacity. The fan selected must accommodate
these multiple capacities.
Determining the fan capacity can be further complicated by
the need to allow for varying air densities due to different
fire sizes and heat losses. As the air is being heated at the
fire site, the volume expands and density decreases. As the
hot smoke travels along the smoke duct, heat transfer cools
the smoke and the air density increases. Due to this, the fire
size and location along the tunnel affects the pressure loss
along the duct and the density of the air to be handled by
the fans. For multiple extraction locations (i.e., different fire
locations in the tunnel) this effect must be accounted for in
the analysis to ensure the required extraction is achieved.
with leakage
10% increase
Flow rate (volume/time)
10%
increase
Duct Distance (length)
Duct pressure loss (force/area)
without leakage
1000m
( 3300 ft.)
Smoke duct and damper leakage

A road tunnel smoke duct is not completely sealed.
When the duct is in extraction mode it is at a lower pressure than the adjacent roadway, causing leakage of air
between the tunnel roadway and the smoke duct. The
air leakage occurs via cracks, construction tolerances,
and gaps in closed dampers and duct slabs. Leakage
is dependent on duct pressure and construction quality
(i.e., there is no single leakage rate figure).
As an example, an increase of around 10 percent in air
flow was estimated for a typical construction of nonsealed smoke duct for every 1000 metres (~3300 feet)
of length for a particular configuration. The amount of
damper leakage can be estimated via damper specifications and the expected local duct pressure. It needs to
be noted that it is difficult to accurately estimate the
impact of civil construction tolerances during the design
stage of a project. Conservative estimates are often applied. The leakage effect both on flow rate and on duct
pressure loss along the duct distance is shown diagrammatically in Figure 2.
Design and Analysis

The analysis to be undertaken on a smoke duct configuration has a number of elements. A numerical analysis can be used to account for incremental air leakage
and air density changes along the duct, with simplified
heat transfer models under steady state conditions.
The results give a prediction of the required fan duties
to achieve the air extraction mass flow rate at the fire
site. This needs to be determined at multiple extraction locations.
As an example, Figure 3 shows a flow split between
the two smoke extraction paths, Path 1 and Path 2, for a
given fire size at two different fire locations (Case A and
Case B, refer to Figure 1). Identical fan properties are
used for both paths.
Case A is for a fire located roughly at the aerodynamic
midpoint between the extraction fans. By definition the
airflow split is 50 percent between each end. In reality
this may not occur exactly at the geometric tunnel
mid-point, and depends on the upstream and downstream characteristics of the tunnel and the smoke
duct. The important element is that the pressures
are approximately equal on either side of the flow
extraction point, regardless of fan sizes at each end
of the path.
to minimise the smoke duct size, extraction is in the

upstream and downstream direction in the duct. For example, Path 1 is the travel path of exhausted smoke and
air mixture from the open dampers in the smoke duct
near the fire location, to the exhaust fan upstream of
the fire. This article focuses on fan selection using this
type of configuration.
Ventilation
Fire and Life
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NETWORK
Figure 2 - Effect of air leakage in ducts for both pressure and flow
35
Case B shows a fire located closer to the end of Path 2.

In this example case, the pressures are approximately
equal as the length of the airflow of Path 2 is decreased
compared to air flow of Path 1.
Together, Case A and B show that the fan duty varies considerably with the fire location. Given that the required
extraction will change with differing fire sizes and other
locations, many fire locations will need to be assessed
in order to determine the maximum flow and pressure
the fan has to service.
70%
ow
50%
ow
Pressure (force/area)
Ventilation
Fire and Life
Systems
Safety
NETWORK
30%
ow
Pa
Case B
Path 1
Legend
Required duties
Fan curves
Case A
Path
1&2
System curves
Potential Fan
curve for covering
all duty cases of 30%
Case B to 70% of total airow
Path 2
Pb
(Two identical fans)
Flow rate (volume/time)
The resulting fan duties for the two cases are shown
parametrically in Figure 4 and show that the fan duty
points vary considerably even when only two fire locations are considered. When assessing, many locations will need to be considered along with the varying
fire size. The analysis is an iterative process. This
will determine a range of fan duty limits. Practically,
the final fan selection is based on the need for the
fans to cover all possible fan duty points that may
be encountered during operation. The fans ultimately
selected will generate flows in excess of the required
flows for many cases which will need to be considered
and accounted for. Generally for smoke extraction duties, excess of design performance requirements is
not an issue.
36
Pressure (force/area)
Case B
Path 1
Case A
P1a=P2a
Case B
Case A
Path
1&2
50%
Required duty
System curve
(Two identical fans)

Case B
Path 2
30%
P1b=P2b
0%
Legend
Flow rate split (%)
Figure 3 - Flow split and duct pressure loss
70%
100%
Figure 4 - Fan duty curve with different flows
Conclusion
The process of sizing smoke ducts and determining the
smoke extraction fan requirements is technically challenging, involving factors from many tunnel design disciplines, interactions of thermodynamics and fluid dynamics, and physical constraints. Fan requirements for the
smoke extraction system are based on the possible fan
duty points the system will encounter during operation.
Designs undertaken by Parsons Brinckerhoff have demonstrated the viability of smoke extraction systems for
long road tunnels, by determining the necessary fan requirements and smoke duct requirements to achieve the
required capacity. The design analysis and research the
team has undertaken will benefit future smoke extraction system designs for long road tunnels, by ensuring
that the installed systems can perform to their intended
purposes and capacities. However, the actual performances of such systems are also dependent on the
constructors final system design, the equipment suppliers, and the installers performance based on their
project contractual obligations. The completed smoke
extraction systems installed in the Clem7 and Airport
Link tunnels are currently in service.
Chris Chen is a Mechanical Engineer who has worked on various road and rail tunnel projects, including Airport Link in Brisbane, as part of Parsons Brinckerhoffs tunnel systems team
in Australia.
Analysis Considering the Conversion

of an Existing Road Tunnel Transverse
Ventilation System to Transit Use
Ventilation
Fire and Life
Systems
Safety
NETWORK
by Jesse Harder, Sacramento, CA, US, +1-916-567-2512, harderjl@pbworld.com; Andrew Louie, New York, NY, US,
+1-212-631-3767, louiea@pbworld.com; Vamsidhar Palaparthy, New York, NY, US, +1-212-465-5521, Palaparthy@
pbworld.com; Silas Li, New York, NY, US +1-212-465-5217, lisilas@pbworld.com
dard for fully transverse ventilation system design for many decades to come.
Considering Road to Rail Tunnel Conversion
Longitudinal ventilation systems provide airflow along the

tunnel axis at a velocity sufficient to prevent smoke backlayering during fire emergencies, allowing safe egress in
one direction (into the fresh airflow). Fully-transverse ventilation systems utilize separate supply and exhaust air
ducts extending the length of the tunnel to provide fresh
air into the tunnel at the roadway level and to extract
heat, emissions, and smoke out of the tunnel near the
ceiling. Transverse ventilation limits smoke spread to an
area near a fire by extracting smoke generated through
openings in the exhaust air duct, allowing safe egress
away from the incident in both directions.
Ole Singstad (Barclay, Parsons and Klapp 1917-1918)
was the engineer responsible for developing the revolutionary Holland Tunnel ventilation system. At the time,
ventilating such a congested vehicle tunnel was thought
to be impossible, but the completed Holland Tunnel ventilation system would not only work, it would set the stan-
As rail transit systems continue to expand in an effort

to offset heavily congested roadways, and with limited
available right of way in populous metropolitan regions,
some rail transit extensions are converting portions of
existing roadways and road tunnels to passenger rail use
(see Figure 2). In Seattle, Washington the Sound Transit
East Link Extension project has proposed the conversion
of existing Interstate I-90 center roadway and associated
Today, road tunnels throughout the United

States and the world contain transverse
ventilation systems. Traditionally, road
tunnel ventilation systems have been designed to meet contaminant level criteria.
In the decades since the Holland Tunnel
ventilation system was designed, meaningful reductions in vehicle emissions
have been realized due to advancements
in automotive technology, and fire science
has advanced significantly leading to a
greater understanding of fire size and deFigure 1 - Full-scale Model Section of the 1927 Holland Tunnel in New York
velopment. As a result, the design paradigm for tunnel ventilation systems has
In 1927, the first fully transverse tunnel ventilation sysshifted over the past century from emissions control to a
tem was commissioned for the Holland Tunnel in New
stronger focus on smoke control during fire emergencies.
York (see Figure 1). Until that time, tunnels had been
ventilated only by longitudinal airflow systems.
Figure 2 - Transit Route in median of congested interstate
37
Ventilation
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for 10 and 20 MW fires from the findings of the MTFVTP,
it would appear that some variation of extraction ventilation could control the smoke generated. However, road
tunnel ventilation systems, like those considered for reuse in the East Link extension, were designed to the 100
cubic feet per minute per lane foot criteria. In MTFVTP
findings, this criterion was not sufficient for many emergency fire scenarios.
Figure 3 - Simulation of the proposed East Link Extension along I-90

across the Homer M. Hadley floating bridge
center tunnels into a light rail transit (LRT) trainway connecting Seattle to Bellevue (see Figure 3).
In 2013, Parsons Brinkerhoff performed extensive ventilation analysis in support of the East Link project final design, investigating the ventilation system design
for two existing road tunnels in the Seattle area, the
Mount Baker Ridge Tunnel and the Mercer Island Lid
Tunnel. The analysis specifically considered modifications to the existing fully-transverse road tunnel ventilation systems to determine the feasibility of reusing it
for the new LRT trainway.
Existing East Link Tunnel Ventilation
38
The Mount Baker Ridge Tunnel and the Mercer Island

Lid Tunnel each consist of a fully-transverse ventilation
system with a central fan plant located above the tunnel near the mid-point. The Mount Baker Ridge tunnel is
3,478 feet (1060 meters) long and has air ducts along
each side of the roadway, while the Mercer Island Lid
tunnel is approximately 2,900 feet (884 meters) long
with air ducts arranged above the roadway, separated
from the roadway by a suspended ceiling. The ventilation airflow is evenly distributed along the tunnel length
through small ports spaced at regular intervals.
Investigating the Reuse of a Transverse

Ventilation System
In 1993, the Memorial Tunnel Fire Ventilation Test Program (MTFVTP) began conducting full-scale fire tests
in an abandoned road tunnel to evaluate the ability of
several ventilation system types to manage smoke and
temperature. The tunnel ventilation systems were tested
across a range of fire sizes. Sound Transit East Link project design criteria specified a medium t-squared (time
squared) growth rate fire curve with a peak heat release
rate (HRR) of 13.2 MW. Comparing this fire size and
smoke generation rate with the ventilation performance
The existing road tunnel ventilation system for each East

Link tunnel consists of three fans for supply and three
fans for exhaust ventilation. Parsons Brinckerhoffs ventilation analysis specifically considered the re-use of the
exhaust ventilation fans for the new LRT trainway. The
analysis utilized computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to
investigate the performance of several system types:
Single Zone Exhaust System Steady State Run:
use the existing system to exhaust from the entire
length of tunnel (supply fans off). The existing system
failed due to smoke spread (see Figure 4). The tunnel
width and existing fan capacity limited the effectiveness of the extaction system.
Two-Zone Exhaust System Transient Run: use the
existing system to exhaust half of the tunnel by closing isolation dampers at the tunnel midpoint (supply fans off). The existing system failed to control
smoke spread at 6 minutes (see Figure 5). Smoke
spread was limited, but not contained to the immediate area at the fire car due to wind forces and
extraction port locations.
Point Extraction System - Close all existing exhaust
ports and install new openings, 160 square feet (14.9
square meters) with motorized dampers every 250
feet (76.2 meters) on-center creating a point extract
system where the three closest dampers to the fire
are opened, and the exhaust fans extract the smoke
through the open dampers (see Figure 6). This system
controlled smoke for the duration of egress (8 minutes)
with increased fan capacity, but was rejected due to
the rigorous structural analysis required and potential
seismic retrofit work.
Four-Zone Extraction System - Close all existing
exhaust and supply port openings. Convert the supply
duct into a second exhaust duct and effectively
subdivide the system into 4 zones. Install isolation
dampers to direct all exhaust ventilation to a single
incident zone. Create large openings, 240 square
West Portal
East Portal
Ext. Coeff
Limit of smoke spread allowed

for extraction systems
Figure 4 - Single Zone Exhaust System
Ventilation
Fire and Life
Systems
Safety
NETWORK
Ext. Coeff
Limit of smoke spread allowed for extraction systems
Figure 5 - Two-Zone Exhaust System
Exhaust Damper 1
Exhaust Damper 2
250 feet
Close all exhaust ports
Fire Car
Zone 2
ct
t Du
aus
Exh
t
Duc
ply
p
u
S
East Portal
Zone 1
Zone 3
West Portal
Motor-Operated
Damper Connection
to Fan Plant (typ.)
Zone 4
Exhaust Openings (typ.)
Figure 7 - Four-Zone Extraction System

Longitudinal Ventilation Direction
West Portal
12 Jet Fan Operating
Figure 6 - Point Extraction System
Figure 8 - Longitudinal System
39
Ventilation
Fire and Life
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NETWORK
feet (22.3 square meters) in the suspended ceiling
to extract smoke and hot gases from the incident fire
zone (see Figure 7). This system controlled smoke
spread for the duration of egress (12 minutes) with
increased fan capacity, but the option was rejected
due to concerns about the structural impact on the
existing tunnel.
Longitudinal System (Jet Fans) install 14 jet fans
(12 fans operating - analysis considered 1 fan out
of service and 1 fan out due to fire) along the tunnel
walls providing longitudinal ventilation and protecting
the egress path indefinitely (see Figure 8).
Conclusion
Converting an existing fully-transverse road tunnel ventilation system to transit use is feasible but presents
many challenges to the designer. Based on CFD analysis of the East Link tunnels for the stated fire size, the
following parameters significantly affect the ventilation
system performance:
40
Wind speed (normal to the portals) This was the

primary parameter contributing to smoke spread along
tunnel length for the extraction system analysis;
Extraction points The existing ventilation port
size and spacing significantly limited the extraction
capacity nearest the fire car;
Tunnel Width Extraction airflow velocities across
the tunnel cross-section were non-uniform and
diminished opposite the ports; and
Fan Capacity Fan size was limited by maximum
allowable airflow velocities in the ducts and at the
egress walkway.
Fully-transverse road tunnel ventilation systems were
designed to provide distributed transverse air flow evenly
along the length of the tunnel. Such a design works
well for controlling air quality during times of congested

traffic, where automobiles fill the tunnel from portal to
portal and contaminates are evenly distributed. In road
tunnels, parameters such as wind speed improve air
quality by purging the tunnel pollutants.
For transit tunnels, where emergency fire conditions
drive the design, extraction ventilation systems must
effectively control smoke and heat to a very limited
area near the fire car under worst-case conditions.
Existing fully-transverse ventilation systems can be
modified, allowing the extraction capacity to be directed
nearest the fire source, but such modifications require
structural analysis of the tunnel and may not be able
to control smoke spread for fire sizes greater than
10MW. The EastLink tunnel ventilation analysis led
Parsons Brinckerhoff to recommend a longitudinal
system that resulted in significant cost savings over
the preliminary design.
Jesse Harder is a registered Mechanical Engineer specializing in
transit facilities. He is experienced in the design and construction
of mechanical and fire life safety systems and has served in key
roles on large transit extensions.
Andrew Louie is a Professional Associate in Tunnel Ventilation. He
has worked on tunnel ventilation projects for Parsons Brinckerhoff
for the past 9 years across the United States and England.
Vamsidhar (Vamsi) Palaparthy is a Mechanical Engineer and has
been involved in the design and analysis of ventilation systems
for various major vehicular and subway tunnels.
Silas Li is Manager of the Parsons Brinckerhoff US Tunnel
Ventilation Analysis Group and chairman of the NFPA 130
ventilation task group. He has 29 years of experience in the
design and simulation modeling of fire/smoke management and
ventilation systems for transit, rail, and road tunnels.
Long Road Tunnels and Portal Emission

Control
by Argun Bagis, Sydney, AUS, +61-2-9272 5435, bagisa@pbworld.com; and
Ventilation
Fire and Life
Systems
Safety
NETWORK
Duncan Saunsbury, Sydney, AUS, +61-2-9272 1419, saunsburyd@pbworld.com
The use of longitudinal tunnel ventilation in road tunnels

is arguably the preferred method for modern tunnels,
in particular for those classified as long tunnels, with
lengths generally over 1500 metres (4921 feet). However, the use of longitudinal ventilation often brings with
it the need to control portal emissions, especially for tunnels located in urban or residential areas.
Parameters such as the maximum design traffic speed

and the proportion of heavy goods vehicles become
more critical when designing for portal emission control.
Figure 2 provides an overview of a typical longitudinal
ventilation system with portal emission control and point
extraction prior to the exit portal.
The dilution air that is required to maintain in-tunnel pollution limits is introduced into the tunnel through the entry portal(s) and extracted via the exhaust system, just
prior to the exit portal(s). Depending on the traffic flow
and tunnel length, the quantity of airflow generated by the
piston effect can be in excess of this dilution air, which
would need to be extracted by the exhaust system, with
Net positive fresh air

inow into exit portal
Exhaust
System
Reversible Jet Fans
Fresh Air
Fresh Air
Piston Effect
Unidirectional trafc
Exit Portal
Entry Portal
Reversible Jet Fans used to reduce or to augment

piston effect induced tunnel air ow
Ideally, the tunnel air would need to be captured prior

to exiting the tunnel, and discharged with sufficient
dispersion so as to meet ambient air quality limits at the
nearest sensitive receptors. This typically requires the
ability to control the tunnel airflow so that a net inflow
of fresh air is able to be maintained through the exit
portal against the traffic direction, generally at a steadystate inflow velocity of between 0.5 2.0 metres per
second (1.7 6.6 feet per second), depending on the
aerodynamic characteristics. Consequently, the installed
capacity of the tunnel ventilation system may not be
driven by air quality demands, but rather by the need to
control the piston-driven airflow generated by vehicles.
Figure 1 - Emission concentration along tunnel
Vitiated Air
In a longitudinal system the concentration of pollutants

in the tunnel air generated by vehicles transiting the tunnel increases continuously from the entry portal to the
exit portal (refer to Figure 1).
Figure 2 - Point extraction for portal emission control fully reversible jet fans shown
41
Ventilation
Fire and Life
Systems
Safety
NETWORK
longer tunnels requiring greater exhaust capacity. Figure 2
schematically shows the location of the exhaust system
within the context of the tunnel and associated ventilation
equipment. The capacity of the exhaust system needs to
be sufficient to capture both the main tunnel airflow and
the additional fresh air inflow through the exit portal.
Aerodynamic efficiencies can be improved by augmenting
the exhaust system capacity with jet fans within the tunnel to control tunnel and portal airflows (see Figure 3).
In a unidirectional tunnel the aerodynamic drag of the
vehicles moving in one direction creates a piston effect
which generates air flow in the direction of traffic. In a
simple longitudinal ventilated tunnel without portal emission control, the piston effect is utilised with the jet fans
augmenting the flow when required. When portal emissions are to be controlled, jet fans are often utilised to
retard the traffic piston effect along the length of the tunnel, to reduce the required extraction system capacity just
prior to the exit portal. The number of jet fans needed to
operate at any one time is dependent upon a number of
factors including the ventilation system exhaust rate, the
traffic speed, the fleet vehicle profile, the tunnel geometry,
and the capacity of the jet fans.
Generally, the relationship between the ventilation system

exhaust rate and the number of jet fans required to maintain a portal inflow is an inverse one, such that higher
exhaust rates require fewer jet fans to operate.
Designing for portal emission control can be complex due
to the dynamic effects of real world traffic. The piston effect from moving vehicles often dominates the tunnel aerodynamics, particularly during peak vehicle flow at maximum
design speed. The ventilation system often has to operate
Mid-tunnel exit ramps

Portal emission control becomes more complicated and
challenging when mid-tunnel exit ramps are introduced into
the tunnel alignment creating an additional exit portal. A
dedicated exhaust point incorporated prior to the additional exit portal would require an additional exhaust plant and
ventilation outlet near the exit ramp, or a complex arrangement of ductwork/adits, that connect the exhaust point to
the main ventilation plant. Apart from additional cost implications, this has the potential to create unwanted environmental issues and community response.
The use of jet fans to control the airflow in the ramp should
also be considered. The jet fans would be used to generate sufficient reverse airflow (against the flow of traffic) in
the ramp to overcome the piston effect generated by the
vehicles and induce a net positive inflow of air through
the exit portal. Although controlling the ramp flows in this
manner can introduce additional challenges for the control of the system as a whole, it is widely regarded as a
practical and cost effective solution to an otherwise technically and environmentally challenging problem. This is
particularly the case where peak traffic flow is limited to a
small number of hours per day.
The ramp length must be sufficient to accommodate the
installation of the minimum number of jet fans required to
achieve the reverse flow. In addition, the introduction of
airflow from the ramp back into the mainline tunnel would
increase the concentration of pollutants and the minimum required exhaust capacity of the main ventilation
plant, which would need to be accounted for. Additional
jet fans may be required to operate within the mainline
tunnel sections to augment the ramp airflow control.
Short-term dynamic effects
Figure 3 - Example of jet fans in a road tunnel
42
throughout the day in order to maintain control of portal

emissions and therefore the system operating cost is an
important consideration during the design phase.
In order to ensure that portal emission control is maintained, it is also important to consider the short-term
transient effects that fluctuations in the traffic volume,
profile, or speed can have on the portal inflow condition.
The tunnel exit section is typically short in length with the
air within that section having a relatively low inertia making it susceptible to short-term fluctuations due to traffic. A short-term increase in the number of heavy goods
vehicles travelling through the tunnel in a convoy could
generate a piston effect sufficient to not only reduce the
portal inflow but also create an outflow condition.
Air Flow
Ram
Exit P
ortal
Exit
Ventilation
Fire and Life
Systems
Safety
Exit Ramp
Trafc Flow
Exit Portal
NETWORK
Extraction
System
Figure 4 - Plan view of bifurcation of an exit ramp
A complex tunnel geometry also could affect portal

emission control. The bifurcation of an exit ramp after
the ventilation exhaust point (as shown in Figure 4) can
make it difficult to control portal emissions, especially
if the exhaust point is located at the side of the tunnel,
rather than the top. The bifurcation creates two separate
exit portals with a large tunnel cross section just prior
to the bifurcation.
An inflow will need to be maintained for both exit ramps;
however, due to interconnectivity, they can be particularly
susceptible to short-term fluctuations in the volume of
traffic exiting either ramp. Analysis has shown that a
higher portal inflow condition of approximately 1.5 2.0
metres per second (4.7 6.6 feet per second) could be
required in order to maintain an acceptable portal inflow condition for bifurcated exit ramps. The inflow of air
through each exit portal can be achieved independently of
the bifurcation geometry, the traffic flow, and the physical
location of the exhaust point within the tunnel, provided
that the mainline jet fans are utilised to assist in the control of the airflow. An increased portal inflow condition
does, however, increase the fan capacities, which could
be compensated for by reducing the cross-sectional area
of the portal openings.
Wider considerations
It has been shown that there are engineering solutions
available for the control of emissions through tunnel exit
portals. However, we recommend that a holistic approach
be taken prior to committing to a portal emission control
ventilation strategy and that it not be carried out in isolation from other disciplines.
The use of jet fans to control in-tunnel airflow and exhaust fans to extract the air from the tunnel is a relatively
costly strategy, considering that the fans may be required
to operate on a 24-hour basis, depending on the traffic
and air quality limits. The decision to go ahead with portal emission control should be undertaken with support
from air quality assessment, dispersion modelling, power
demand, and future climate change projections on power
cost, carbon emissions, community consultation, and
whole-of-life assessment.
Relaxing portal emission control during off-peak, shoulder, and night time operation should also be considered,
provided that portal emissions are monitored, ambient air
quality limits strictly observed, and community consultation and subsequent buy-in is obtained.
Argun Bagis is a Principal Mechanical Engineer at Parsons
Brinckerhoff, with over 18 years engineering experience,
primarily in the transportation infrastructure industry.
Duncan Saunsbury is a Mechanical Engineer with over 3 years
of experience specialising in tunnel ventilation, fire, and life
safety. Originally based in the UK, he has worked on tunnel
projects worldwide including in the US, Europe, Middle East,
Australia and New Zealand.
Short-term effects can be managed by maintaining a

relatively high portal inflow condition, although this could
result in relatively high operating costs. An inflow condition of approximately 1.0 metre per second (3.3 feet per
second) should be sufficient for most cases; however,
depending on the specific project design parameters, an
inflow condition as low as 0.5 metres per second (1.7 feet
per second) may also be acceptable.
43
Ventilation
Fire and Life
Systems
Safety
NETWORK
Merging Emergency Ventilation System

Sound Power and Pressure Drop
Calculations
by Michael MacNiven, Sacramento, CA, US, +1-916-567-2542, macnivenmc@pbworld.com
Introduction/Overview
This article describes a methodology that simultaneously

calculates sound and pressure levels for very large tunnel emergency ventilation systems and explains how this
methodology benefits the ventilation design process. This
method was used on the Sound Transit Northgate Link
Light Rail Extension Project (NLLREP) in Seattle, Washington for the ventilation design strategy for two underground
stations (Roosevelt and U-District stations) and the connecting bored tunnels.
44
Traditionally on many tunnel projects, sound and pressure

loss calculations have been done separately. The primary
solution to sound mitigation is to add silencers, which use
sound absorbing materials, and geometrical features to attenuate sound waves in the airstream. This adds length
to the duct system and often creates more pressure loss,
which leads to larger fans and additional sound generation. Therefore, the relationship of sound and pressure is
best understood when simultaneously calculating their values. The combined calculation (of the sound and pressure)
of the longer silencers determines if the sound meets the
environmental regulatory requirements while determining
the additional impact on fan horsepower.
The traditional approach of adding longer silencers to
solve sound problems often does not take advantage of
the contribution that the system duct work can provide
in sound mitigation. A significant proportion of unwanted
sound could be mitigated by ductwork system effects in a
beneficial way.
This methodology provides insight that enables the engineer to quickly identify problematic areas within the system, and adjust key parameters such as fan room layout,
attenuator size, and duct geometry that would otherwise
negatively impact the final design. Knowing how sound
and pressure considered together can be made to optimize the cost, mechanical advantage, station footprint, or
noise mitigation can be a beneficial tool.
The NLLREP stations and connecting tunnels required a

ventilation system in the event of a train fire emergency.
The ventilation strategy chosen was to be a push/pull
extraction system as shown in Figure 1.
For this system to work effectively, the fans must be located on either side of the potential fire hazard. The fans
can then work in unison to create airflow in one direction
with one station fan in exhaust and the adjacent station
fan in supply, thereby meeting the required velocity and
North
Emergency
Vent
Shaft
South
Emergency
Vent
Shaft#1
North
Emergency
Vent
Shaft #2
Reversible
Emergency
Fan (TYP)
EMFN-5
Fan Damper
(TYP)
EMFN-7
EMFN-2
EMFN-4
EMFN-6
EMFN-1
EMFD-3
Push/Pull
Push/Pull
Push/Pull
Track
Damper
(TYF)
South Bound
Tunnel
U-District
Station
North Bound
Tunnel
Figure 1 - Ventilation scheme
Roosevelt
Station
SB Portal
from
Northgate
Station
NB Portal
from
Northgate
Station
flow rate to control the smoke in the tunnel. The total

pressure loss must be considered in combination with
the air flow to determine the required fan motor power
needed to move air through the system.
EXHAUST / INTAKE
NLLREP ventilation system fans were sized based on the

resistance losses from the tunnel portal to the exit vent
shaft in the forward and reverse fan direction. The total
pressure loss also provides input to the calculation of
the fan sound power generated. The sound generated by
the ventilation fan is required to meet the environmental
impact statement (EIS) and specific project sound criteria
at each designated receptor location (where a person
might typically be standing). NLLREP ventilation system
receptors are located at the tunnel platform, station atrium, and outside ambient, each of which needs to meet
the regulatory compliance of the EIS and project criteria.
The sound attenuation by each component in the duct
system reduces the total sound emitted to the receptor.
Ventilation
Fire and Life
Systems
Safety
NETWORK
EFAN
EFAN
PUSH / PULL
Method of Integrating Pressure and Sound

Calculations
The methodology integrates the calculation of pressure

loss and sound generation and attenuation of each
component in the system using the computer software
Mathcad for documentation and validation of engineering calculations. This software is particularly helpful because it provides a fully documented calculation that can
be easily reviewed and altered for different projects. The
program is structured by common variables, common
geometry, component pressure, component sound, total
pressure, and total sound.
Common variables and geometry are defined at the front
end of the software program to allow for simplifying input
and reducing errors. The same reasoning applies to defining common geometric parameters for plenums, dampers, and silencers at the front end of the program.
Pressure
Each air pathway in the fan forward and reverse direction
is considered when calculating pressure loss as shown
in Figure 2. Often only one pathway needs to be determined if it can be shown to be the highest resistance
path. If there is no clear distinction of the highest resistance pathway, all air pathways should be evaluated.
Figure 2 - South Roosevelt Station elevation layout
I.E. Idlechiks Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance provides

resistance coefficients for various components within an
airstream such as elbows, tees, structural interferences,
and dampers, as well as sudden expansions, sudden contractions, and diverging and converging transition losses.
Figure 3 is a sample calculation from a Mathcad file describing the pressure loss for a seven foot silencer. In this
example, the face velocity (Vs) is calculated to obtain the
pressure loss in the forward direction.
Counter z := z + 1
z = 10
Pressure Loss/Silencer
Pressure loss through the silencer may be given
by manufacturers data (IAC Type L Sound
Attenuator), however, the pressure loss is taken
by SMACNA pg 9.10. The ow rate for this type
of system is considered a medium attenuator.
Lz : = 7. ft.
Q
ft.
Vs : = f
= 1875 .
min
As
Pf := 0.3 in
z
Length of Silencer
Face Velocity
Pressure Loss
(SMACNA pg 9.10)
The ventilation system is a series of duct components

that provide pressure resistance losses and sound generation and mitigation. These components contribute
to the overall pressure loss and sound at the receptor.
Figure 3 - Silencer pressure loss from Mathcad
45
Ventilation
Fire and Life
Systems
Safety
NETWORK
Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors' National Association (SMACNA) has published that pressure loss is
a function of velocity. Similarly, a pressure loss is to be
calculated for every ductwork component along the highest
resistance pathway.
the flow path. After each component has been evaluated for pressure loss, the total summation is used to
evaluate the fan brake horsepower. The fan sound power
is evaluated from the total pressure loss as shown by
Equation 3 (Reference 2).
Sound
In conjunction with the pressure term, a sound power
component is considered for all segments in which
sound is either regenerated or attenuated. The sound
reduction or absorption is defined as the insertion loss
(IL). When sound travels through a duct component such
as a silencer an insertion loss occurs.
Equation 3
Equation 1 describes the sound power after a component loss where Lw1 is the sound power level before the
component loss and Lw2 is sound power level after the
component loss (Reference 2). The insertion loss reduction is calculated over each of eight frequency bands
which range from 63Hz to 8000Hz. The human ear is
only sensitive to this range of frequencies.
Equation 1
When calculating the total sound power at the receptor, each component is evaluated from the fan to each
receptor location. In other words, the fan sound power
calculated from Equation 3 is taken to be reduced
from the insertion component by Equation 1. For components with regeneration, the total sound is combined using Equation 2. Sound power, which is a measure of the sound intensity, must then be converted to
sound pressure or the power component that directly
affects the ear drum. The sound pressure levels are
evaluated for the receptors, typically in a tunnel, station, or ambient locations.
Example
46
The regeneration gain by the silencer is used to calculate

the total sound power (Lw3) as shown in Equation 2. The
total sound power after the silencer insertion loss (Lw2)
is then added logarithmically to the regeneration (LwR) values (Reference 2). The decibel (dB) scale is logarithmic
and as such a doubling or halving of energy changes the
sound level by 3dB; it does not double or half the sound
level as might be expected.
Equation 2
A silencer insertion loss and regeneration values for a silencer are available from manufacturers' data for each of
the eight frequency band levels in both the forward and
reverse fan direction. Insertion loss can be determined
for any component in the system. Sheet Metal and Air
Conditioning Contractors' National Association (SMACNA)
provides methods to calculate insertion and regeneration
values for various types of ductwork components.
Total Pressure/Sound
The total pressure loss of the ventilation system is determined by a summation of losses for components along
During the design of the ventilation system at U-District

station, the use of tunnel fans to exhaust the atrium presented a challenging sound control problem. The fans
were in close proximity to the atrium receptor. This allowed very little attenuation to occur. Early in the design,
it was determined that the sound levels did not meet
project criteria with the configuration of the atrium damper in-line with the fan.
Three options were investigated to attenuate the sound.
The first option was to add a matrix of silencers at the
atrium wall opening. This was a viable solution but not
considered to be the best choice due to the cost and
aesthetics. The second and third options were to offset
the damper to provide additional elbow attenuation. The
second option utilized an unlined elbow, whereas the
third option used an acoustically lined elbow.
Figure 4 shows the final configuration of the ventilation
system. The acoustically lined elbow option provided
the necessary attenuation to meet project criteria with
minimal impacts to the fan horsepower. The program
allowed exploration of different options to reach a feasible, cost effective, and architecturally appealing solution by understanding the parameters that controlled
the sound.
SOUND POWER
PROVIDED AT
TUNNEL DAMPER
AT CEILING
OF PLATFORM
LEVEL (TYP)
Ventilation
Fire and Life
Systems
Safety
NETWORK
ADD ACOUSITCAL
MATERIAL TO
WALLS
SOUND POWER
FOR SINGLE
ATRIUM DAMPER
STAIR-6
SOUND PATHWAY
Figure 4 - Sound attenuation material at U-District Station
Conclusion
Traditionally, pressure loss analysis has received more attention in the design of tunnel ventilation systems than
sound analysis. In recent years, environmental policy, regulatory requirements, and space constraints are making
it more important to understand sound mitigation. This
methodology of combining sound and pressure simultaneously in the design of ventilation systems provides an
efficient tool for understanding how both sound and pressure are influenced by each system component. In addition
to demonstrating compliance with the regulatory requirements, the method provides a means to explore other options more efficiently than before. It allows for an optimum
design that minimizes motor power requirements, meets
sound requirements, and minimizes space requirements.
References
1. Idelchick, I.E., Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance. 4th
Edition.
2. HVAC Sound and Vibration Manual. s.l. : Sheet Metal
and Air Conditioning Contractors' National Association, First Edition Dec. 2004.
3. HVAC Systems Duct Design. s.l. : Sheet Metal and Air
Conditioning Contractors' National Association, Third
Edition 1990.
Michael MacNiven is a Senior Mechanical Engineer with a technical background in HVAC, piping, and fire life/safety systems
along with large scale tunnel emergency ventilation systems.
SOUND POWER
PROVIDED AT
AMBIENT AT TOP
OF SHAFT
47
Ventilation
Fire and Life
Systems
Safety
NETWORK
Cost-Effective Power Supply Scheme for

Tunnel Booster Fans in Long Tunnels
by CC Cheung, Hong Kong/Singapore, +852-2579-7066/+65-6589-3674, cheung.chuncheong@pbworld.com; and
Steven Lai, Hong Kong/Singapore, +852-2963-7625/+65-6589-3661, lai.steven@pbworld.com
Background The Technical Challenge

For long vehicular tunnels or tunnels with slip roads
(ramps), tunnel booster fans may assist the ventilation
of the tunnel. For metro systems, tunnel booster fans
may be installed near the crossover to direct the air flow
in the desired direction.
In general, tunnel booster fans are powered from a motor control center (MCC) and operated at a low voltage of
about 400V. However, if the fans are not located near the
power supply, it becomes necessary to run long cables to
the tunnel booster fans, which leads to:
48
An excessive voltage drop in the cable due to the long

cables from the power supply to the fans;
Increased cable sizes and possibly additional cable sets
to reduce the expected voltage drop (which is expensive);
Reinforcing the feeder cable mounting system due to the
additional weight of the upgraded cables;
Space congestion along the entire tunnel services
mounting system, in particular due to the upgraded cabling systems;
Provision of a large cable termination box to connect the
upgraded cables to the tunnel booster fans; and
Risk of fan operational problems due to substandard
voltage regulation, especially when starting across the
line with electro-mechanical contractors.
Since it can be shown that an increase in a feeder nominal voltage results in a significantly higher power capacity (proportional to the square of the percentage voltage increase for the same voltage drop), boosting the
system nominal voltage was considered in order not to
increase feeder sizes in long fan booster feeder applications; these solutions can be economical, especially if
the low voltage equipment insulation classification does
not have to be upgraded. Therefore, an increase in the

nominal voltage of the serving power distribution system
for big motors and fans, such as tunnel ventilation fans
or smoke exhaust fans, has been adopted as a feasible
solution for some tunnel projects, including a road tunnel
project in Hong Kong (forty 660V tunnel ventilation fans,
rated at 200 to 600kW).
For smaller fans (e.g., tunnel booster fans), increased
voltage is also becoming popular as the cost savings
for the feeder cabling system is very attractive, especially when tunnel space is at a premium. For example,
there are more than 70 tunnel booster fans (1250mm
diameter, 60kW for each fan) in another road tunnel in
Hong Kong.
Examples of Solutions
Some projects in Hong Kong, India, and Singapore have
considered or adopted this approach of using tunnel
booster fans of increased voltages of 660V (i.e., 3 x
380V), or 690V (i.e., 3 x 400V) as appropriate1 (using
step-up transformers inside the MCC rooms). This nominal voltage boost approach will reduce the nominal operating currents of the tunnel booster fans proportionally;
however, the percentage voltage drop along the feeder
will be reduced with the square of the nominal voltage
boost, which in turn results in significantly reduced feeder cable sizes for the same voltage drop requirements,
and therefore results in significant savings for the overall
feeder cabling costs.
To illustrate this approach/solution, it is assumed a tunnel project in Singapore has tunnel booster fans (45kW
each) with an average cabling distance2 of over 200 metres (656 feet) from the MCC room. For this situation, two
schemes were considered:
Note: In the US the nominal voltage of a fan motor is relatively standardized (3-phase 208V, 480V, 575V, 2400V, etc.) and normally cannot
be customized as stated in this paper.
2
Average cabling distance = Total cable length / Number of tunnel booster fans.
MCC 3
(400V)
MCC 1
(400V)
However, the size of the MCC room would have to be

enlarged to accommodate the two step-up transformers
and the additional switchboard that supplies the tunnel
booster fans (see Figure 2).
Cost Considerations
MCC 2
(400V)
Figure 1 - Schematic of Scheme 1
Scheme 1 Low Voltage Supply for Tunnel Booster Fans

The tunnel booster fans power supply is connected from
the MCC which is operating at 400V. The MCC is dual-fed
from two low-voltage service switchboards (see Figure 1).
Scheme 2 Higher Voltage Supply for Tunnel Booster Fans
Transformers for step-up of the voltage from 400V to
690V are proposed to be connected to the MCC for the
power supply of the tunnel booster fans. With the increased operating voltage, the tunnel booster fans operation current would be reduced by 1/3 proportionally.
This would also reduce the cable size required and lower
the cable costs.
Tunnel Booster Fans
MCC 4
(690V)
Tunnel Ventilation Fans

and Other Environmental
Control System Loads
An example of a cost comparison is shown in Figure

3: twenty (20) 45kW tunnel booster fans spaced along
three parallel tunnels at an average cabling distance of
255 metres (836 feet) from the MCC.
It shall be noted that the cost of a MCC (690V) may be
sufficiently high in some countries, as additional effort
is required to design and construct the upgraded equipment, especially if the local low voltage classifications
and certifications cannot be met by off-the-shelf units.
Also, additional tests may be required to obtain the authorization and required equipment certifications, especially when a variable voltage variable frequency (VVVF)
drive system is used.
Other Considerations

Cabling System
The cost saving as illustrated in Figure 3 is 7.6
percent, based on the adoption of low smoke zero
Description
Scheme 1
Cost (US$)
Scheme 2
Cost (US$
Power cables to
tunnel booster fans
$736,000
$427,000
Two (2) step-up transformers

(300kVA) and the additional cost
for ventilation/cooling necessary
for the booster transformer
$54,000
MCC (400V)
$266,000
$199,000
MCC (690V)
$210,000
Twenty (20) tunnel booster fans
$480,000
$480,000
Total:
$1,482,000
$1,370,000
MCC 3
(400V)
MCC 1
(400V)
MCC 2
(400V)
Overall Savings
(by using Scheme 2):
Figure 2 - Schematic of Scheme 2
$112,000
(Cost Saving of 7.6% using Scheme 2)
Tunnel Booster Fans, Tunnel Ventilation Fans,

and Other Environmental Control System Loads
Ventilation
Fire and Life
Systems
Safety
NETWORK
Figure 3 - Cost comparison between Scheme 1 and Scheme 2
49
Ventilation
Fire and Life
Systems
Safety
NETWORK
halogen (LSOH3) type fire resistant cables. This is
generally a cabling requirement for emergency/life
safety systems of all underground tunnel installations
in Singapore. In Singapore and Hong Kong, where the
low voltage (LV) power distribution system is rated
at 230V/400V and 220V/380V respectively, the
standard LV cable (Uo/U) is rated at 600V/1000V.
Energy Savings/Efficiency
From a viewpoint of energy savings, VVVF drives can
be considered for many fan/motor installations. VVVF
drives can achieve a very steady current ramping for different fan speeds to suit different air flow requirements.
As the energy consumption for a fan with VVVF drive is
in direct proportion to the speed, the energy savings will
be generally as shown in Figure 4.
Speed
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
Energy
Consumed
100%
73%
51%
34%
22%
13%
Figure 4 - Energy consumption for a fan with VVVF drive is in direct

proportion to the speed
Location of VVVF Drive

For this project, the VVVF drive for each fan will be
located inside the MCC room so maintenance does not
have to be performed in a tunnel environment.
In the US, the acronym for low smoke zero halogen is LSZH.
50
Recommendation
Technically, the use of a step-up boost transformer or
autotransformer for tunnel booster fans requires more
distribution equipment and more space to accommodate the plant. If the tunnel booster fans are too close
to the MCC (e.g., within 200 metres) and the fan quantity is small (e.g., four fans), it will not be worthwhile
to consider the use of a higher supply voltage cable
distribution system.
Parsons Brinckerhoff successfully has applied the abovementioned cost saving scheme to various road tunnels
and metro projects.
CC Cheung is an Electrical Engineer at Parsons Brinckerhoff.

He has been involved in a number of road tunnel and metro
projects in Hong Kong and Singapore which have required long
distant LV power distribution. He is now working in Singapore as
an Electrical Discipline Leader for a metro project.
Steven Lai is a Mechanical Engineer and a Senior Professional Associate at Parsons Brinckerhoff. He is an M&E Project Manager for
a road tunnel project in Hong Kong which has used tunnel booster
fans and semi-transverse ventilation system. He is now working in
Singapore as an M&E Project Manager for a metro project which
has tunnel booster fans along some of the tunnel area.
Air Purification System for a Road Tunnel Project

by Cathy Kam, Hong Kong, +852-2579-7465, kam.cathy@pbworld.com;
Chris Ma, Hong Kong, +852-2579-8533, ma.chris@pbworld.com; and
Steven Lai, Hong Kong / Singapore, +852-2963-7625 / +65-6589-3661, lai.steven@pbworld.com
A new road tunnel is being constructed in an urban district

of Hong Kong. Eight APS plants will be installed in three
ventilation buildings of the tunnel. To satisfy the environmental requirements, an electrostatic precipitator (ESP)
to remove dust has been installed. To further improve visibility and air quality, equipment for removing NO2 is also
provided in the project. In case of fire, the APS is bypassed
and the tunnel ventilation system will control and effectively discharge smoke to ensure the safety of tunnel users.
The purification system provides added benefit to the surrounding environment as well; the APS produces cleaner
outdoor air for local residents around the tunnel portals
and ventilation buildings.
The proposed APS is one of the largest in the world. Parsons Brinckerhoff is the designer for all the mechanical
and electrical (M&E) systems of the project, including the
APS. This tunnel project employs Building Information Modeling (BIM).
In designing an APS for a road tunnel, the major challenges
and technical requirements are:
Ensuring the Efficiency of the APS
The APS consists of an electrostatic precipitator (ESP)
and a de-nitrification system (De-NO2) for the removal
of dust particulates and NO2 in the tunnel exhaust air
stream. With consideration of the current technology and
the long term operation of the APS, the APS shall achieve
at least 80 percent efficiency for removing the dust particulates and NO2 from the airflow stream.
Selection of De-NO2 Filter
To avoid excessive replacement work, the lifetime of the
De-NO2 filter shall be longer than 3 years under a tunnel
operation environment. To achieve a comparative tender
price, the filter shall be available on the open market.
Fire and Life Safety Features in APS
Safety interlocks of the APS with personal access doors
and motorized fire dampers connected to the smoke extraction system shall be provided.
Control and Monitoring of the APS

Adequate heat detection, particle detection, and NO2 detection will be provided to monitor the performance of the
ESP and De-NO2 systems.
Civil, Mechanical, and Electrical Provisions for APS
Sufficient provisions shall be reserved for the APS, especially for the regeneration plant. Civil provisions include
space for the plant and the associated delivery route,
sump pit for the regeneration plant, lifting provision for
the equipment. Mechanical and electrical provisions include water supply for the cleaning of the ESP, drainage
system for the wastewater produced by the APS, high voltage power supply system for the ESP, control and monitoring system, etc.
Avoid Converting Air Pollution to Water Pollution
Wastewater is mainly generated from the ESP cleaning
system. Reducing the amount of wastewater from the ESP
is one of the key considerations in the design (refer to
Network Issue 77, February 2014, Wastewater Reduction in Road Tunnel Air Purification System).
It is essential that the major parameters of the APS are specified in the tender document and that a sufficient number of
market players can join the competition. Parsons Brinckerhoff
has considered all features and spatial constraints and developed a design that is feasible for various suppliers to bid for
the project, thereby providing fair market opportunities while
meeting local environmental requirements.
Cathy Kam is a Mechanical Engineer who participates in
road tunnel and metro projects and has experience in using
Primavera P6 on projects.
Chris Ma is a Mechanical Engineer who participates in road
tunnel and metro projects and has experience with building
information modeling (BIM), Subway Environment Simulation
(SES), and Primavera P6 on projects. He is an engineer for a
road tunnel project which will use an Air Purification System
(APS) for the first time in Hong Kong.
Steven Lai is a Mechanical Engineer and Senior Professional
Associate at Parsons Brinckerhoff. With 25 years of experience, he has served as lead engineer on many tunnel ventilation system and environmental control system related projects. He is MEP Project Manager for a road tunnel project in
Hong Kong which will use an Air Purification System (APS) for
the first time in Hong Kong.
Air Purification Systems (APS) have been applied to many

road tunnel projects around the world in order to maintain
tunnel air quality and/or reduce tunnel emissions. However,
less than ten projects use APS to remove both dust and
nitrogen dioxide (NO2) or mono-nitrogen oxides (NOx).
Ventilation
Fire and Life
Systems
Safety
NETWORK
51
WaterFire
Resource
Pressure
and Life
Transient
Planning
Safety
NETWORK
Elimination of Portal Flares

by Kenneth J. Harris, Sacramento, CA, US, +1- 916-567-2503, harris@pbworld.com;
Bobby J. Melvin, Sacramento, CA, US, +1-916-567-2508, Melvin@pbworld.com; and
Steve Gleaton, Sound Transit, Seattle, WA, US, +1-206-398-5335
The expertise of Parsons Brinckerhoff in tunnel aerodynamics was utilized in eliminating an expensive and
complicating featureflared tunnel portalsindicated
by preliminary engineering for Sound Transit's Northgate
Link Extension tunnel in the state of Washington. The
analysis performed also provided an additional benefit,
eliminating some station ventilation shafts that were initially perceived to be required.
Portal Flares
52
Modification of tunnel portals by using a flared portal

design serves to reduce the trains nose pressure as
the nose enters the tunnel portal, and also to reduce
the sharp change that occurs as the trains tail crosses
that portal. The interior nose pressure on portal entry is usually the highest pressure that occurs on train
passage. This pressure also initiates acoustic wave
pressure that is eventually reflected back onto the
train. By increasing the local annular area of the portal
structure, this initial nose pressure can be reduced. A
transition flare can accomplish this objective and then
allow the main bore annular area to be maintained for
the remainder of the tunnel.
Background
Pressure transient calculations were performed for the
entire extension tunnel. The calculations were divided
into three parts: North Portal to Roosevelt Station, Roosevelt Station to Brooklyn Station, and Brooklyn Station to
the University of Washington. The purpose of the calculations was to determine the wayside and interior pressures that exist on the proposed subway design and determine if these pressures were within the design criteria
limits. The system was analyzed in segments between
stations. The southern direction was used because the
North Portal entry is expected to create the most severe
condition, both as the train enters the portal and as the
train tail crosses the portal face. In addition to the pres-
sure changes that occur, the air flow through the station
elements is estimated and compared to the design criteria requirements.
The Subway Environmental Design Handbook1 (SEDH) is
the reference source. The equations and expressions in
the calculation describe the effects of pressure transients
caused by train movement into and within enclosed spaces. These transients can place large loadings on trains
and wayside facilities and can cause passenger discomfort, particularly ear discomfort due to pressure.
The SEDH criteria for changes of pressure inside a train
are: if the pressure change exceeds 2.78 inches water
column (0.69 kPa), then the rate of pressure change
should be less than 1.67 inches (0.42 kPa) per second. These are the same as the project design criteria. These requirements reflect passenger comfort for
subway operations involving frequent pressure changes
due to portals, vent shafts, and other discontinuities in
metropolitan underground transit operations.
There are no standard criteria for exterior pressure
changes; however, they do represent cyclical loads that
must be accounted for on tunnel surfaces, particularly
doors, ductwork, and other large metal surfaces. Special
construction, reinforcing, or other treatment is usually
necessary to handle these cyclical loading conditions.
In addition to the pressure changes from train passage
described above, acoustic waves are generated at discontinuities such as portals, vent shafts, and tunnel shape
changes. These waves are generated at the discontinuity
location, travel at the speed of sound along the tunnel,
and are then reflected back and continued forward. The
reflected wave passes over the train providing a pressure
spike. These are all evaluated with respect to the project/
SEDH criteria.
Subway Environmental Design Handbook (Vol. 1 & 2), prepared by Parsons Brinckerhoff as part of a joint venture for the U.S. Department of
Transportation, publication date 1975.
For this article, the calculations presented are from

one part of the studythe North Portal to Roosevelt
Station. The x-axis shown in figures 1-4 (Distance in
the Subway) refers to the North Portal (0 feet) and
Roosevelt Station (6,336 feet). Calculations of pressure and air flow assume no pressure relief shafts at
stations and no portal flares. The maximum train speed
is 59 miles per hour (95 kilometers).
Train Interior Pressures
Calculations were performed for both interior nose and
interior tail pressure and are summarized in Table 1. For
the nose, as the train enters the North Portal of the tunnel, a pressure rise occurs at the nose until the train tail
crosses the portal. Then there is a sharp drop followed
by a gradual decline where the train is in transit through
the tunnel as shown in Figure 1.
Location
Pressure Change
(inches water
column) (kPa)
Rate of Change
(inches water column)
(kPa) per second
Nose
at portal entry
3.91* (0.97)
0.94 (0.23)
Figure 2 shows the interior tail pressure from the

tail crossing the North Portal until tunnel portal exit
at Roosevelt Station. Following a gradual rise and a
gradual fall while the train travels through the tunnel,
there is a sharp rise as the nose enters the Roosevelt
Station, until the train tail leaves the tunnel. The pressure change criterion is exceeded at the nose entry
into the North Portal and tunnel transit; however, the
rate of change is not. Therefore the pressure change
criterion is met.
Train Exterior Pressures
The exterior pressure represents loading conditions on
wayside facilities such as ductwork, doors, etc. There are
no criteria for wayside facilities, but the loads are necessary for design purposes. The maximum exterior pressure
is +7.7 inches water column (1.92 kPa) and minimum
exterior pressure is -2.5 inches water column (-0.62 kPa).
Interior Nose Pressure
3.909
= 2.468
1.441
= 3.408
-2
0
2000
North Portal
Nose
at tail crossing
portal entry
-2.47 (-0.62)
Nose
transiting tunnel
-3.41* (-0.85)
n/a
-0.05 (-0.01)
-1.967
4000
6000
8000
Distance in subway (feet)
Roosevelt Station
In. wc
3.909
2.468
1.441
3.408
1.967
kPa
0.97
0.61
0.36
0.85
0.49
0.50
1.00
Figure 1 - Interior Nose Pressure

Interior Tail Pressure
-1.5
Tail
transiting tunnel
Tail
at nose exit into station
Tail
at exit into station
-1.81
-2.54 (-0.63)
n/a
Pressure (inches water)
Tail
at portal entry
-2
= 1.86
-2.5
-1.24 (-0.31)
0.11 (0.03)
1.86 (0.46)
n/a
n/a
n/a
* Exceeds pressure change criterion of 2.78 inches water column, however

rate of change is below 1.67 inches water column per second threshold.
Table 1 - Summary of Pressure Transient Conditions (Southbound Train)
= -1.24
-2.54
-3
-3.5
-4
0
2000
North Portal
-3.78
6000
-3.67
= 0.11
4000
Roosevelt Station
8000
In. wc
2.54
1.24
3.78
1.86
3.67
1.81
1.5
2.5
3.5
kPa
0.63
0.31
0.94
0.94
0.46
0.91
0.45
0.50
0.63
0.75
0.83
1.00
Calculation results can be classified into the following:

Train Interior Pressures;
Train Exterior Pressures;
Pressure Waves; and
Station Air Flows.
Calculation Results
Fire
Pressure
and Life
Transient
Safety
NETWORK
Figure 2 - Interior Tail Pressure
53
Exterior Nose Pressure

7.72
6
Fire
Pressure
and Life
Transient
Safety
NETWORK
5.26
4
2
0
-0.02
-2
0
2000
North Portal
4000
6000
8000
Distance in Subway (feet) Roosevelt Station
In. wc
7.72
5.26
0.02
kPa
1.92
1.31
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
Figure 3 - Exterior Nose Pressure
0.80
-0.01
-1
-1.12
-2
-2.49
-3
0
2000
North Portal
4000
6000
8000
Roosevelt Station
In.
0.01
2.49
1.12
0.80
kPa
0.00
0.62
0.28
0.20
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
Figure 4 - Exterior tail pressure
Figure 3 shows the nose pressure and Figure 4 the tail

pressure. The design values may be considered as between the maximum and minimum, although the locations are different and the actual cyclic differentials will
be less.
Pressure waves
There is a pressure wave generated at the North Portal
entry that is reflected back from the station. This pressure
is 1.38 inches water column (0.34 kPa) and occurs 887
feet (270 meters) from the portal. This pressure wave is
less than the criteria value, so no mitigation is necessary.
The Northgate Link system train speed of 59 miles (95

km) per hour precludes the need for portal flares.
Air pressure criteria for the vehicle interior can be met
without portal flares or vent shafts in the Roosevelt
Station.
Air flow criteria for Roosevelt Station can be met without portal flares or vent shafts in that station.
Air pressure criteria for the vehicle interior can be met
without flares at the North Portal or pressure relief vent
shafts in Roosevelt Station.
Air flow criteria for the Roosevelt Station can be met
without flares at the North Portal or pressure relief vent
shafts at Roosevelt Station.
Kenneth Harris, PE is a Tunnel Mechanical and Fire Protection
Specialist and Principal Professional Associate with 40 years of
experience in design, construction, and inspection of large civil
and industrial projects.
Bobby Melvin is a Supervising Mechanical Engineer in the
Sacramento office of Parsons Brinckerhoff where he has
worked for 15 years in the field of tunnel mechanical systems design3.
Steve Gleaton, Structural Engineering Manager at Sound Transit, has 25 years of diverse experience in structural design and
construction support engineering for bridges, underground structures, and buildings, including fifteen years with large projects for
rail transit systems.
Piston effect refers to the forced air flow inside a tunnel caused by moving vehicles.
For other previous Network articles by Bob Melvin, see Mitigating Pressure Effects in High Speed Rail Tunnels, Network #60, June 2005, pp
90-91, 95; and Geometric Enhancement of Fire Size in Road Tunnels, with Joe Gonzalez, Network #70, November 2009, pp 15-17.
2
3
54
Conclusion
Exterior Tail Pressure
Station Air Flows

The airflow from train operations should not significantly impact the station environment. Based on the
station cross section area, the longitudinal velocity
through Roosevelt Station would be a maximum of 359
feet per minute (1.82 meters per second). The narrowest egress opening is 1230 square feet (114 square
meters) resulting in a flow of 328 feet per minute (1.66
meters per second). These are less than the project design criteria averaged maximum of 600 feet per minute
(3.05 meters per second). Both of these represent all
piston effect2 air traveling through the entrances and
no air going down the tunnels which is a very conservative configuration.
Comparison of 3-D and 1-D CFD Simulation

Approach for Aerodynamic Effects in a
High Speed Railway Tunnel System
Fire
Pressure
and Life
Transient
Safety
NETWORK
by Dicken KH Wu, Hong Kong, +852-2963-7631, wu.dicken@pbworld.com;

and Rambo RB Ye, Hong Kong
Usually, the aerodynamic analysis of a high-speed railway tunnel system can be done by using a highly efficient one-dimensional (1-D) computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation program such as ThermoTun.
However, the pressure wave propagation and airflow
speed inside some complicated geometries, such as
an underground station, plenum, and vent shaft, may
no longer be 1-D in nature, and so we investigated the
possibility of three-dimensional (3-D) CFD as a suitable
method to be adopted.
South
Portal
462m
Monitoring Point
South
Shaft
9m
542m
North
Portal
1633m
12.25m
75.9m
8m
Introduction
3m
Geometry Model and Train Speeds

Based on the full-scale experimental data1 tabulated and
further details from the ThermoTun website2 regarding a
full-scale experiment, a 3-D CFD model was constructed.
Figure 1 illustrates the general configuration of the tunnel, portals, vent shaft, and train based on this information. ThermoTun software provides pre-defined configurations that are representative of real tunnels.
The detailed geometrical data for the tunnel, vent shaft,
and train are as follows:
Emmequerung Tunnel:
Area: 75.9m2
Length: 1633m
Vent Shaft:
Area: 12m2
Length: 12m
Train (Cisalpino ETR 470):
Area: 10m2
Length: 236m
Tunnel and Vent Shaft Section

Figure 1 - General configuration of tunnel, vent shaft, and
measurement location
Based on the information provided, two train speeds

were analyzed: 177.5 kilometres per hour (110.2 miles
per hour) and 204 kilometres per hour (126.7 miles per
hour) respectively. And the 3-D CFD and 1-D ThermoTun
approach results would be compared with the full-scale
test measurement.
3-D CFD Approach

To model the train entering the tunnel at the given speed,
special CFD techniques had been adopted, namely sliding mesh and dynamic layering3. In this model, the computation domain is divided into two parts, stationary (the
tunnel and portals) and moving (the train and the column
of air in both ends and around it). The CFD code used,
ANSYS FLUENT Version 14, calculates the flux between
the interfaces of two domains sliding relative to each
other. On both ends, layers of meshes are created and
destroyed according to the domain movement. With this
Full-scale flow measurements in a tunnel airshaft, A. Vardy, 12th International Symposium on the Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle
Tunnels, Organized by BHRA Fluid Engineering, Portoroz, Slovenia, 2006, p. 343
2
http://www.thermotun.com/airshaft
3
FLUENT Version 14 User Guide, Chapter 11, Modelling Flows Using Sliding and Deforming Meshes
1
To ensure that this method is applicable for a high-speed

railway aerodynamic analysis, it is necessary to verify the
approach and estimate the computational resources required. To accomplish this, full-scale experimental data
was used to compare 3-D CFD simulations with the 1-D
ThermoTun results.
55
Fire
Pressure
and Life
Transient
Safety
NETWORK
approach, the mesh quality and quantity, and also the
required computer resource, could be controlled. Figure
2 illustrates the general concept of this CFD technique.
Layers of meshes removed
Layers of meshes created

TRAIN
Moving Domain
Mesh Interface
Stationary Domain
Figure 3 - General train nose and portal CFD model arrangement
Figure 2 - Concept of sliding mesh and dynamic layering to model

the moving train
56
Figures 3 and 4 illustrate the surface mesh arrangement

of the 3-D CFD model, covering the tunnel portal, train
nose, and the vent shaft. The portal areas are extended
and inclined to model the portal geometry, which should
be critical in the portal entry and exit stages. The tunnel
section is also assumed constant from portal to portal.
The train is modelled with a wedge shaped nose. With a
nominal length scale of 0.45 metres, the total mesh number for the model is approximate 2.8 million.
Figure 4 - General vent shaft CFD model arrangement
One very important issue on the mesh arrangement

is the interface mesh topology. The interface surface
meshes were arranged so that they aligned perfectly
during the simulation. This arrangement turns the 2-D
surface flux interpolation on the interface to 1-D. Based
on our project experience, this arrangement is necessary; otherwise, divergence would occur.
For the high-speed air flow and pressure wave analysis

of the train/tunnel aerodynamic interaction, the viscous
effect was considered negligible and could be ignored.
Many successful numerical schemes developed for
the same purpose also adopted the same assumption4 5. Therefore, inviscid flow was assumed for all the
CFD analysis.
Apart from the numerical methods adopted, the boundary conditions used are as follows:
The ideal gas law to account for the air compressibility, i.e., the relationship between
absolute pressure, temperature, and density;
Ambient condition: absolute pressure at 95802.79 Pa (13.89 psi) and at 287.15K
(also as initial condition for the whole domain);
Density-based, spatial, and temporal implicit solver;
Green-Gauss Node-based for gradient interpolation;
Second order discretization for flow;
Flux type: Roe flux-difference-splitting (FDS) scheme;
Implicit time stepping with time step around 0.0013 second;
Initial air speed = 0 meters per second (m/s) for the whole domain;
Initial train location = 50 metres from south portal; and
Train speeds: north bound 177.5 kph (110.29 mph) and 204 kph (126.76 mph).
Prediction and validation on the sonic boom by a high-speed train entering a tunnel, Yoon, T.S., Institute of Advanced Aerospace Technology,
School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, College of Engineering, Seoul National University, Journal of Sound and Vibration (2001)
247(2), pp. 195-211
5
Numerical and Experimental Investigation of Wave Dynamics Processes in High-Speed Train / Tunnels, Jiang Zonglin, ACTA MECHANICA
SINICA (English Series), Vol. 18, No. 3, June 2002.
4
The 3-D CFD simulations were conducted on a high performance workstation supporting 24-CPU parallel processing. The nominal time required for each time step
of 0.0013 seconds is around 20 seconds. For the train
to run from the starting position to the other end of the
tunnel, the total travelling time required for speeds of
177.5kph and 204kph is 40 seconds and 35 seconds
respectively. And the computer time required is 171
hours and 150 hours respectively. Unfortunately, due
to the limited computer resources available, the complete train entry and exit could not be simulated. Only
12 seconds and 17.5 seconds of simulations were
conducted for 177.5kph and 204kph train speeds respectively. The total simulation time required for these
two cases using the same workstation is approximately
one week.
Fire
Pressure
and Life
Transient
Safety
NETWORK
Point B
Point A
Figure 5 - Pressure measurement locations inside tunnel

600
Pt-C (Measurement)
400
200
Two pressure measurement points (A and B) are defined

in the 3-D CFD model. The first point (A) is identical to the
on-site measurement point of the experiment mentioned
above. The second point is in the same chainage but located on the other side of the tunnel for comparison purpose. Figure 5 illustrates these two CFD model measurement positions.
With reference to the data sets provided in the ThermoTun website and the CFD simulation results recorded for
Point A and Point B, Figure 6 and Figure 7 are the comparisons of the pressure measurement for 177.5kph and
204kph respectively. The time axis is adjusted so that
the pressure values and pattern could be compared in
detail. Table 1 summarizes the key pressure parameters
for detailed comparison.
10
12
-200
Pt-B (CFD)
-400
Pt-A (CFD)
-600
Figure 6 - Comparison of pressure measurement and CFD results for

train speed 177.5kph
600
Pt-C (Measurement)
Pt-A (CFD)
400
200
0
0
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
-200
Apart from the numerical values, it is clear from the figures that the 3-D CFD simulation approach could predict
the major pressure wave peaks and troughs correctly at
their time of occurrence. However, the 3-D CFD simulation
approach appears to underpredict the positive pressurization before the train nears the measurement point but
Train Speed
-400
Pt-B (CFD)
-600
Figure 7 - Comparison of pressure measurement and CFD results for

train speed 204kph
177.5kph
204kph
Exp.
3-D CFD Results
Exp.
3-D CFD Results
Entry Pressure Gradient (Pa/s)
2050
Point A: 2708 (>32%)

Point B: 2600 (>27%)
3280
Point A: 3748 (>14%)

Point B: 3632 (>11%)
1st Peak (Pa)
492
Point A: 571 (>16%)

Point B: 557 (>13%)
667
Point A: 719 (>8%)

Point B: 700 (>5%)
2nd Peak (Pa)
554
Point A: 470 (<15%)

Point B: 457 (<18%)
769
Point A: 601 (<22%)

Point B: 583 (<24%)
3-D CFD Results and Comparison with

Experimental Data
Table 1 - Comparison of pressure parameters from experiment and ThermoTun results
57
Fire
Pressure
and Life
Transient
Safety
NETWORK
overpredicts the negative pressurization after the initial
stage of the train passed through the measurement point
(Figure 7). After that the variations in magnitude appear
to be less regular.
It is clear from Table 1 that the pressure gradients (important for sonic boom generation) and first peak values
are overpredicted by CFD and the second peak values
are underpredicted.
1-D ThermoTun APPROACH
Pt-C (Measurement)
400
200
Pt-D (ThermoTun)
0
10
-200
The train is modelled to have the same section from

the nose to tail. However, in the full-scale experiment,
the train (Cisalpino ETR 470) has a wedge-shaped
nose as shown in Figure 8. Therefore, it would be necessary to adjust certain parameters to represent the
train nose configuration.
The vent shaft is modelled as a branch of the tunnel.
While all elements are 1-D, the connection point of the
vent shaft and tunnel is a point in a line, but in fact it has
some position character (left, right, or top side of the
tunnel) that will affect the flow and pressure propagation
in the shaft.
The tunnel section is far more complex than the ThermoTun model. So if the study is focussed on a non-typical
position, the variation may increase.
1-D CFD Results and Comparison with

Experimental Data
Due to the nature of the 1-D approach, only one point is
needed for recording the pressure history in ThermoTun. The
chainage of the measurement point (D) is the same as points
A and B in the 3-D CFD model, for comparison purpose.
Train Speed
-500
Figure 9 - Comparison of pressure measurement and ThermoTun

results for train speed 177.5kph
Pt-C (Measurement)
800
600
400
200
0
Pt-D (ThermoTun)
0
10
-200
-400
-600
-800
Figure 10 - Comparison of pressure measurement and ThermoTun

results for train speed 204kph
With reference to the data sets provided on its website

and the ThermoTun simulation results recorded for Point
D, Figure 9 and Figure 10 are the comparisons for the
pressure measurement for train speeds of 177.5kph
and 204kph respectively. As discussed previously, in this
ThermoTun test the train nose is modelled by aerodynamic parameters but it is not perfectly modelled; thus, the
pressure gradient when entering is more close to a vertical line than shown in the experiment.
Similar to 3-D CFD results, it is clear from the figures that
the ThermoTun simulation approach could predict the
many major pressure wave peaks and troughs correctly at
their time of occurrence. However, the ThermoTun simulation approach appears to overpredict the pressure peak.
177.5kph
204kph
Exp.
CFD Results
Exp.
CFD Results
1st Peak (Pa)
492
Point A: 585 (>19%)
667
Point A: 779 (>17%)
2nd Peak (Pa)
554
Point A: 576 (>4%)
769
Point A: 805 (>5%)
Table 2 - Comparison of pressure parameters from experiment and ThermoTun results
58
-400
ThermoTun
software is
for studying
pressure waves
within high
speed train tunnels. Since ThermoTun is a 1-D
approach, some
Figure 8 - Cisalpino ETR 470
natural disadvantages that may affect the accuracy are raised below:
500
The time required to complete the analysis was several

hours from modelling to result analysis. With the balance
between result accuracy and time requirement, ThermoTun has its own advantage over the 3-D CFD approach.
Discussions and Conclusions

We conducted and compared 3-D CFD simulations
against the full-scale experimental results. With the
two train speeds analyzed (177.5kph and 204kph),
the comparison of the pressure values at a specific
measurement point inside the tunnel indicate that 3-D
CFD simulations could generally model the pressure
wave variation with a proper prediction of the wave pattern. However, the exception is the peak values of the
first maximum positive pressure. The 3-D CFD simulations appear to provide an improper pressure magnitude. The findings in fact are similar to the axisymmetrical model used in a previous study6. To enhance
the accuracy of CFD approach, further investigation of
the numerical methods used is necessary. Due to the
long turn-around time for the 3-D CFD simulation, it is
recommended that such further investigation first be
conducted on the axisymmetrical model before being
extended to 3-D.
Even with the use of the latest high performance parallel processing technique, the overall progress of 3-D CFD
simulation is very slow. The computational resources and
time span required also prohibit the use of the 3-D CFD
method as a design tool for high-speed railway aerodynamics analysis. The 1-D ThermoTun approach cost less
to run the same scenario compared to 3-D. Although the
ThermoTun simulation amplifies the pressure peak, for
design applications this can be treated as a safety factor.
In short, with more numerical method refinement and enhancement of computer speed and capacity, 3-D CFD is
expected to perform more accurately and provide more
detail when simulating tunnel pressure waves. However,
with the current computational resources and the time
span required, the 3-D CFD approach cannot achieve
more accuracy within reasonable time and cost. It is concluded that 1-D ThermoTun is the best choice for engineering design purposes under current technology.
Dr. Dicken K.H. Wu specializes in computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations and various types of computer simulation analysis. He has designed pressure comfort control systems for high-speed subway systems in Hong Kong, Mainland
China, and Taiwan.7
Rambo RB Ye was formerly a specialist in simulation methods at
Aerodynamic design of underground station with high-speed train passing, D.K.H. WU, 13th International Symposium on the Aerodynamics
and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, Organized by BHRA Fluid Engineering, 2009. An abstract of the same paper is in Network #70, November
2009, p 26.
7
For a previous Network article by Dicken Wu and YF Pin about FLUENT, see New and Efficient Techniques for Modeling and Meshing with FLUENT and FDS, in The Engineers Crystal Ball, Network #70, November 2009, pp 4-6.
6
The time axis is so adjusted that the pressure values and

pattern could be compared in detail. Table 2 summarizes
the key pressure parameters for detailed comparison.
Fire
Pressure
and Life
Transient
Safety
NETWORK
59
Climate Change
Fire Tunnel
and
Water
Stormwater
Life
Resiliency
Systems
Safety
Power
NETWORK
Railway Cooling Challenges

by Mark Gilbey, Godalming, UK, +44 (0)148 352 8506, Gilbey@pbworld.com
Parsons Brinckerhoff has been providing engineering support to London Underground, the Buenos Aires Metro
(Subterrneo de Buenos Aires), and the proposed UK High
Speed 2 project in identifying, understanding, and overcoming the challenges associated with warming railways.
The Challenges
60
Most of the heat in a rail tunnel emanates from the trains

and train operations. London Underground and the Buenos Aires Metro are examples of metros currently accommodating passenger demand well above what was
originally envisaged. With improvements in train signaling
and control technology, higher train frequency can often
be realized, creating the potential for warmer tunnels
and reduced thermal comfort and safety. The higher train
frequency can also be coupled with higher train speeds
to meet passenger demands for reduced journey time.
This means more braking kinetic energy to dissipate, and
thus more heat. Another issue common to both of these
metros is the desire to meet passenger expectations for
rolling stock air conditioning. Failure to manage temperatures can increase discomfort for passengers, making the
railway a less attractive transport mode. However, retrofitting air conditioning adds further heat into the tunnels.
High Speed 2 (HS2), a planned UK high-speed rail network from London to Birmingham and to Manchester and
Leeds, presents similar challenges, but the key factor in
this railway has proven to be the very high train speeds,
meaning that a very large quantity of kinetic energy is generated when the trains brake. A good proportion of this
energy can be regenerated, but the remainder still presents a great thermal stress on the tunnel environment.
An external challenge to railways relates to the changing
climate. Railway infrastructure has a life of over 100
years and over this period reasonably foreseeable climate
change could cause warming of 1 to 2 degrees C in

the UK. Over time, the inside tunnel environment would
experience change similar to the outside environment.
Compounding the challenge, passengers entering a
railway from a warmer temperature would be less willing
and able to accept a warm condition on the trains.
Failure to manage increasing temperatures in tunnels
can also drive up operating costs by increasing the
amount of energy required to cool the trains and stations. It could also cause safety concerns for passengers
and staff if tunnel temperatures became so hot that the
air conditioning of trains in tunnels cut out because their
condensers could not reject their heat. Other in-tunnel
equipment, such as electronic wayside communications
and signalling equipment, can become less reliable and
have a shorter life when operated in higher temperatures. For example, an average temperature increase of
10 degrees C (18 degrees F) may more than halve the
useful life of an electronic component when calculated
using the techniques given in MIL-HDBK-217F (Reliability
Prediction of Electronic Equipment).
Mitigating Heat
Energy efficiency is first and foremost a measure that
can be employed to take on the challenges; this tackles
the heat release at its source. Optimizing rolling stock
and traction power specifications, train speed operating
profiles, and maximizing regenerative braking1 receptivity
all play a major role in reducing temperatures, as well as
reducing energy usage. For example, it might be preferable to provide more motored axles on the train to allow
more regenerative braking (the number of motored axles
might otherwise be rated on acceleration requirements
alone). Such energy efficiency was an important part of
the scope of work for London Underground where Parsons Brinckerhoff played a key role in the optimisation of
Regenerative braking is when the train motors are used to slow the train down. When they work in this way the motors act as generators,
providing energy back to the traction power system for use by other trains. Without this technology the braking energy would be released as heat.
the cooling and traction energy demands for the recent

Victoria Line upgrade. This was part of a suite of three
London Underground projects that recently won the Institute of Civil Engineers 2014, Greatest Contribution to
London Award.
Where mechanical cooling is required, natural water

sources may offer significant energy savings. The use
of groundwater in tunnel cooling systems can be traced
back to New York Citys Brooklyn Bridge subway station
in 1906, and it is still viable today. The technology has
recently been successfully delivered by London Underground at Green Park station where Parsons Brinckerhoff provided engineering support across a range of
disciplines. The Green Park system uses a submersible
pump located approximately 60 metres (197 feet) below
ground to extract 25 litres (6.6 US gallons) per second
of water from an aquifer below London. The water is
naturally at 13 degrees C (55 degrees F) and is pumped
through a heat exchanger belonging to the main station
cooling system. The borehole water is warmed by about
8 degrees C (14.4 degrees F) before being re-injected
back into the aquifer via re-injection wells (see Figures
1 and 2). Note that Figure 2 shows only the wellhead
chamber, the borehole is about 450mm diameter and
starts at the base of the wellhead chamber.
The main cooling system uses a secondary water circuit with air handling units (a cooling coil and fan) located at the platform level of the Green Park station
(see Figure 3). The system successfully cools the station and tunnels and was awarded the first prize in the
Environmental and Sustainability category for the 2013
Figure 1 - Borehole locations and pipe routes near Green

Park station
Figure 2 - Borehole wellhead near Green Park station.
Figure 3 - Air handling unit delivering 100 kW of cooling to the

platform of Green Park station
When practicable traction energy optimisation methods

have been adopted, the next logical step is the provision
of cooling. For new systems, measures such as platform edge doors, air-tempering of platforms, and night
time cooling may be used. For existing systems it can be
significantly more challenging. Sustainable methods can
be evaluated as a first alternative. For example, underplatform or over-track exhaust provides air extraction
points near the heat sources, allowing the heat to be
taken away in the ventilation ducts before it influences
conditions in the station or tunnel. For the Victoria Line
upgrade it was possible to upgrade 13 existing mid-tunnel ventilation shafts. This, however, generated challenges in mitigating the noise from the larger fan shafts that
are now surrounded by dwellings and offices. In hotter
climates, ventilation might be inadvisable on hot days
and mechanical cooling may be preferred.
Climate Change
Fire and Life
Resiliency
Safety
NETWORK
61
Climate Change
Fire and Life
Resiliency
Safety
NETWORK
25mm diameter pipe
200mm below the surface
of a 300mm thick liner and
spaced at 350mm centres
Figure 4 - Thermal analysis of the heat recovery potential for pipework embedded into a 300mm tunnel liner with a soil depth of 20m
UK Rail Industry Awards. Parsons Brinckerhoff is reviewing

the potential application of this technique to one of the
High Speed 2 railway stations. Note that borehole cooling
is just one of the techniques being used by London Underground; numerous other mitigations, including ventilation
shaft upgrades and the use of mechanical cooling via air
cooled chillers have recently been implemented.
Re-using Heat
62
Sustainability may be further improved by heat recovery. For example, a heat exchanger in the tunnel may
capture the heat from the tunnel, and a water circuit
transfers the heat to the heat-sink side of a heat pump.
The heat-source side of the heat pump may be connected to a third partys building or small-scale district
heating system, again by a water circuit, and provided
with monitoring systems to record the amount of heat
captured and utilised. Capturing the heat from the tunnel in a cost-effective manner remains a key challenge.
Parsons Brinckerhoff has been involved in the investigation of several technologies including tunnel cooling
pipes2, pipework embedded within the tunnel liner (see
Figure 4), and the location of air source heat pumps in
exhaust air plenums. For High Speed 2 we have developed a finite difference model of tunnel wall heat transfer and airflow within the tunnel (called Dynamo, see
article in this issue on Dynamo by Jolyon Thompson)
and are looking at the most cost effective way to re-use
the heat from these tunnels.
Building the Case

One of Parsons Brinckerhoffs key roles on railway projects is the modelling and financial appraisals of cooling
demands and cooling schemes. Typical methods include
multi-train simulation to understand and optimize train
energy usage, often done in conjunction with tunnel ventilation modelling. We have industry-leading tools for the
evaluation of transient thermal comfort, and have developed methods in which changes in thermal conditions
can be mapped to customers willingness to pay.
A Sustainable Outcome
Sustainability is a key factor in railway cooling, and in the
broadest possible sense. Social sustainability can be
enhanced by providing the temperature control to support railway capacity upgrades that improve the quality
of life for transit users and city dwellers. Environmental
sustainability can be enhanced by reducing heat release
in the railway through increased energy efficiency and
low energy cooling methods such as groundwater cooling
systems. Economic sustainability can be enhanced by
optimising the cooling provisions and customer benefits
to minimize whole-life costs with a demonstrable benefit
to cost ratio. Parsons Brinckerhoff has an enviable track
record in balancing these sustainability needs.
Mark Gilbey is EAME Head of Discipline for Tunnel Ventilation. He
is a Mechanical Engineer and has worked for Parsons Brinckerhoff
since 1998 in Hong Kong, US, and the UK.
For the abstract of a previous article by Ting, Drake, and Gilbey on CFD Estimation of Heat Transfer Enhancement on a Cooling Pipe in Underground Railway Tunnels, see Network #70, November 2009, p 42.
Dynamo Enhancing Tunnel Ventilation

Modelling
by Jolyon Thompson, Godalming, UK, +44 (0)1483 528666, thompsonj@pbworld.com
The Subway Environment Simulation (SES) software program was co-developed by Parsons Brinckerhoff for the
US Department of Transportation in the 1970s. It allows
engineers to mathematically model aspects of the subway
environment on a second-by-second basis and continues
to be regarded as an industry standard tool in the field of
tunnel ventilation. SES is used worldwide for a variety of
underground construction and tunnel applications, including
high speed rail, commuter rail, metros, freight tunnels, road
tunnels, and cable tunnels. A supplement to the SES has
been developed by Parsons Brinckerhoff to enhance the capabilities of SES and to meet specific requirements of other
tunnel system projects. This supplement is called Dynamo.
Dynamo is a one-dimensional (1-D) model of a single
length of tunnel which can simulate the effects of a ventilation shaft connected at any point along the length of
the tunnel. Dynamo predicts the thermofluid interactions
using a variety of boundary and initial conditions which

can be specified at each tunnel portal. Dynamo has been
developed for use in tunnel ventilation and, as such, all
relevant properties of air are encoded into the analysis
engine. However, the Dynamo approach would work for
any Newtonian fluid1 providing the relevant fluid parameters were input to the model.
Dynamo has been used by Parsons Brinckerhoff on projects, two of which are described below.
Cable Tunnel Design

A recent project consisted of an 18 kilometre (11-mile)
long cable tunnel carrying 132kV cables beneath a
natural bay. The cable circuits emitted a considerable
amount of heat (over 800 watts per metre of tunnel
length). The tunnels must be kept cool enough to limit
the conductor temperatures in the cable and provide a
safe environment for maintenance workers.
DYNAMO
Parsons Brinckerhoff created a calculation tool to estimate the annual temperatures of long tunnels and with the
ability to calculate the heat transfer from heat recovery mechanisms such as embedded liners and tunnel cooling
pipes. The tool is named Dynamo.
Dynamo uses a similar set of modelling assumptions to SES and therefore a single Dynamo file can and may need
to take input from several SES simulations to account for variations in fan, train operations, or other significant
variations in the system. The most significant difference is in the treatment of the deep heat sink effect through
the surrounding soil. Dynamo uses a fully transient finite difference approach to allow thermal evolutions to be
calculated in response to the tunnel environment, allowing complete year profiles to be developed.
Dynamo uses an energy balance approach to determine the thermofluid interactions. The energy balance is at the
core of the flexible Dynamo methodology. Any technology or system which can be formulated into an energy effect
upon the system (input, output, or storage) can be included.
Dynamo is a modular program which enables additional functions to be easily added and tested. All that the
function requires is to be formulated to add to the energy balance in the correct manner. Examples of technology
systems that have been added in this manner include cooling pipes and embedded tunnel liners.
A Newtonian fluid is any fluid that exhibits a viscosity that remains constant regardless of any external stress that is placed upon it. This could
include mixing or a sudden application of force. A Newtonian fluid can change viscosity if the temperature or pressure changes. The fluid would
still be regarded as Newtonian providing the viscosity remained constant at these new temperatures or pressures.
Introduction
Climate Change
Fire and Life
Resiliency
Safety
NETWORK
63
Due to the length of the tunnel, considerable airflow would

be needed to prevent the air from becoming too hot. It was
initially proposed to divide the tunnel into short sections
and construct artificial islands within the bay which would
provide ventilation inlets and outlets. However, this design
would be expensive and could negatively impact the marine environment. An analysis of a cooling pipe system
was therefore considered necessary.
nel for summertime peak hours only. Dynamo provided

an hourly temperature prediction along the length of the
tunnel for the whole-year. The temperatures predicted
by Dynamo for both a ventilation only situation and the
ventilation cooling pipe solution can be seen in Figure
1 and Figure 2. The x-axis (horizontal) shows the length
along the tunnel and the y-axis (vertical) shows the time
of year (summer being in the middle of the y-axis).
Previously a two-stage approach using an initial SES simulation supplemented with an Excel calculation sheet
would be used. This required iteration between the two
models to get the final result. If the cooling pipes loop
and return to the portal-based cooling plants, this would
result in a circular formula within the Excel analysis. The
calculation therefore required a macro to control the
process. The system was then iterated to ensure the
accuracy of the calculation. The calculation process was
thus bespoke to the situation and would need adjusting
before it could be used with another tunnel layout option
and it also took several days to complete.
The summer peak hours predicted by Dynamo compared

very well with those predicted by the combination of SES
and the Excel spreadsheets. The reduced time to set
up the Dynamo simulations allowed for more options
to be considered to optimise the cooling pipe design by
comparing different water flow temperatures and pipe
arrangements. This resulted in improved economic and
environmental sustainability for the final design. The use
of Dynamo also allowed for whole-year temperature predictions to be made, allowing annual system energy usage to be evaluated for each of the options and providing
more accurate whole-life costing to be used in the design. This is an increasingly important facet of delivering
sustainable design and represents a significant improvement in Parsons Brinckerhoffs predictive capability.
Dynamo, in contrast, can be set up to evaluate the system in an integrated way. Since the only source of air
flow is that generated by the fan against a constant resistance, the ventilation rate is also constant. The Dynamo analysis took less than four hours to set up, check,
and simulate.
Dynamo for Waste Heat Recovery

Dynamo can also be used to enhance the capabilities
of SES in the analysis of recovery of waste heat from
railway tunnels. This is an area which has received increased attention in recent years but is one which SES
alone is not able to directly analyse.
DYNAMO Bulk Post processing Ventilation push-pull solution

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Figure 1 - Dynamo predictions for no cooling case
64
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a temperature prediction along the length of the tun-
10200
Climate Change
Fire and Life
Resiliency
Safety
NETWORK
DYNAMO Bulk Post processing Cooling pipe solution

8000
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Climate Change
Fire and Life
Resiliency
Safety
NETWORK
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Figure 2- Dynamo predictions for cooling pipe case
energy usage for nearby properties and developments.

Dynamo was used to analyse the impact of using cooling
pipes and embedded liners as the means of cooling the
tunnel and for waste heat recovery.
The heat and flow rate predictions from SES were used
in the Dynamo analysis and similar temperatures for the
summer peak hours were predicted. The cooling systems
were then added into the Dynamo file and an assessment
was made of the tunnel temperature reduction and the
available temperature for heat recovery. The results of the
tunnel temperature predictions can be seen in Figure 3.
Whilst the cooling was expected to be mostly needed in

summer, it was considered desirable to recover low-grade
waste heat from the tunnel all-year round and use this
heat in conjunction with heat pumps to offset heating
DYNAMO Bulk Post processing No heat recovery

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In a recent project, a 13.5 kilometre (8-mile) long highspeed rail tunnel was analysed using SES and predicted
to be at a significantly elevated temperature over a substantial length of the tunnel during summer. To allow the
tunnel to meet the design criteria, a cooling system was
proposed and designed with a total peak cooling capacity of approximately 4MW.
Figure 3 - Annual tunnel temperature predictions before heat recovery
65
60000
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Climate Change
Fire and Life
Resiliency
Safety
NETWORK
20
15
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Figure 4 - Projected heat demand local to the cooling system
66
The heat recovery system used a cooling pipe system

that operates with a water flow rate of 70 kilograms per
second (kg/s) supplied at 15C (59F) in 200 millimetre
nominal diameter pipes. These cooling pipes are in the
form of two loops which originate from chainage 10.7km
and operate in opposite directions. Heat recovery may not
always be considered as a method of reducing tunnel air
temperatures appreciably despite producing significant
benefits to other systems. The chart shows that heat recovery provided a minor tunnel temperature reduction of
approximately 1.5C (approximately 3F), but an impressive 1500kW of heat from the tunnel environment as an
annual average. The heat recovery from the tunnel can
then be matched to the demands of a local area. In this
case, illustrative demand profiles are shown in Figure 4.
Dynamo enables the load profile variations to be accurately established and therefore matched to the demand
profiles. Where the variations are in keeping with the
available heat it is a relatively simple linkage between
the heat source (the tunnel) and the heat sink (the heat
load profile). Where there is significant variation, which
is usual, the base level loading can be established and
any supplementary load requirements can be included

in the design of the heat network.
Conclusion
Two examples of Dynamo usage have been provided in
this article. Dynamo has been shown to be capable of
supplementing SES predictions in some areas which enhances the analysis capabilities of Parsons Brinckerhoff.
References
Subway Environmental Simulation User Manual, 2003,
prepared for the U.S. Dept. of Transportation
Thompson J.A., Missenden J.F., Gilbey M.J. and Maidment G.G., Response of wall heat transfer to steady and
transient flows along a cylindrical cavity, Int. Symp. Aero.
& Vent. Vehicle Tunnels, New Brunswick 2009
Jolyon Thompson is a Senior Tunnel Engineer in the UK office
with a PhD in sustainable cooling of underground railways. He
has a keen interest in heat recovery and improving the sustainability of tunnels through holistic design and was the lead developer of the DYNAMO analysis tool.
Asset Management Database for the

Brooklyn Battery Tunnel
by Ferdinand Portuguez, New York, NY, US, +1- 212-631-3891, Portuguez@pbworld.com; and
Debra Moolin, New York, NY, US, +1- 212-465-5443, moolin@pbworld.com
Facility Description
The Brooklyn Battery Tunnel (see Figure 1) crosses New
York Harbor, connecting Brooklyn and lower Manhattan.
The tunnel consists of two adjacent tubes, the east and
west tubes, each approximately 9,000 feet long making
it the longest continuous underwater vehicular tunnel
in North America. Construction of the tunnel began in
the 1940s but was suspended during the Second World
War. The tunnel was opened to traffic on May 25, 1950
and now carries over 50,000 vehicles per day.
Asset Management andFire

Program
Tunnel
andStormwater
Life
Support
Systems
Safety
NETWORK
Figure 1 - Brooklyn Battery Tunnel
The database for the Brooklyn Battery Tunnel (BBT), now

officially known as the Hugh L. Carey Tunnel, is the key
tool in the management of the various facility assets
the tunnel and four major building systems. The database was developed by Parsons Brinckerhoff in collaboration with the client, MTA Bridges and Tunnels, in 2012
with the objective of maintaining the facility in a state
of good repair. Assets included in the database are:
Tunnel tubes, crossover passages, and construction
shafts;
Manhattan Blower Building;
Manhattan Underground Exhaust Building;
Governors Island Ventilation Building, pedestrian
bridge, fender structure, and riprap;
Brooklyn Ventilation Building;
Brooklyn Service Building and parking structure;
Manhattan Plaza, portal, and cellular structure;
Manhattan Plaza Emergency Garage;
Brooklyn Plaza and portal; and
Streets ancillary to the Brooklyn and Manhattan plazas.
Security
Water and Fireline/Standpipe
Elevators
Electrical Distribution
Compressed Air
Tunnel and Plaza Lighting
Communications
Carbon-Monoxide (CO)
Monitoring
Tunnel Drainage
Vehicle Fueling Station
Tunnel Ventilation
Plumbing- Drainage, Sanitation
Power- UPS/ Standby
Central Vacuum Cleaning
Building Lighting
Trafc Signals and Controls
SCADA/PLC
Hoisting-Mechanical
Heating, Ventilation,
and Air Conditioning
The database was populated with inventory information

for each facility asset. Existing documents, reports, and
construction plans were reviewed by Parsons Brinckerhoff before the start of the inventory inspection. Information on deficiencies and functionality of the mechanical
and electrical systems were collected during interviews
with maintenance staff, conducted by Parsons Brinckerhoff, and incorporated into the database. An overall condition rating of the electrical and mechanical systems
was assigned based on this information.
The database includes structural, architectural, mechanical, and electrical components this article is focused
on the tunnel systems which include:
67
Asset Management and

Fire
Program
and LifeSupport
Safety
NETWORK
Database Architecture
The database of tunnel tubes and plazas includes an inventory of 65 different structural, mechanical, and electrical element types. These element types were inventoried
by location with over 23,000 uniquely identified database
elements or entries resulting. The database identifies
over 150 element types housed in the buildings.
These elements are defined by:
Asset Identifies tube, plaza, building, or pedestrian
bridge;
Discipline Structural, Mechanical, Electrical, or
Architectural;
System Various tunnel and building systems; and
Location
- Tubes - subdivided by wall marker stationing; then
Construction Type - cut and cover steel bent, cut
and cover concrete, light cast iron ring, heavy cast
iron ring; and then Level - exhaust duct, roadway,
fresh air duct;
- Plazas - subdivided by expansion joints;
- Buildings - subdivided by floor/(sub) levels; and
- Pedestrian Bridge - subdivided by bents.
See Figure 2 for a sample listing of element types.
The comprehensive database also provides the following:
Identification of element-level electrical and mechanical
deficiency types for use in future inspections;
Identification of element level deficiencies observed during the 2012 inspection with links to photographs of
conditions;
The ability to sort and search the data within the database to facilitate condition management and reporting;
The ability to summarize condition ratings, deficiency
types, and quantities of deficiencies;
Installation year, age, and expected service life
Parsons Brinckerhoff worked with the TBTA, to identify
the estimated service life. Data from Federal Transit
Administration (FTA) assumptions regarding useful life
for effective cost comparisons was considered as well
Figure 2 - Sample listing of element types
68
as data being used for the Queens Midtown Tunnel

inventory; and
System Element Condition Rating Each system element includes a condition rating from 1: Continue in-service (Satisfactory Condition) to 4: Remove from service
(Unsatisfactory High Priority).
Database Worksheets
The database was developed in coordination with the
client using Microsoft Office Excel 2007. This format
was chosen in order to create an asset management
tool that is commonly understood by the engineering
staff that would be working with the system. The Excel
spreadsheets provide ease in the creation and manipulation of the large amount of data through simple functions such as sorting and filtering, and provide the ability
to produce reports summarizing filtered and sorted data
through pivot tables.
Different groups of worksheets make up the Brooklyn
Battery Tunnels database:
Support/Reference worksheets;
Master-Administrator Only worksheet;
End-User Database worksheets;
Database Expansion worksheets; and
Summary worksheet(s).
Support/Reference worksheets
These worksheets are the source of defined and known
information contained in the Master-Administrator Only
worksheets. These include: a summary of the repair/
rehabilitation projects and the coding used to define the
element level that is inventoried and rated, along with
the deficiency types applicable to each element.
The Support/Reference worksheets standardize the
terminology throughout the databases and minimize
manual work during database updates by simplifying the
steps for modifying or expanding the current range of
data in the databases. The vast majority of the current
System
Element
Structural
Tunnel Ventilation
Acoustic Bafe
Structural
Tunnel Ventilation
Damper Door Motor Support

Duct - Horiz. & Vert.
Structural
Tunnel Ventilation
Structural
Tunnel Ventilation
Fan Motor Pad
Structural
Tunnel Ventilation
Fan Housing/Shaft Pad
Structural
Tunnel Ventilation
Damper Door
Mechanical
Tunnel Ventilation
Damper Door Motor
Mechanical
Tunnel Ventilation
Fan
Mechanical
Tunnel Ventilation
Fan Housing
Mechanical
Tunnel Ventilation
Fan Shaft
Mechanical
Tunnel Ventilation
Fan Motor
Mechanical
Tunnel Ventilation
Fan Motor Belt Guard
Electrical
Tunnel Ventilation
Fan Motor Control PMP
Electrical
Tunnel Ventilation
PLC - I/O Rack Panel
Electrical
Tunnel Ventilation
Power Capacitor
Figure 3 - Identified elements for the tunnel ventilation system
information included in the Master-Administrator Only

worksheet comes from the support worksheets through
equations and links.
The identified elements for the Tunnel Ventilation System within the tunnel worksheets are shown in Figure 3.
Master-Administrator Only worksheet
The Master-Administrator worksheet contains all the
original data from the inventory and condition inspection. This worksheet is locked and can only be manipulated by users with necessary rights and passwords.
End-User Database worksheets
The End-User Database worksheets include a Filter
worksheet and a Pivot Table worksheet and are intended to be used for queries, data access, sorting,
filtering, and reporting without working directly in the

database spreadsheet. The data is therefore protected
from inadvertent changes while sorting and filtering are
being performed.
The Filter worksheet is set-up with Microsoft Excel tools to
filter specific data by area, regions, stations, element(s),
and element ratings and/or deficiencies. This worksheet
includes a sum of the quantity column and average of
the rating column. This is also a dynamic calculation
and provides the values for the elements that are visible
during the filtering process. As an example, to manage
the elements associated with the tunnel fireline, such as
the fire hose valves and gate valves, the worksheet can be
filtered as shown in Figure 4.
The Pivot Table worksheet allows users to extract specific data from the databases by turning on specific columns from the master database and then filtering them
to specific values. In contrast to the Filter worksheet,
the Pivot Table allows for more specific extractions of
data and allows users to display and print only the columns and rows that are needed (see Figure 5). On the
right hand side, the Pivot Table Field List lists all the
columns that are referenced from the Master-Administrator Only worksheet.
As part of the tunnel drainage system, pumps are located in the Brooklyn Portal Pump Station, the Manhattan Blower Building, and the Governors Island Ventilation
Building. A query of the tunnel drainage system housed
on the Brooklyn side would result as shown in Figure 5.
Database Expansion worksheets
The New Element tabs within the tunnel and buildings database workbooks are intended for use only when adding
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Figure 4 - Filter worksheet with elements associated with the tunnel fireline
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Figure 5 - Pivot Table worksheet showing query of the tunnel drainage system
new elements to the Master-Administrator Only worksheet.

This allows the database to be expanded to include new
items that are added as part of the facilitys updates.
70
Summary worksheets
These worksheets are provided for the tunnel systems
and sum each elements total quantity and the elements
quantity per rating value, and quantity per deficiency type.
The east and west tubes of the Brooklyn Battery Tunnel
are tallied separately. Therefore the condition rating of
various tunnel elements can be reviewed per query.
Conclusion
The asset management database is an essential tool that
can be used on a day-to-day basis or when scheduling and
budgeting projects that will maintain the facility in a state
of good repair. Within the database there are several worksheets that can be used to manage the various assets.
Some are better suited for reports while other worksheets
are better suited for obtaining data for monitoring the asset
condition. Each worksheet aids in obtaining the necessary
data, in the desired format, to make an informed decision.
During the aftermath of Superstorm Sandy, the database was used to determine replacement quantities
for items damaged in submerged sections of the tubes
(water filled approximately 6,000 feet of the 9,000
foot-long tunnel) and in the flooded sublevels of the
buildings, and to obtain pertinent sump pump information. Its use during the operational response to that
storm in 2012 contributed to the east tube reopening
to limited bus service after 13 days and the west tube
soon afterwards.
Ferdinand Portuguez is a Supervising Engineer with 22 years of

experience in structural design, construction management, condition inspections, and cost estimating and assessment. He has
a structural background and is a registered PE in New York State.
Debra Moolin is a Structural Engineer (PE) with over 30 years
of experience and a focus on bridge and tunnel repair and
rehabilitation. She has worked on all project phases, from inspection, evaluation, and testing through design and construction support services.
SCADA System Security for Two UK Road

Tunnels
by Peter Massheder, Manchester, UK, +44 (0) 161 2005 015, masshederp@pbworld.com
Parsons Brinckerhoff is providing technical support to our

client in specifying and procuring a new SCADA (supervisory control and data acquisition) system and associated
equipment to replace seven obsolete control systems in
use at two UK road tunnels. One tunnel was opened in the
1930s the other in the 1970s.
Progressively expand and upgrade what is monitored in

order to deliver improved visibility of the tunnels operational status; and
Move toward a decision support environment where
incidents are detected and responses identified to the
operator, simplifying the resultant control actions.
The project seeks to unify currently isolated tunnel control

functions into a single SCADA interface, thereby reducing
the number of separate control systems the tunnel operators have to access. Modern SCADA is no longer separated
from other systems and only used by those who supervise
the process under control. It is a system that collects an
increasing array of data from increasingly smart equipment
and provides greater levels of analysis or access to this data
by users whose principle roles are business-related, such as
forecasting, billing, asset management, or planning.
Having defined this approach with the client and procured

the services of a SCADA system integrator, we are now at
the beginning of the journey to realize this vision, and to
face and meet the challenges of delivering the programme
and achieving the clients objectives.
Introduce a new SCADA platform and new programmable logic controllers (PLCs) which will communicate via
the clients converged Ethernet network;
Initially connect SCADA to existing mechanical and electrical equipment in both tunnels for tunnel environmental control (ventilation, lighting, dewatering, etc.);
Expand the system at a later date to connect to new
traffic management equipment (signage, barriers, etc.)
that is planned;
Latterly expand to take control of the emergency refuge
areas installed in the 1930s tunnel, a four-lane single
bore tunnel;
Interface with other tunnel management systems,
such as the automatic incident detection system, in
order to deliver improved connectivity to the operation of the tunnels;
Challenges
The clients primary objective is to ensure the safe and secure operation of the tunnels. Whilst a multitude of factors
play a part in this, the security of the new control system
is an important element and the requirement that the new
SCADA and PLCs migrate onto the clients converged Ethernet network becomes relevant. This network has both operational uses (the management of road tunnels and bus,
rail, and ferry terminals) and business uses (office and enterprise IT for staff). Therefore a traditional separation and
isolation of the control system is not straightforward.
The challenge is specifying security requirements at the
outset. This needs to happen ahead of the design work
that will identify how the control system is integrated on
the converged network, and these requirements will need
to remain relevant as the control system is upgraded over
the next four years. Equally, whilst the SCADA system integrator will hold overall responsibility for the SCADA system
design, the client - through its IT department will be involved in the design and delivery of the communications,
server, and workstation environment. Here there is a need
to ensure that a secure system can be implemented and
to identify which party will be responsible for delivering the
various elements of this.
Our solution to this challenge has been to specify, within the SCADA system technical specification, adher-
The method of project delivery presents the challenge

here. In order to avoid disruption to tunnel users and at the
same time align the SCADA works to a wider programme of
tunnel maintenance and upgrade work, a four-year SCADA
programme was developed by Parsons Brinckerhoff in collaboration with the client. This programme will:
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ence to two international standards, ISO/IEC 27000
and IEC 62443.
Application of Cybersecurity Standards

Cybersecurity standards have been created because
sensitive information is now often stored on networked
computers. This holds the potential for unauthorised access from within an organisations network or even via
the Internet. With the greater integration of SCADA with
other computer systems there is also a heightened risk
that unauthorised access and manipulation of the process under control could occur; therefore, there is a need
for information assurance and security.
ISO/IEC 27000: Information Technology Security Techniques was published some time ago and is generally applied by organisations to help define a security management system for their enterprise information systems.
However, this standard does not consider the specific
requirements of a time-critical control system and, whilst
relevant to the wider security context in which the SCADA
system will reside, we need something more to shape the
design. This is where IEC 62443 comes in.
IEC 62443: Industrial Communication Networks Network and System Security is an emerging series of standards with parts still under development. The scope of
the standards is specific to defining procedures for implementing electronically secure industrial automation
and control systems. This guidance applies to end-users
(i.e., asset owners), system integrators, security practitioners, and control systems manufacturers responsible
for manufacturing, designing, implementing, or managing
industrial automation and control systems. Whilst some
parts are yet to be completed, what is published defines
enough of a relevant approach to control system security
to make its adoption beneficial.
This recognises that during the four-year programme of
SCADA work, the IEC 624443 series of standards will
mature and its adoption at the outset, a strategic move,
will ensure future SCADA system upgrades are able to
build upon sound foundations. Further, the series is designed to build upon the guidance of ISO/IEC 27000 series and expands on ISA-99: Industrial Automation and
Control Systems Security, a standard published by the
International Society for Automation that has been in use
and evolving for a number of years now. In summary we
have judged that, whilst not yet complete, the IEC 62443
standard is mature enough to adopt.
Conclusion
Work on implementing the SCADA programme is now
underway. It is at the initial concept design stage and
the high-level design necessary for the full SCADA
system as envisioned is being explored. To this end
the application of the IEC 62443 standard is coming
into play. Although experience applying the standard
across all parties is still in its infancy, we are learning valuable lessons as we go. For example, one such
lesson is what we are calling our levelling layers into
zones lesson.
This lesson, put simply, is to ensure that there is a mutual understanding and use of terminology among all
stakeholders. This is a common lesson in collaborative
work and in this case is not one that reflects negatively
on the standard itself, which is well constructed and
clear. Rather the distinct uses of relatively interchangeable words such as level, layer, and zone within
the specification are recognised and highlighted for
the stakeholders. Whilst seemingly a minor point, the
current design work needs to correctly define a logical segmentation of the control system in order to build
defence in depth1 (in this instance, segmenting the system into zones within the operational level, a level that
corresponds to layers 0 to 4 of the standards reference
model you see the potential for confusion if words are
interchanged when communicating).
To conclude, where other security guidance gives
equally valuable insight into good practice, the IEC
62443 series of standards also helps in the development of a security management system that meets
the needs of a SCADA control system. Further, as the
standards build on guidance of ISO/IEC 27000 the
resulting security approach may integrate better with
an organisations information security management
system, helping an organisations IT and automation
control functions to more effectively collaborate on securing a SCADA control system. Whilst the full suite of
the IEC 62443 series of standards is not yet complete
and its application is in its infancy, we are seeing that
this standard does form a valuable point of reference
on security when specifying, developing, and ultimately
maintaining a tunnel SCADA control system.
Peter Massheder is a Principal Engineer with 26 years of experience in delivering automation, computing, and ecommerce solutions to clients across the utilities, transport, environment, and
banking sectors.
Defence in depth is a concept in which multiple layers of security controls are built into an information technology system rather than relying
on a single layer of security control. Its purpose is to provide more than one line of defence in case any one layer fails.
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CCTV Design for a US Road Tunnel

by Ryan Williams, New York, NY, US, +1-212-631-3875, williamsry@pbworld.com
Safety is always the main factor for tunnel operation and

control systems. Roadway tunnels are closed environments that must be monitored and controlled for the
safety of vehicle occupants and tunnel personnel. The
restrictive nature of tunnels, compared to open routes,
makes it extremely hard to remove disabled vehicles
and to evacuate or rescue accident victims. Congestion
and incidents such as breakdowns, fire, or above-limit
carbon monoxide (CO) levels must be detected and dealt
with in a timely manner and the most effective way for
operators within the control room to monitor the safe
operation of the tunnel is via the tunnels closed-circuit
television (CCTV) system.
In addition to verifying roadway incidents, monitoring
current traffic conditions, and fire and smoke detection,
CCTV systems can be used for security surveillance of
the tunnel facility and fire control zones. CCTV cameras
are the main traffic monitoring devices for highway and
transportation systems.
caused by the passing of heavy vehicles. Since vibration can negatively affect devices and their connections,
hardened enclosures should be considered. Prior to
commencing detailed design of the new CCTV system,
the following design criteria needed to be addressed:
Coverage (including sensor type, lenses, aspect ratio,
and camera angles);
Mounting; and
Communication System.
Coverage
It is extremely important to identify the right locations for
CCTV cameras and associated equipment panels. Cameras should be located to provide a clear line of sight
with minimal obstructions. Tunnel cameras used in low
light conditions should be located such that the main
view is with the camera looking away from bright light.
This is because video images in bright light taken from
low light vantage points tend to appear washed out.
Where changeable message signs (CMS) are installed,
cameras should be located so that the message of an
adjacent CMS can be read. This allows for visual verification of CMS status.
Parsons Brinckerhoff was engaged to design a new digital IP CCTV (internet protocol closed circuit television)
system, replacing the existing analog system whilst
maintaining the existing operation.
Large trucks and buses are moving obstructions to CCTV

camera views. To overcome this obstruction issue, the
design provided additional cameras with overlapping
coverage to increase CCTV coverage. Overlapping cameras were also provided for curved tunnel sections and
any other location with slower traffic movement. An option of using pan-tilt-zoom (PTZ) cameras was reviewed,
which would give the operators additional functionality.
This option was rejected, however, as it would introduce
a risk of misaligning the cameras, and it would change
the existing operational procedures in the control room.
The tunnel environment presents several challenges for

proper design and implementation of CCTV, including humidity, dust, salt, and frequent vibration of equipment
In a CCTV system, the camera visualization options or

functions for different types of applications or surveillance are measured by pixels per foot. A higher num-
The tunnels existing CCTV system is an analog system, with fixed cameras providing continuous views of
the tunnel to tunnel operators in the control room. In
other words, each camera provides a separate feed on
a screen (four cameras per screen) in the control room.
Parsons Brinckerhoff was engaged by a client to undertake remedial and resilience design work on a tunnel
in the US that serves as an important thoroughfare for
motor vehicles and was flooded in a storm.

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Figure 1 - Simulated view of camera coverage.
ber of pixels gives a higher resolution (e.g., in order to

read license plates and recognize faces) and a lower
number of pixels gives a lower resolution (e.g., to get
a general idea of what is happening). The camera functions can be classified as:
Monitoring (a minimum requirement of 10 pixels per
foot-vertical);
Object Detection (a minimum requirement of 20 pixels per foot);
Observation (a minimum requirement of 30 pixels per
foot);
Recognition (a minimum requirement of 40-60 pixels
per foot);
Identification (a minimum requirement of 60-80 pixels
per foot); and
Strong Identification (a minimum requirement of 80100 pixels per foot).
To fulfill the application requirements for the tunnel project, the Object Detection and Observation functions (a
minimum of 20-30 pixels per foot) were designed to be
maintained throughout the whole tunnel. Recognition
and Identification functions were provided for some strategic locations.
To verify full CCTV coverage, a CCTV simulation tool with
three-dimensional (3D) view capability was used to assess coverage and provide simulated views at each of
the proposed camera locations (see Figure 1).
Mounting
Three camera mounting hardware mechanisms were
analyzed for the tunnel installation:
wall-mounted hardware with short arm;
ceiling-mounted hardware; and
surface-mounted camera enclosure.
Most camera manufactures have wall and ceiling hardware accessories but a surface camera enclosure would
require a special order.
During the conceptual design, the possibility of mini

camera integration to the lane-use sign (LUS) was also
studied. This option would be an alternative to ceiling
mounting and could provide better view angles as the
lane-use signs are installed on the ceilings, above the
road lanes. However, there are limited mini cameras
available for such integration. This camera assembly
also requires full integration of LUS and mini camera in
NEMA 4X (IP 66/67) rated housing, which has limited
space constraints.
Three mounting options are described and depicted below:
Wall-Mounted
Figure 2 shows
the arm and wallmounted option for
the CCTV camera.
The height of the
camera may lead
to obstructed views
when large trucks
and buses are in
the tunnel. This location also poses a
problem for maintenance, requiring the
wash trucks to be
Figure 2 - Typical Wall-Mount
particularly careful
around the fixtures.
Despite the disadvantages, fixtures at this height would
be easily installed and maintained. This mounting option
also provides more selection of cameras.
Ceiling-Mounted
Figure 3 shows the
ceiling-mounted dome
camera option. This
option provides adequate height for the
camera to minimize
the obstruction of
views by large trucks
or buses. The height
also moves the camera out of the way
of the maintenance
trucks, but this type Figure 3 - Typical Ceiling-Mount
of mounting could still
be knocked loose and
installation may be more difficult due to the height.
Communication System
Migrating from an analog CCTV system to a digital IPbased system enables the tunnel controllers to gain a
level of efficiency and control not previously available in
overall operations. However, doing so requires a communication network to transmit the CCTV camera footage to
the tunnel control center. On this project, various network
types (star and ring topology) were considered based on
ease of maintenance, redundancy, and resilience.
A star topology is when each edge switch (switches in the
field equipment panels) is connected to a central switch,
typically in a control room. A ring topology is where each
edge switch is connected to next and previous edge
switch, forming a large ring. This option provides redundancy in that, if one of the switches were damaged, communication to downstream switches can be established
through the other side of the ring.
For the maintenance department, a star topology was
preferred because it meant that all of the back-end equipment would be located in one central location. This means
that if something goes wrong, the maintenance personnel

would only need to go to one place. It also means that if
one part of the network goes down, it would not affect the
resilience of the rest of the network. In an environment
where it can be difficult to access and maintain network
equipment, the operators can choose to leave a malfunctioning field switch out of service and not worry about a
larger part of the network becoming inoperable if another
fault occurs. It also means that there is a single point
of failure at the core, control room switch (in the control
room). That is, if the center of the star in the network
went down, the whole network would be inoperable.
To overcome the issues of a star network, a modified version of the star network was designed, with backbone
switches installed in physically diverse locations (vent
buildings and the control center) in a ring configuration
and the edge switches (field switches) connected to each
backbone switch in a star configuration. This provided the
capability to operate the network from the vent buildings,
in case the control center went down.
Cybersecurity measures were implemented in Parsons
Brinckerhoffs design. Cybersecurity is an important component of all digital networks and requires diligent attention. It is not addressed in this article as it calls for much
further discussion.
In Closing
CCTV systems are integral to the safe operation and
control of roadway tunnels. While CCTV technology can
be fairly simple, the tunnel environment, maintenance,
project requirements, and number of cameras can make
the CCTV system design complex. This approach to CCTV
system design is recommended for other projects to facilitate maintenance, whilst providing a robust system that
can be verified through simulation prior to construction.
Ryan Williams is a Senior Systems Engineer in our New York City
office, having spent the last 8 years with Parsons Brinckerhoff in
Australia. He is a registered professional engineer with chartered
status and has substantial experience in transport and communication projects.
Surface-Mounted Enclosure
Figure 4 shows the wallmounted dome camera
option. The camera inside
the dome enclosure is adjustable to the angle with
an optimum view. This
Camera
option provides enough
height to minimize view
obstruction by large trucks
and buses. The height
also allows for easy installation. Finally, this type
of mounting will result
in minimal damage from
maintenance and wash
trucks, but limits camera
selection options as few
fixed cameras are manufactured with this mount. Figure 4 - Typical Surface-Mount

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How Alternating Current Interacts with

Direct Current in the Shatin to Central
Link Traction Systems in Hong Kong A
Quantitative Approach
by Sam Pang, Hong Kong, +852-2963-7777, pang.sam@pbworld.com
Background
The Shatin to Central Link (SCL) is one of the ten largest
infrastructure projects being constructed in Hong Kong.
It is a 17 kilometre territory-wide strategic railway corridor with ten stations. The project is linked with a number
of existing railways, forming two strategic railway corridors: the East West Corridor and the North South
Corridor as shown in Figure 1.
The East West Corridor is formed by the Ma On Shan
Line (the proposed Tai Wai to Hung Hom Section of the
SCL) and the existing West Rail Line. Upon completion,
passengers will be able to travel between Tuen Mun in
the west and Wu Kai Sha in the east without interchanging (transferring) trains.
Lok Ma Chau
Lo Wu
Along the SCL, there are three (3) underground stations

where the SCL interchanges with the existing Urban Rail
Lines (URL). They are: Diamond Hill Station (DIH), Ho Man
Tin Station (HOM), and Admiralty Station (ADM). As the
SCL will be electrified at 25kV alternating current (AC)
while the existing URL is electrified at 1.5kV direct current
(DC), AC and DC traction systems will coexist in these underground interchange stations (also referred to as AC/
DC interchange stations in this paper).
East West Corridor

North South Corridor
Wu Kai Sha
East Rail Line
Tuen Mun
Tai Wai
West Rail Line
Ma On Shan Line
Diamond Hill
Shatin to Central Link
(Tai Wai to Hung Horn Section)
Hung Horn
Admiralty
Figure 1 - Alignment of the Shatin to Central Link
76
The North South Corridor extends the existing East Rail

Line across the harbor via Hung Hom. Upon completion, it
will link the immigration control points at Lo Wu and Lok
Ma Chau to Hong Kongs central business district.
Shatin to Central Link

(Hung Horn to Admiralty Section)
All interchange railway lines at Ho Man Tin

Station and Admiralty Station are accommodated within the same station structure,
whereas the existing Diamond Hill Station
(DIH) station and the future DIH station of
SCL (hereinafter referred to as SCL-DIH)
are separate structures connected by an
adit. With a common station structure, the
earthing (grounding) systems at Ho Man Tin
Station and Admiralty Station will essentially be bonded together. For DIH, there was an
option in the design of bonding the earthing
system of the existing and the future DIH
station or introducing an isolation zone between the two station structures.
Parsons Brinckerhoff was appointed by the
MTR Corporation Limited to carry out the detailed design of the trackside auxiliaries of the
SCL. As part of the design, Parsons Brinckerhoff carried out a detailed study on the risks
associated with the coexistence of AC and DC
traction systems in the interchange stations
and established the earthing and bonding
strategy to mitigate the risks.
At the time of carrying out the study, apart from a handful

of papers on the subject of AC and DC railway interfaces
and the European Standard EN50122-3:2010, there
were very limited references on the subject of mutual interaction of AC and DC traction systems, in particular on
its quantitative analysis. The Parsons Brinckerhoff project team approached the challenges from fundamental
theories and developed quantitative analysis methods
in order to establish the earthing and bonding strategy
for the SCL to mitigate potential problems.
Problems of Mutual Interaction of AC and DC

Traction Systems
This section gives an overview of the potential issues
associated with the mutual interaction of AC and DC
traction systems. The AC traction system can affect
the nearby DC traction system or vice versa by coupling, which is the physical process of transmission
of energy. The effects of coupling can be galvanic and
non-galvanic.
The galvanic couplings refer to conductive voltages and
currents. These occur when the AC traction system is
connected or bonded to the DC traction system, in particular at the interchange stations. The major problem is
that the DC currents in the DC traction system can flow
into the AC traction system and return to the DC traction system through galvanic couplings. The DC currents
when flowing through the AC train-borne transformers
and AC traction transformers may cause saturation of
the core of these transformers. Related studies indicate
that a small DC bias can have the following consequences: complete saturation of the core with the generation
of harmonics (distortion of signals); a very considerable
reduction in the magnetising impedance of the transformer; internal electrical resonance in the transformer
winding; increased noise level; increased no-load current and losses. Moreover, when the DC current flowing
into the AC traction system returns through the metallic
parts of the station structure, stray current corrosion
will occur.
The non-galvanic couplings are inductive and capacitive
in nature. The effects of inductive coupling are induced
voltages and currents. These voltages and currents depend on the distance, length, inducing current conductor
arrangement, and frequency. The effects of capacitive
coupling are induced voltages into a conductor. The induced voltages depend on the voltage of the influenced
system, the distance, and the frequency.
Apart from the galvanic and non-galvanic couplings, the

following operational issues associated with the design
of power supply systems require particular attention in
the dual electrified interchange stations:
Electric shock caused by 25kV flashover to common station metallic infrastructure and extraneous metal parts;
Voltages induced by the 25kV traction currents causing
interferences to the signalling, communications, and
low voltage circuits, or electric shock in the DC electrified railway;
Earth faults in the high tension side of the 25kV AC traction substation may lead to rise of earth potential and
rail potential in the AC and DC traction systems; and
Increased AC traction current causing increased mutual couplings, and increased DC traction current causing higher stray current corrosion due to more frequent
train service.
This article focuses on the quantitative approach taken
to analyse the effects of DC stray current corrosion at
the underground interchange stations and DC traction
currents flowing into the AC traction system.
DC Stray Current Corrosion at the

Interchange Stations
Figure 2 illustrates the flow paths of the DC traction currents and the voltage thus created at the station structure of an interchange station where AC and DC traction
systems coexists.
To review the degree of stray current corrosion at the
interchange station, it can be reasonably assumed that
adverse corrosion will occur at the point where the maximum DC stray current passes through. That should be
the point within the interchange station that interfaces
with the DC return. At this point of maximum stray current, the voltage with respect to earth is calculated and
benchmarked with the reference value of +0.2V as specified in European Standard EN 50122-2:2010. According to clause 5.3 of EN50122-2:2010, experience has
shown that there is no cause for concern if the average
value of potential shift between the structure and earth in
the peak traffic hour does not exceed +200mV for steel
in concrete structure.
To estimate the maximum voltage or the potential shift
of the station structure and metallic parts in the interchange station, a DC equivalent circuit as illustrated in
Figure 3 was constructed for the typical rail section as
shown in Figure 4 with the circuit parameters given by
Challenges

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AC/DC
INTERCHANGE
STATION
DC OHL Network
DC FEEDER
SUBSTATION
DC RAIL NETWORK
DIODE
EARTH
STRAY
CURRENT
STRAY
CURRENT
DC STRAY CURRENT
RETURN PATHS
MAXIMUM VOLTAGE FOR

STRAY CURRENT AT AC/DC
INTERCHANGED STATION
CONNECT TO STATION
STRUCTURE AND OTHER
METALLIC PARTS
Figure 2 - Potential Created by Stray Current at the Interchange Station
78
Figure 3 - DC Equivalent Circuit for Calculation of Potential Shift at Station Structure
the client and the train modelled as a current source of

4,000A. For a conservative analysis, the train positions
that would give rise to higher stray current at the interchange stations were taken in the voltage calculations.
With the equivalent circuit, calculations were then performed to estimate the maximum potential shift at the station structure of the three interchange stations for several
different train positions and rail-to-earth resistance (RTE).

As as shown in Table 1, for DIH, ADM, and HOM, the results of the estimated maximum potential shift of the station structure are all below the +200mV criterion listed
in clause 5.3 of the European Standard, suggesting that
there would not be an adverse effect of stray current corrosion at the interchange stations. However, for better
Circuit A
Train
positioned at
middle of rail
section
Voltage (V)
0.25
0.2
0.15
Circuit B
Train
positioned at
250m from
interchange
station
0.1
0.05
-3.89E-15
0
0.24
0.48
0.72
0.96
1.44
1.2
1.68
1.92
2.16
2.4
Distance (km)
Figure 4 - Potential Shift vs. Train Positions with Rail-to-Earth Resistance Decayed to 15 ohm/km per track
Interchange
station
Estimated
Maximum
Potential Shift at
Station Structure
(all at RTE1 = 15
ohm/km per track)
DIH
0.12 V (< 0.2V)
ADM
0.1 V (< 0.2V)
HOM
9.4 mV (<< 0.2V)
Recommended Mitigation
Measures against
Stray Current Corrosion
Platform Screen
Door (PSD)
Other Metallic
Equipment
Provide insulation
or isolation
between PSD and
civil structure
Provide
insulation or
isolation for
other metallic
equipment from
structure
Although stray current corrosion

will unlikely be a concern in HOM,
for consistency of design it is
recommended that the same earthing
and bonding strategy as DIH and ADM
be also adopted for HOM.
Table 1 - Effects of DC Stray Current at the Interchange Stations and

the Recommended Mitigation Measures
protection of assets, good practice, and consistency of

design, it was recommended to the client that mitigation
measures be implemented and such measures are summarized in Table 1.
DC Traction Current Flowing into AC Traction

System
The flow path of DC traction current through the AC -borne
transformer and AC traction transformer is illustrated in Figure 5. This represents an adverse condition in that the DC
traction current reaches its maximum when one motoring
train is leaving a station and another train under regeneration is approaching a station. When the overvoltage protection device (OVPD) at the interchange station operates, the
maximum DC traction current will flow from the motoring
train through the DC return rail to the regeneration train,
and concurrently will also flow through the OVPD and then
through a series of paths to the regeneration train.
To estimate the magnitude of DC traction current flowing through the train-borne transformer and AC traction
transformer, the traction power systems and earthing

networks of the related railway lines were modelled by
a 3-layer network for current flow simulations with the
circuit parameters given by the client. The motoring
train and regeneration train were modelled as DC current injection and DC current source respectively in the
network. To estimate the maximum DC current under
different operating conditions of the railways, a total of
168 current flow simulation cases were established in
consultation with the railway operator.
The results of the various modelling simulations showed
that short-circuit or resistance-bonding of DIH can reduce
the maximum DC current flowing through the AC trainborne transformer and AC traction transformer. Therefore,
it was recommended that an isolation zone not be provided at DIH. Besides, it was also recommended that the
possible DC current flows in the AC train- borne transformers and AC traction transformers are monitored at the
commissioning of each network extension or new line to
confirm integrity of the railway systems.
Conclusion
This article addresses the impacts of coexistence of
AC and DC traction systems at the underground interchange stations of the Shatin to Central Link in Hong
Kong and describes the approach taken to quantify the
impacts. It was noted that at the time of conducting
the study, there were very limited references on this
subject, in particular on its quantitative analysis. Conservative assumptions on the train positions and injection currents were made in the analysis in consultation
with the railway operator for a more realistic estimate
of the worst case.
Results of the analysis indicated that DC stray current
corrosion was less of a concern at the interchange stations. However, for asset protection and good practice,

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AC/DC
INTERCHANGE
STATION
DC OHL NETWORK
NORMAL PATH
FOR DC TRAIN
CURRENT
REGENERATION
AC/DC
INTERCHANGE
STATION
MOTORING
DC FEEDER
SUBTATION
DC RAIL NETWORK
DIODE
EARTH
DC TRACTION
SYSTEM
STATION
EARTH
OVPD
OPERATED
DC EARTHING NETWORK
(CABLE ARMOUR/FCRW)
STATION
EARTH
AC TRACTION
SYSTEM
AC OHL NETWORK
AC FEEDER
SUBTATION
AC RAIL NETWORK
AC EARTHING NETWORK
(AEW/EARTH STRAP/
FIRE HYDRANT)
STATION
EARTH
STATION
EARTH
Figure 5 - DC Traction Currents Flowing Through AC Traction Equipment
80
it was recommended to the client that mitigation measures be implemented. With regard to the DC current
flowing through the AC train-borne transformer and AC
traction transformer, results of the quantitative analysis
indicated that this requires careful attention and monitoring of the DC current flows in the AC traction equipment, as saturation of the transformer core by the DC
current will bring adverse impacts to the transformers.
Moving forward, in future application of the analysis
methods described in this article, consideration will be

given to improving the model with statistical running of
those parameters with key assumptions and modelling
the earthing diodes in the DC traction system which
were not taken into account in the analysis.
Sam Pang is a Professional Electrical Engineer with 30 years of experience in design and project management of infrastructure projects. He is based in the Hong Kong office of Parsons Brinckerhoff.
Tunnel Inspection Basics for Mechanical

and Electrical Systems
by James Stevens, Tampa, FL, US, +1-813-520-4430, stevensja@pbworld.com;
and Mark VanDeRee, Tampa, FL, US, +1-813-520-4433, vanderee@pbworld.com
There are currently over 366 highway tunnels in the United

States over 300-feet long. Most of these tunnels range in
age from 50 to 100-years old.
All tunnels need periodic in-depth inspections of their
structural integrity. However, many highway tunnels have
electrical, lighting, communication, fire protection/suppression, and mechanical systems that require periodic
inspection as well. This article presents some of the
basic elements involved in preparing for, performing,
and reporting on mechanical and electrical inspections
of roadway tunnels in the United States.
The United States Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)
is in the process of developing National Tunnel Inspection
Standards that will become part of a federal law.
The Inspection Process

The FHWA Highway and Rail Transit Tunnel Inspection
Manual forms the current basis for inspector qualifications, tools, preparation, methods for access, safety,
inspection procedures, and documentation of tunnel inspections in the United States1.
Here is presented a broader, general overview of steps
required to perform in-depth inspections of roadway tunnel mechanical and electrical systems.
Preparation and Planning
Probably the most essential part of performing a safe
and comprehensive inspection of any portion of a tunnel
is proper preparation and planning. Preparation includes
investigations of any revisions to applicable codes, design standards, and inspection manuals. Preparation
also involves reviewing the tunnel plans and specifications, as well as past inspection reports.
Planning involves coordinating scheduling with owners personnel, maintenance of traffic (MOT), testing
1
vendors, and the inspection staff. This is also the

time to identify potential hazards associated with
the inspection and to start developing the Inspection
Safety Plan.
A vital step in the planning process is a site visit to
acquire first-hand information of the tunnel layout and
equipment access as it is not always possible to envision all potential access and safety issues from the tunnel design drawings.
As-Built Documents
Tunnel drawings and plans used for an inspection need
to be complete, accurate, and up-to-date. Plans and
drawings are often changed during construction and
revisions made to effect repairs or improve the safety
and reliability of the tunnel systems. The National Fire
Protection Associations (NFPA) Standard No. 25: Standards for the Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance of
Water-Based Fire Protection Systems requires owners
to retain as-built system installation drawings, hydraulic
calculations, original acceptance test records, and device manufacturers data sheets for the life of the system. This includes as-built documents for any system
modifications made after the original installation.
As-built documents are key components for effective
troubleshooting of system failures or planning for system upgrades or modifications.
Inspection and Testing Reports
Past inspection reports can provide insight to degrading or failed systems, special access needs, or environmental conditions that can affect, or even prevent
inspection work.
Part of the inspection of the mechanical and electrical systems in roadway tunnels is verification of compliance with
testing requirements required by the local authority having
jurisdiction (AHJ). If the requirements indicate testing to
Introduction
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This document is available at http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/tunnel/inspectman00.cfm.
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be done per NFPA 25, the inspector has a responsibility
to verify compliance with required standards. In cases
where inspectors are not present for required periodic
testing, reviewing the test report records is the only
means to determine the owners compliance with applicable regulations.
Site and Area Scouting
Site scouting visits serve an important role that of seeing the current general condition of a tunnel. Structural
damage, improperly supported or damaged equipment,
and inoperable life safety systems can be reasons for
an inspection to be postponed or canceled until repairs
are made.
There may also be environmental issues that impede inspection efforts. Dead animals, animal waste, excessive
dirt or debris, and standing water are only a few issues
that pose hazards to personnel and should be corrected
before inspections are performed.
Staffing and Safety Training

Staffing for an inspection of a tunnel mechanical and
electrical system can sometimes be very challenging. Inspection staff needs to stay abreast of changing codes
and standards in order to gauge how the installed systems measure up to the present requirements.
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Safety training is the most critical type of training an

inspector receives. There are many hazards associated
with mechanical and electrical inspections in tunnels,
and knowing how to recognize, remove, reduce, or protect against these hazard cannot be overemphasized.
Each inspector must also review, understand, and sign
the safety plan before beginning on-site inspection activities where they are exposed to hazards.
Tunnel inspections should be performed by teams comprised of at least two people and large tunnels may require several teams working simultaneously. Team leaders coordinate the teams efforts.
The inspections of tunnel mechanical and electrical systems require specialized equipment and training. Specialized vendors or subcontractors are usually employed for
the special testing. Coordination and safety planning is
needed for specialized testing vendors or subcontractors,
equipment leasing, MOT, and the owners personnel.
Project Safety Plan and Maintenance of Traffic

In order to keep inspectors as safe as possible when
performing roadway tunnel inspections, detailed safety
plans are developed which list potential hazards and
ways to control, remove, or reduce them.
It is always preferable to have the entire tunnel roadway
closed to traffic when inspecting inside the tunnel, as
some mechanical and electrical components and systems
cannot be fully inspected with a partial roadway closure.
To minimize the inconvenience of tunnel or lane closures
to the traveling public, it is important to provide timely and
accurate information of the upcoming closures in several
forms of media. Detour plans should be developed and
notifications should start early, and be widespread.
Mechanical Systems and Elements

Many tunnels are equipped with large and complex
mechanical systems which include: ventilation fans
and ducts, dewatering pumps and piping, fire protection standpipes, water or foam deluge systems, carbon
monoxide sensing and alarming systems, emergency
or standby generators, and motorized gates and doors.
Each of these systems requires periodic inspection and
maintenance to keep them reliably operable.
Fire Detection
Several of the longer and more heavily traveled roadway
tunnels have fire detection systems which may include
heat and smoke detectors, a monitoring station, and automatically activated fire suppression systems.
Inspections of fire detection systems require special
training and a thorough understanding of the systems
equipment specifications and are usually performed by
fire protection system specialists.
Fire Suppression
Fire suppression systems in tunnels may include water or foam deluge systems, pumps, valves, standpipes, and hydrants. NFPA 25 is very specific about
how often and in what manner these systems shall be
inspected and tested and, while the inspections are
fairly straightforward, testing requirements of NFPA 25
call for specialized training and equipment. Fire suppression system specialists are usually contracted to
perform this testing.
Ventilation
Tunnel ventilation was originally designed to remove noxious vehicle fumes, however, it was discovered that a
ventilation system, if properly designed, could also remove smoke from an in-tunnel fire. The most common
types of powered tunnel ventilation systems are longitudinal, transverse, and semi-transverse. The distinct differences of these systems require special access and
experience in order to be evaluated properly. Ventilation
systems inspections may include airflow rate measurements, fan and fan drive system conditional evaluations,
duct inspections, and damper operational testing.
Figure 1 - Tunnel Longitudinal Ventilation System Jet Fans
Fan operation may be initiated manually, or automatically if sensing systems are installed. Fans may be axial
or centrifugal, direct drive, gearbox driven, or belt driven.
Fans that are not directly coupled to the motors also
have shafts and bearings. All these components need to
be inspected. Often, special vibration analysis vendors
are used to quantify potentially damaging vibrations
from out-of-balance fans. Ventilation fans can produce
wind velocities that exceed 90 miles per hour (MPH),
and move volumes of air that exceed 350,000 cubic
feet per minute (CFM).
Carbon Monoxide Sensing Systems
Some tunnels have sensing systems to detect high levels of carbon monoxide (CO). These sensing systems
may provide alarms and initiate operation of the ventilation systems. Inspections of CO monitoring systems
require specialized training, equipment, and span gases
and are normally performed by the owners maintenance
staff or an outside vendor.
Dampers
Dampers can alter the exhaust and supply of air relative to zones in the tunnel, improving the effectiveness
of removing smoke and providing a safe egress route.
There are several different types of damper operating
systems and inspectors need to be familiar with gears,
chains and sprockets, hydraulics and pneumatics, and
Figure 2 - Tunnel Transverse Ventilation System Supply Fan
linkages. Access inside the ducting is usually required

to visually inspect the damper vanes.
Dewatering Systems
Pumping systems are needed to remove the water that
enters the tunnels, either from the entrances or at joints
between tunnel segments. The pumps may be centrifugal, turbine, or submersible and usually have automatic
Fans
Different ventilation systems employ different types of
fans. Longitudinal systems use high velocity, low volume
jet fans mounted inside the tunnel (see Figure 1). Transverse and semi-transverse systems use high volume
fans connected to ducts that distribute exhaust, and
sometimes supply, air flows to strategic locations (see
Figure 2). The equipment for transverse tunnel ventilations systems can be quite large.
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level sensors for turning the pumps on and off. Most dewatering systems have hydrocarbon-sensing equipment.
Inspections of these systems involve running pumps
(pumping water if possible), gauging pump flow rates, and
visually scrutinizing the condition of pumps, valves, piping,
sumps, and water collection grates and gutters. Flammable gases may also be used to test hydrocarbon sensors.
Electrical Systems and Elements

Most roadway tunnels require electrical power and often have extensive electrical power and control systems
going to every tunnel location. Electricity is needed to
power lighting; operate fans, pumps, and valves; manipulate cameras; detect heat; control signs and signals;
and power emergency phones and fire alarms.
Inspecting and testing tunnel electrical systems are important to verify the systems are functioning properly.
84
Electrical Power Service

The electrical power service to a tunnel is the primary
link for the electrical current that powers all the electrical components. Line service technicians from the electric power company typically perform the inspection of
the electrical service system. The tunnel owners electrical system usually begins on the load side of the metering equipment. Since electricity is important to many of
the life safety systems in tunnels, power is often also
provided by emergency or standby generators and automatic transfer switches. In case of the loss of primary
electrical power, tunnel electrical loads are automatically
transferred to the emergency source.
Power Distribution
Electrical power distribution for tunnel systems is generally 3-phase medium voltage (5kV to 15kV) or low voltage (208V to 480V). Damage from traffic incidents and
environmental effects are common deficiencies noted.
These systems are inspected to verify compliance with
the requirements of NFPA-70 (National Electric Code)
and include operation and testing of circuit breakers and
safety disconnects. The condition of conductors, transformers, buses, and switches are also checked using
insulation resistance testing. Circuit breaker trip testing
is usually performed by specialized testing vendors.
Electric Motors
Tunnel equipment with electric motors includes: fans,
pumps, compressors, damper and valve actuators, and
operating machinery for gates.
The inspection of electric motors involves performing

visual assessments, measuring and graphing operating
current draws, and testing the insulation resistances
of the motor windings. All testing measurements are
tabulated or graphed, and all pertinent photographs are
logged and captioned.
Lighting
Tunnel lighting is inspected by taking different types of
light measurements in specific locations of the tunnel
and its portal entrances, thresholds, transition zones,
and exits. The light measurements are recorded and
compared with those recommended by ANSI/IES RP-22,
a standard for tunnel lighting developed by the American National Standards Institute and the Illuminating Engineering Society that minimizes the visibility problems
associated with roadway tunnels.
Emergency lighting mandated by NFPA 502 requires inspection for proper operation and serviceable condition.
Facility spaces and maintenance access routes should
have adequate lighting to permit inspection and servicing of the tunnel systems. These areas should also have
emergency egress lighting.
Control Systems
Control systems for tunnels are primarily used to monitor tunnel conditions and manipulate equipment in a way
to keep people and vehicles safe. Tunnel controls can
be monitored and operated from a local control room,
or a remote location many miles away. In some cases,
controls are located both locally and remotely.
Systems that may be monitored or controlled include:
fire detection, heat and smoke detectors, carbon monoxide monitoring systems, cameras, traffic loop detectors, ventilation, lighting, pump systems, public address systems, and access/flood gate positions. In
most cases, operations of all equipment can be performed from the control room. Many systems allow for
local control at the equipment.
Inspection of tunnel control systems includes evaluating the installed systems for adequacy based on
applicable codes, and testing every function the systems are designed to perform. Evaluations are made
based on: the accuracy of sensing systems, verification that interlocks and permissives are fail-safe,
proper response of systems to automated and manual commands, and the physical condition of all control
system elements.
Recommendations
The Simplex control system did not keep each foam pump
running to the low level sensor on the tank, nor did the system
start the lag pump if the lead pump failed to start.
Troubleshoot and correct the problems with the Simplex

control system program not properly controlling the foam
pumps.
The arc ash hazard warning labels on the low voltage

distribution systems were non-compliant with the requirements
of the NEC, NFPA-79, and NFPA-70E: Standard for Electrical
Safety in the Workplace.
It is recommended that arc ash warning labels be installed

on the electrical enclosures to comply with NEC Article
110.16.
The trip mechanism of the US2B-TF2B medium voltage feeder

breaker was difcult to operate. The mechanism was lubricated
and exercised during the inspection, but the condition could not
be corrected.
It is recommended that the trip mechanism be investigated and

corrected, or the breaker replaced.
Five of the ventilation fan motors were found to have elevated

bearing vibrations, and one ventilation fan motor was found
with a slightly elevated bearing temperature. The motors with
elevated bearing vibrations were SF-23 (drive end bearing),
SF-27 (both bearings), SF-28 (both bearings), SF-29 (both
bearings), and SF-30 (both bearings).
It is recommended that elevated bearing vibrations and

temperatures be monitored to determine if the conditions are
worsening.
MSD-118 Balancing Damper Starter Panel: the panel heater

has burned wires.
It is recommended that the wiring to the MSD-118 Balancing

Damper Starter Panel heater be replaced with high
temperature insulated wires and away from the heater.
Balancing damper D-120 did not actuate the fully open position
limit switch when it was fully open.
Adjust the fully open limit switch for balancing damper D-120
so the damper position indicates correctly in the control room.
The radio signal override system was noted as not being

functional.
Repair the failed radio signal over-ride system that alerts

vehicles inside the tunnel of emergencies through broadcasts
on AM and FM stations.
The tunnel ceiling mounted axial type jet fan motor inspection
cover had two broken fasteners.
The owner dispatched an on-call repair crew to repair the

broken fasteners for the motor inspection cover on the tunnel
ceiling mounted axial jet fan.
Figure 3 - Sample findings and recommendations for a tunnel inspection
Experienced tunnel inspectors should be capable of inspecting and evaluating a tunnel control system, only
requiring assistance from the owners control systems
operations personnel.
Conclusion
Some basics for inspecting tunnel mechanical and
electrical systems are presented. The main purpose
of inspecting tunnels is to note deficiencies and communicate findings to the owner. The owner can then
use this information to budget and schedule needed
repairs or modifications to correct the deficiencies.
Figure 3 presents a sample of some electrical and

mechanical findings and recommendations from tunnel inspections.
James Stevens is a Mechanical and Electrical Engineer who has
worked at Parsons Brinckerhoff for 12 years on movable bridge
and tunnel system designs and inspections.
Mark VanDeRee is the Senior Supervising Engineer for the
Mechanical and Electrical Technical Excellence Center in the
Tampa office and he has led the mechanical and electrical work
on several movable bridge and tunnel designs and inspections.
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Tunnel Sump Construction Savings

Through Drainage System Design
Modification
by Kevin Stewart, Brisbane, Australia, +61 7 3854 6339, stewartk@pbworld.com
Introduction
The Waterview Connection is the largest road project ever
undertaken in New Zealand. At a cost of NZ$1.4 billion
(approximately US$1.2 billion), it involves building a 4.8 kilometre (3.0 miles) long six-lane motorway to link two highways and complete Aucklands Western Ring Route. The
highway includes a 2.5 kilometre (1.6 miles) long twin-tube
tunnel, with three-lanes in each tunnel, bored by a 14.4
metre (47.2 feet) diameter tunnel boring machine (TBM).
The twin-tube design includes cross-passages which connect the tubes, house mechanical and electrical (M&E)
systems, and provide escape paths in emergencies.
Parsons Brinckerhoff is a member of the Well-Connected Alliance, which is both delivering the project, and
operating and maintaining the facility for 10 years after
opening. This project structure gave all parties an interest in cost-effective design for both construction and
maintenance.
The tunnel's vertical alignment has a low-point, requiring a sump and mechanical drainage system to remove
Tendered concept design

The tendered concept design used gravity drainage to
convey water to the sump. Pavement runoff would be
directed to a pipe in the services tunnel, and at the
low-point a DN500 (20-inch) pipe would penetrate the
tunnel lining and pass through a horizontal bore to the
sump. The small amount of seepage water would flow
down the tunnel invert to the low-point where it would
be directed through a smaller parallel pipe to the sump
(Figures 2 and 3).
TUNNEL INVERT
SERVICES TUNNEL
Figure 1 - Tunnel Cross Section
86
water. Sources of water include groundwater seepage

through the tunnel lining, runoff from the road surface,
vehicle spills, and the tunnel deluge sprinkler system.
Road surface runoff and seepage above road level is
gravity piped to the sump. Seepage below road level,
however, is directed to the tunnel invert (Figure 1), where
it collects at the low-point. The tunnel invert also includes
a service tunnel to reticulate electrical power cables. A
means was therefore required to remove seepage water
from the tunnel invert and deliver it to the low-point sump
for pumping to the surface.
UM
TS
OIN
E
WP
LO CKAG
GE
PA
DRAIN FROM
RISING MAIN
KA
PAC
RT
LVE
CU
(FLOOR DRAIN FROM SUMP

UPPER PLATFORM LEVEL)
PAVEMENT
CONNECTION
MINIMUM SL
(FLOOR DRAIN PIPE TO

TERMINATE 200 BELOW
MINIMUM WATER LEVEL)
MINIMUM WATER LEVEL
PAVEMENT RUN-OFF DRAIN

CONNECTION TO LOW POINT SUMP
MINIMUM SLOPE 1:100
(DRAIN FROM RISING MAIN)
CROSS PASSAGE
LOW POINT SUMP
TUNNEL S SUMP FLOOR LEVEL
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Figure 2 - Sump Concept (Elevation)
D450 PAVEMENT
DRAIN
DN100 SOUTHBOUND
TUNNEL INVERT
CULVERT FLOOR DRAIN
D250 PAVEMENT
DRAIN
LOW POINT SUMP
PAYMENT RUN-OFF DRAIN

CONNECTION TO LOW POINT SUMP
CROSS PASSAGE
PLAN VIEW SERVICES TUNNEL DRAIN
The sump was designed as a 5.7 metre (18.7 feet) diameter vertical shaft located under the floor of the crosspassage at the low-point. To avoid backflow through the
invert drainage pipes into the service tunnel, the sump
high water level was set below the level of the tunnel
invert. This high water level, combined with the required
sump storage, resulted in a sump shaft design depth
of approximately 12 metres (39.4 feet) under the crosspassage floor.
Proposed redesign
Reasons for redesign
The concept design provided several construction
challenges:
Time and cost in constructing a deep shaft;
Technical difficulty in penetrating the tunnel lining for
the large drainage pipe; and
Difficulty in boring pipe connections from the tunnel

invert to the sump.
Details of proposed redesign and benefits
A revised scheme was proposed based on enlarging the
cross-passage and using the volume under the passage
floor for water collection. This proposal required significantly less excavation with corresponding reductions in
construction time and cost. The pavement runoff drain
could be raised to pass through the cross-passage opening, removing the need to penetrate the tunnel lining and
bore horizontally.
Functional challenges
The revised sump shape reduced the active storage volume, which in turn influenced the run time of the dewatering pumps: a small volume would result in frequent
starting and stopping of the pump.
Figure 3 - Sump Concept (Plan)
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The new sump shape also raised the top water level well
above the tunnel invert, meaning the invert drain could
no longer connect directly to the sump. Some form of
pumping was therefore needed for the seepage flows
in the invert. The revised proposal therefore included
a small pump in the services tunnel, operated by float
switches, to automatically pump collected water to the
main sump.
Operation and maintenance considerations
The service tunnel is a 2.5 kilometre (1.6 mile) tunnel within a tunnel, running below the road surface with
entry points only at the ends. As a result, access to the
service tunnel requires procedures similar to a confined
space, including a dedicated ventilation system, a minimum of two people, and radio contact with the surface
at all times.
Due to these restrictions, the operations and maintenance (O&M) strategy was to minimise equipment that
required servicing in the service tunnel. This challenged
the proposed sump redesign, as any pumping equipment
in the service tunnel would conflict with the O&M strategy.
Final design
Tunnel invert drainage

A solution was developed to meet the functional requirements for removing water from the service tunnel drainage while satisfying the O&M strategy of limiting equipment in the services tunnel.
88
From an O&M perspective, the best place to position

the pumps was in the cross-passage M&E equipment
area. This meant the pumps would be installed about
4.6 metres (15.1 feet) above the tunnel invert and require a positive displacement pump to lift the water. To
further satisfy the O&M strategy of limiting equipment
in the services tunnel, inclusion of a foot valve to keep
the pump primed was avoided, and instead a self-priming
pump was used.
The solution was to use a progressive cavity pump, which
is able to self-prime and can tolerate short periods of
running dry if the suction line drains and priming is lost.
The inlets and outlets can be arranged so that even if
the suction line loses prime, a nominal amount of water

is left in the pump stator to provide initial lubrication to
the rotor on start-up.
A drainage pump would normally rely on float switches
for control, starting the pump when sufficient water
had collected and stopping it again once the water is
pumped away. To minimise equipment in the service tunnel, we required an alternative to float switches. As the
groundwater seepage into the service tunnel will be at
a near-constant rate, water will collect at the low-point
in a predictable fashion. This will allow the pump control to be based on a combination of a timer and flow
sensor. The plant management and control system will
activate the pump on a predetermined schedule, allowing seepage water to collect to a sufficient volume, and
will cut the pump once the sensor indicates flow has
stopped. The flow sensors also act as a safety check,
deactivating the pumps if no flow is detected on start-up.
Redundant pumps and suction lines are also provided
in a duty-standby arrangement, maintaining dewatering
while a pump is being serviced or if a suction line becomes blocked.
The tunnels' construction program allows monitoring of
the seepage rate, with the timer setting to be determined
during project commissioning. The plant monitoring system can be used to review pump run times over a period
and determine if the groundwater seepage rate is changing and the timer requires adjustment.
The new mechanical drainage design met all the functional requirements and the redesigned sump structure enabled a reduction in construction time and cost
compared to the initial concept. The O&M strategy to
minimise difficult maintenance was preserved by finding
alternatives to standard drainage system designs and
taking advantage of specialist pumping equipment.
Kevin Stewart is a Mechanical Engineer who specialises in
hydraulics and mechanical services, and he has experience in
the design, construction, and commissioning of tunnel fire suppression and dewatering systems and has worked on projects in
Australia and New Zealand, including Brisbanes Clem7 tunnel,
Aucklands Waterview Connection, and Victoria Park Tunnel.
The Modernization of Tunnel Lighting

and Controls: Technology, Challenges,
and Cost of Implementing a Tunnel LED
Lighting System
Fire Tunnel
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by Christopher J. Leone, Boston, MA, US, +1-617-960-4944, LeoneC@pbworld.com ;

Jonathan T. Weaver, Boston, MA, US, +1-617-960-4880, WeaverJT@pbworld.com; and
Tunnel lighting systems provide proper visibility for the

safe passage of motorists entering and navigating a tunnel. As a result, the components of the system have to
be reliable, durable, corrosion resistant, and able to be
maintained during traffic flow. When entering a tunnel
during the daytime, the human eye has to adapt very
quickly to lower light levels. To accommodate this, tunnel lighting is designed to be significantly brighter at the
entry of the tunnel and gradually decreases in intensity
inside the tunnel.
ciated with each. Maintenance costs include removing

and replacing burned out and damaged equipment, and
the periodic cleaning of the lighting system. Operating
cost is the cost of the energy consumed by the lighting system. By comparing these factors, the choices,
trade-offs, and challenges of a tunnel lighting system
become readily apparent. The method of identifying the
cost of the light produced, dollars per thousand lumens
($/klm), is a more inclusive metric than the individual
cost of the luminaires.
Until recently, lighting equipment was limited to fully enclosed luminaires utilizing fluorescent, metal halide, and
high pressure sodium lamps. These sources are bright,
have a long life, and are robust enough to withstand the
harsh environment of a tunnel. Light emitting diode (LED)
technology provides an alternative that has significantly
improved in longevity and adaptability. Traditional high intensity discharge (HID) systems utilizing high pressure
sodium or metal halide lamps require the least number
of luminaires as the light output available from each luminaire is high. Fluorescent systems require more luminaires, and are often supplemented with the higher wattage HID sources. LED fixtures have a steadily increased
light output and control and are now comparable in intensity to the HID. Tunnel luminaires are expensive, and LED
luminaires have the highest initial cost.
Controlling a tunnel lighting system is necessary to ensure that the amount of artificial illumination is in tune
with the outside daylight conditions. If it is sunny or
cloudy throughout the day, or from dawn to dusk, the
lighting control system will switch luminaires off and on
as needed or dim the supplemental lighting in the threshold and transition zones of the tunnel. Both switching
and dimming control systems utilize either an intelligent
photocell or a special camera that records luminance
levels outside of each portal. Another reason for lighting
control is simply for energy savings.
When developing a tunnel lighting strategy, a life cycle

approach needs to be used and consideration given to
initial cost, maintenance costs, and operating costs over
the life of the system. Initial costs include the number
of luminaires required to achieve a specific light level,
the controlling equipment, the supporting structural and
electrical infrastructure, and the installation costs asso-
LED Lighting Systems - Benefits and

Challenges
LED lighting systems offer unique challenges that the
lighting designer needs to consider when recommending
and finally specifying for a client. With the advent of the
LED as one of todays most rapidly-developing lighting
technologies, many startup lighting manufacturers have
been formed, some producing subpar products using inexpensive LED packages.
The way the industry has tested and measured the electrical, photometric, and life of luminaires has changed to
Kimberly Molloy, Boston, MA, US, +1-617-960-5520, MolloyKM@pbworld.com
89
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NETWORK
adapt to LEDs. As a solid state source, the very definition of lamp life has been modified to correctly model
sources that may well run for 11 years. Also a challenge
is the rapidly evolving LED chips that make it increasingly
difficult for manufacturers to test their fixtures life expectancy. The Illuminating Engineering Society of North
America (IESNA) has developed several technical manuals for LED luminaire manufacturers to follow which include a procedure for the manufacturers to interpolate
an expected life of their products.
Traditionally the evaluation of lighting products is based
on a separate test for the lamps and luminaires, but with
LED luminaires the test has to be completed on the whole
package because the LEDs rely on the luminaire for heat
dissipation which affects the lumen output and life. The lumen maintenance of a LED luminaire must also be tested;
this is the method for measuring the lumen depreciation
from the LEDs original light output. LEDs do not typically
burnout; a degradation of their light output occurs continuously to a point where they are beyond their useful light
output. Methods have been developed by the IESNA to
measure the lumen maintenance and to estimate the life
of the project based on the measured results.
Parsons Brinckerhoff Project Experience
Recently Parsons Brinckerhoff has had the opportunity

to develop tunnel lighting systems for Colorado Department of Transportation (CDOT) and Virginia Department
of Transportation (VDOT)/Elizabeth River Crossing (ERC).
90
I-70 Twin Tunnels - Idaho Springs, CO

Parsons Brinckerhoff was responsible for the design of
the lighting system for the I-70 Twin Tunnels in 2012. The
focus of the project was the widening of the westbound
and eastbound bores of the tunnel on I-70, east of Idaho
Springs. This is the first tunnel project by Colorado Department of Transportation (CDOT) and Parsons Brinckerhoff
that fully utilized light emitting diode (LED) technology for
both the day and night time tunnel illumination. The original design concept for the tunnels was a traditional high
pressure sodium (HPS) light source, however CDOT officials inquired about the benefits associated with using the
emerging LED lighting technology. A cost comparison was
performed on the eastbound tunnel only. The conclusion
was that although purchasing and installing LED tunnel
lighting over HPS would result in an additional $1 million
($97/klm), that would be offset by a payback of approximately 10 years of maintenance and energy savings.
While lighting manufacturers have been developing and

perfecting LED luminaires across all interior and exterior
applications for the last 8 to 10 years, tunnel lighting had
been slow in development. Mostly due to the market not
supporting the need, it came down to tunnel owners and
operators recognizing the long-term benefits of LEDs in
their tunnels even with the upfront added expense; knowing that this newer lighting technology offers more flexibility and control as well as energy savings and reduced
maintenance. Parsons Brinckerhoff had to work closely
with the lighting manufacturer to be sure the same quality and testing requirements were enforced as specified
with a more traditional tunnel lighting fixture.
The biggest challenge when using LED lighting in a tunnel is the ability of the fixture to dissipate the heat that
is generated by the LED light engines as well as from
their driver(s). An LED light engine is a combination of
one or more LED modules together with the associated
electronic control gear, also known as an LED driver. LED
light engines must have a way to dissipate all the back
heat they produce as the exponent of creating light as
heat affects the light output of the system. The best way
to accomplish this is similar to how a computer takes
heat away from the central processing unit - a heat sink
is applied to the back of the diodes and this moves the
heat out and away from the LED. All manufacturers apply
the same principle in different ways and each must be
carefully reviewed for each tunnel application.
Fixture placement within the tunnel can also affect heat
dissipation. Placing a LED lighting fixture in an open
rack for the Twin Tunnels design provided optimal airflow
around the fixture so that heat dissipated appropriately
around and away from the fixture. However, an open,
suspended rack may not always be a possible solution
in other tunnel projects, especially when retrofitting. So
special consideration and close working relationships
with manufacturers must be in place when specifying
LED fixtures to make sure the fixture is not being installed in a way that would shorten the life expectancy of
the LEDs or void manufacturer warranties.
The overall construction of the luminaire must also be
scrutinized, including the housing, gasketing, ingress
protection, dissimilar materials (galvanic reactions between dissimilar metals can cause corrosion of materials in a tunnel environment), and of course the quality
of the light.
Parsons Brinckerhoff is serving as lead designer to the

design-build team responsible for doubling the capacity
of the Midtown Tunnel by building an additional two-lane
tunnel near the existing one under the Elizabeth River;
rehabilitating the existing Midtown Tunnel and both of
the Downtown Tunnels to provide enhanced fire and
life safety features to the tunnels; extending the MLK
Freeway from London Boulevard to I-264, with an interchange at High Street; and modifying the interchange at
Brambleton Avenue/Hampton Boulevard in Norfolk.
were developing LED luminaires that could finally withstand the environment of a vehicular tunnel. Parsons
Brinckerhoff carried out a cost and performance comparison of the HPS and LED luminaires. The conclusion
was that the LED system would have a substantially
lower life cycle cost.
Conclusion
LED luminaires are suitable for the tunnel environment
and will be more widely used in the future. There is a demand for LED as a lighting solution from tunnel owners
and operators as a way of reducing operating and maintenance costs for a project, while embracing a leading
edge technology. This demand will put pressure on the
engineer to fully understand the challenges of LEDs while
pushing manufacturers to produce durable, reliable, and
consistent products. A rigorous testing procedure should
be an integral part of the tunnel luminaire specification.
In addition, a warranty that covers the luminaires needs
to be in place for a significant portion of the anticipated
life of the light engine in the luminaire, considered by
Parsons Brinckerhoff to be 10 years.
Christopher Leone is a Lighting Engineer in the Boston office of
Parsons Brinckerhoff with 14 years of experience in tunnel and
roadway lighting. He is a current member of the IES Roadway
Lighting Committee.1
The 3,760 linear foot (1,146 meter) immersed tube tunnel will include two 12-foot (3.6-meter) travel lanes, two
2-foot (0.6-meter) shoulders, an escape corridor, high
walkway, and utility corridor.
Jonathan Weaver, an Architect and Lighting Engineer, works as

an internal consultant for Parsons Brinckerhoff teams across the
country. He is a current member of the IES Roadway Lighting
Committee, and contributing author to IES RP-22-2011 Recommended Practice for Tunnel Roadway Lighting.
During the initial development phase, the cost of the

lighting for the new Midtown Tunnel was based on a
combination of high pressure sodium (HPS) point
source lighting and linear fluorescent luminaires. As
the design process evolved, lighting manufacturers
Kim Molloy is an Electrical and Lighting Engineer in the Boston

office of Parsons Brinckerhoff with more than 15 years of experience in tunnel lighting. She is the current secretary of the
Tunnels and Underpasses Subcommittee of the IES Roadway
Lighting Committee.
For a previous Network article on lighting by Chris Leone, see Lighting a 3D World: Design and Analysis, Network #70, November 2009, pp
64-65,69.
Midtown and Downtown Tunnels Norfolk and

Portsmouth, VA
In December 2011, the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) entered into a $2.1 billion comprehensive
agreement with the developer, Elizabeth River Crossing
(ERC), to build a new Midtown Tunnel, rehabilitate the
existing Midtown Tunnel and two Downtown Tunnels, and
extend the Martin Luther King (MLK) Freeway. Under this
agreement, VDOT will maintain ownership of the facilities and will oversee ERCs activities. ERC will finance,
build, operate, and maintain the facilities for a 58-year
concession period and assume the risk of delivering the
project on a performance-based, fixed-price, fixed-date
contract. The project, scheduled for completion in late
2017, is the largest design-build project in the history
of Hampton Roads, and Virginias first full-scale all-electronic toll collection system.
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91
Evaluating Freeze Protection Needs

with CFD
by Raylene C. Moreno, Sacramento, CA, US, +1-916-567-2525, morenorc@pbworld.com
Introduction
Freeze protection of wet pipe fire protection systems can

be a costly requirement for tunnel systems. It is needed for
water-filled piping systems which are installed in environments subject to freezing conditions. Typical installations
consist of electrical heat tape attached to the pipe and fittings underneath a layer of pipe insulation. The heat tape
and insulation must span the entire length of piping that
will be subject to freezing. In many situations, it is difficult
to determine whether freezing conditions will occur within
proposed structures, particularly tunnel systems. Parsons
Brinckerhoff provided engineering design services for a
new tunnel. By developing a computational fluid dynamics
(CFD) model to simulate heat flow within the new tunnel,
Parsons Brinckerhoff was able to determine that freeze
protection would not be required on the fire suppression
mains in the tunnel utility corridor. This resulted in first-cost
savings, as well as elimination of all future operation and
maintenance costs, for the client.
Analysis
Approximately 1158 meters (3800 feet) of the tunnel
consisted of segments immersed and buried below a
river with the elevation varying by as much as 18 meters
(60 feet). The two 6-inch piping systems of concern, a
FIRE SUPPRESSION
WATER MAINS
CORRIDOR
ROADWAY
CONCRETE
Figure 1 Typical tunnel cross section
92
fire protection standpipe and a sprinkler main, were to

be located within a utility corridor which connected to
tunnel support buildings at the ends of the tunnel near
each portal. A typical tunnel section is shown in Figure 1.
A thermal analysis was
performed using a CFD
1.2
BACKFILL
tool to evaluate temCONCRETE
0.8
perature
distribution
CORRIDOR
within the tunnel spaces.
Rather than model the
5.2
entire 3800 feet of tunnel, a small segment of
the tunnel length was
0.4
4.0
Z 1.2 0.8
modeled near the tunnel
0.4
1.6
portal where incoming air
would be coldest. Figure
1.2
2 provides a partial secY
tion view of the modeled
Figure 2 Cross Section of Model
tunnel segment. The Geometry and Dimensions (shown
thickness of this mod- in meters)
eled segment was 1.2
meters (3.92 feet) along the x-axis (not shown). The corridor is located on the left and the roadway is on the
right. Notedimensions indicated are in meters.
Roadway
Fire
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To assess freezing potential, transient

calculations were carried out for unusually cold weather conditions until a steadystate solution was reached. Initial temperature boundary conditions for backfill at
the side and the bottom of the tunnel were
set to 12.8C (55F) while all other regions
began at 6C (43F). These temperatures
were deemed appropriately conservative
and justification for this is provided in the
Discussion section below. Air at -10C
(14F) and 5 meters per second (11 miles
per hour) flowed through the roadway area
in the direction of traffic. The air temperature
Date
Daily Minimum,
C (F)
Daily Average,
C (F)
2-Day Average,
C (F)
3-Day Average,
C (F)
7-Day Average,
C (F)
18-Jan
1.11 (34)
2.63 (36.73)
3.97 (39.14)
0.80 (33.44)
-2.64 (27.25)
19-Jan
2.22 (36)
5.31 (41.55)
-0.11 (31.80)
-4.97 (23.05)
20-Jan
-15.61 (3.9)
-5.52 (22.06)
-10.11 (13.80)
-8.77 (16.21)
21-Jan
-19.39 (-2.9)
-14.70 (5.55)
-10.40 (13.28)
-7.65 (18.23)
22-Jan
-10.61 (12.9)
-6.10 (21.02)
-4.12 (24.58)
-2.06 (28.29)
23-Jan
-8.89 (16)
-2.14 (28.14)
-0.04 (31.92)
24-Jan
-3.89 (25)
2.06 (35.70)
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Source: Weather Underground, http://www.wunderground.com
Table 1 Summary of Historical Temperature Data for the Region of Analysis
This was assumed to have negligible effect on overall

heat transfer as modeled heat transfer surface areas
were nearly equal to actual section geometries.
Thermal energy input from conduit co-located within the
corridor was neglected.
Material properties for concrete and soil are provided in
Table 2. The simulation was carried out to final time of
13.9 days. A steady-state condition was assumed when
the temperature at a fixed location varied by less than
one-tenth of a degree (C) per hour. Figure 3 indicates
locations where temperatures were measured.
The following simplifying assumptions were applied to

the analysis:
Discussion
Highest heat transfer rates would occur near tunnel portals where incoming air is coldest.
Material properties were assumed constant with temperature and direction.
Effective properties of backfill material assumed a fully
saturated state with 30 percent water.
Tunnel walls, ceiling, and floor were assumed to be the
same concrete material.
Tunnel section geometry and dimension were slightly
modified to minimize computational processing time.
Generally, boundary temperatures assumed in the

analysis were conservative. For example, available water temperature measurements for 2011, a year which
experienced average air temperatures in the lower
range, indicate a minimum hourly water temperature
of 2.8C (37.1F) and a monthly water temperature average of 4.4C (40F) for the month of January. While
the depth at which these measurements were taken
is unknown, it can be certain that the temperature of
0C (32F) at the top of the fill surface was lower than
would be expected.
0C(32F)
0.6
W/mK
Density,
1700
kg/m
Specic heat, Cp
2.5
kJ/kgK
Concrete
B5A
T2
1.4
W/mK
Density,
2100
kg/m
Specic heat, Cp
0.88
kJ/kgK
T3
B5B
Thermal conductivity, k
B6
Source: The SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, Fourth Edition, National Fire Protection Association, June 1995; and
Incropera F., Dewitt, D., Bergman, T., Lavine, A., Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer. Wiley. 6th Ed. 2007
Table 2 Material Properties
12.8C(55F)
Thermal conductivity, k
CORRIDOR
B5
Soil
12.8C(55F)
Figure 3 Locations of
Temperature Measurement
Roadway
-10C(14F)
BACKFILL
CONCRETE
is based on the two and three-day averages for a period

with the lowest recorded temperature for this region (see
Table 1). The lowest air temperatures for this region generally occur in January with a monthly average ranging from
1.7 - 8.3C (35 - 47F). The top surface of the backfill, the
water interface, was set to a constant temperature of 0C
(32F) while outer backfill boundaries were set to 12.8C
(55F). An adiabatic, or thermally insulated, boundary condition was applied to the outer boundaries of the model,
with the exception of the roadway area where domain
boundaries remained open.
93
94
2.00
0.00
-2.00
-4.00
-6.00
FDS Time, s
1,200,000
960,000
840,000
720,000
600,000
480,000
360,000
120,000
240,000
13.9 days
0
-8.00
1,080,000
Temperature, C
4.00
Figure 4 Evolution of inner wall temperatures for the corridor

8.00
Legend
Temperature, C
6.00
4.00
T3
B5A
B5B
2.00
0.00
FDS Time, s
1,200,000
960,000
840,000
720,000
600,000
480,000
360,000
240,000
120,000
-4.00
1,080,000
13.9 days
-2.00
Figure 5 Three air temperatures measured within the corridor

8.00
T2
T4
B5
B6
Legend
6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
-2.00
-4.00
1,200,000
FDS Time, s
1,080,000
960,000
840,000
720,000
300,000
240,000
180,000
120,000
2.3 days
60,000
-6.00
-8.00
Figure 6 Interior corridor wall temperature
8.00
6.00
4.00
Legend
T3
B5A
B5B
2.00
0.00
-2.00
FDS Time, s
Figure 7 Corridor air temperature
600,000
540,000
480,000
420,000
360,000
300,000
240,000
180,000
120,000
2.3 days
-4.00
60,000
For both cases considered, the corridor air temperature reaches freezing conditions after some length of
time. However, the length of time required for the air
temperature to reach 0C (32F) was longer than the
expected duration of the low temperatures assumed in
this calculation.
T2
T4
B5
B6
Legend
To further investigate the influence of ambient air temperatures on temperature within the corridor, a simulation was
run with the influent air flow temperature of -19.4C (-3F).
This temperature corresponds to the lowest recorded temperature since 1946 and is considered to be quite conservative. Figures 6 and 7 show the resulting interior corridor
walls and air temperatures, respectively. Similar to the
case with a -10C (14F) air flow, both the corridor walls
and the air began at ambient temperature and decreased
over time. For this case, the corridor air temperature reaches 0C (32F) after 2.3 days. Note that the one-day and
two-day average temperatures for this historic low were
-14.7C (5.6F) and -10.4C (13.3F), respectively.
6.00
Figure 4 shows the evolution of inner wall temperatures

for the corridor. All walls began at 6C (43F) and slowly
approached a steady-state condition with the wall separating the corridor from the roadway tunnel being the
coolest (T4). As expected, the cooling due to the air
flow at -10C (14F) has a significant thermal influence
on the corridor. Figure 5 shows three air temperatures
measured within the corridor for the same case. Similar
to the walls, the air temperatures began at the ambient
temperature and decreased over the period of the simulation. This indicates that under steady conditions for
the boundary conditions assumed, the air temperature
within the corridor is about 0C (32F). Note that the
one-week and one-month average air temperature for
this historic low temperature event were -2.6C (27.3F)
and 1.7C (35F), respectively.
8.00
Temperature, C
Similarly, the initial ambient temperature of 6C (43F)

within the tunnel is lower than would be expected.
While extensive ground and groundwater measurements for this area are not readily available, studies by
Kusuda et al. report groundwater temperatures at 9 to
18 meters (30 to 60 feet) below surface to be approximately equivalent to the average annual air temperature for the region. In this depth range, a groundwater
temperature of 13.9 - 16.7C (57 - 62F) is expected.
Temperature profiles for depths less than 9 meters (30
feet) will generally experience cyclic fluctuations with
the largest change occurring at the surface for annual
timescales.
Temperature, C
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The analysis concluded that the buried tunnel structure

provided significant thermal mass such that the effects
of surface level temperature fluctuations were minimized
within the tunnel utility corridor. Significant cost savings
were realized for the client as it was conservatively determined that a provision for freeze protection of the wet
pipe fire protection systems within the tunnel utility corridor would not be necessary. CFD software continues to
be a valuable analysis tool for various applications within
mechanical engineering design for tunnel systems. Future
work will continue to utilize this tool for tunnel systems.
Incropera F., Dewitt, D., Bergman, T., Lavine, A., Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer. Wiley. 6th Ed. 2007
Kusuda, T., Earth Temperature and Thermal Diffusivity
at Selected Stations in the United States. U.S. Department of the Army. 1965
Lapham, W.W., Use of Temperature Profiles Beneath
Streams to Determine Rates of Vertical Ground-Water
Flow and Vertical Hydraulic Conductivity, United States
Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2337, 1989
The SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering,
Fourth Edition, National Fire Protection Association,
June 1995
References
Calvache, M.L., Duque, C., Gomez Fontalva, J.M., Crespo, F., Processes Affecting Groundwater Temperature
Patterns in a Coastal Aquifer. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology. 8, 223-236, 2011
Raylene Moreno is a Registered Professional Mechanical Engineer with experience in plumbing, fire protection, and heat transfer. She provides engineering design, analysis, and construction
support services on various rail and tunnel projects.
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95
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Computational Modeling as an Alternative

to Full-Scale Testing for Tunnel Fixed Fire
Fighting Systems
by Kenneth J. Harris, Sacramento, CA, US, +1- 916-567-2503, harris@pbworld.com
Introduction
Requirements for implementation of fixed fire fighting systems (FFFS) in road tunnels often include a full-scale test
or series of tests to be performed.
Tunnel FFFS have been a relatively recent development,

particularly in Europe. Therefore full-scale testing became
the reasonable requirement to understanding the performance of fixed fire fighting systems in the very different
conditions of their application from buildings to road tunnels. Recent road tunnel fire events have shown tunnel
FFFS to provide a significant benefit in reducing fire damage and many new tunnels are being required to have them
on this basis alone. However the requirement for full-scale
testing still exists, particularly in Europe and sometimes in
the US, and this expense may be creating an unnecessary
obstacle to their effective implementation.
96
Computer modeling is an alternative to full-scale testing.

Its use has been well-accepted in fluid mechanics and
heat transfer, but combustion and the interaction of water introduces a complexity in energy exchanges that has
made the acceptance of computer modeling for this use
problematic. A series of fire tests were carried out by the
Land Transport Authority (LTA) of Singapore that provides
a means to calibrate a computer model that can be used
for design purposes.
Physics of Water/Fire Interaction

Fire point theory relates the effectiveness of the suppression agent, water, to fundamental fire properties. This model is based on the interaction between the heat required
to vaporize a solid or liquid fuel and the effect that water
has on the prevention of this vaporization. This interaction
is illustrated in Figure 1. It is important to note that a solid
or liquid fuel itself will not burn. A fuel will burn only after
it is converted to a gaseous state by vaporization, which
requires energy, often expressed in terms of heat flux.
Flame
H 20
mw, ex
q
HW
m
Fuel (HT)
Hg
Legend
q - heat source or net ux
m - mass loss rate of the fuel
Hg - magnitude of the heat required to vaporize the fuel
HT - the fuel souce
HW - heat of gasication
mw, ex - critical water application rate
Figure 1 - Dynamics of Fire and Extinguishment
Computational modeling can be used to compare the effectiveness of water application rates for solid-fuel types
of fires, provided an accurate representation is made of
the items affecting heat flux (convection, radiation, surface cooling, water evaporation, etc.). Fuel can be defined in terms of a heat of combustion, reactions, products, and reaction rates. Selected material properties
can be determined from literature or testing. The primary
objective is to generate sufficient power from the fire to
simulate the design scenario. For most tests, wood and
plastic have been used as common sample fuels.
Computer Calibration
Fire Tests
In March 2012, LTA of Singapore conducted a series of
tests in the A86 Tunnel in Spain. These tests were performed with various standard drop nozzle configurations
and water application rates. Three in particular were of
interest for calibration purposes described in Table 1.
LTA Test No.
Water Application Rate

(mm/min)
Activation Time
after 60 C
Peak Fire Heat Release Rate

(FHRR) (MW)
Target Ignited?
Max Target Heat Flux

(kw/m2)
12
4 minutes
37.7
No
4 minutes
44.1
Unknown
Unknown
none
150
Yes
225
Table 1 - Description of LTA Fire Tests
Model Values
Wood
Plastic
Total
Test Values
Volume (m3)/%
7.6/82
1.7/18
9.3
80/20
Mass (kg)/%
3,410/67
1,711/33
5,121
5,000
Energy (GJ)/%
58.0/61
37.6/39
95.6
99.2
Total inc. Target (GJ)
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117
Table 2 - Tabulation and comparison of fuel quantities
Computer Models
Computer models were developed in fire dynamics simulator (FDS) by the author for these three tests. The model
quantities and reported test values are tabulated and
summarized in Table 2. The grid size was chosen as a
cube with lengths of 0.125 meters, a value that has
been shown to give reasonable results in other simulations performed by the author.
Results
The results of the free-burning test show reasonable correlation between the model and the test for the heat release rate and gauge heat flux as indicated in Figure 2.
The modeled peak heat release rate is slightly higher than
the test. The growth rate is slightly faster than the test.
The extreme decay period is not considered significant
because the major effects of the fire have passed. The
modeled gauge heat flux is considerably more aggressive
Gas temperatures were compared in Figure 3. For the unsuppressed fire, the model shows reasonable correlation
with the test. For the suppressed fire, the model gas temperatures are lower than tested. However, both model and
test showed temperatures too high for tenable conditions
and low enough not to be a concern to the structural integrity. This is reasonable correlation for design purposes.
Free burning (Test 7)

250
Target ignited
200
150
Heat Flux (kW/m2)
Heat Release Rate (MW)
Heat Flux (5m downstream of re)
Heat Release Rate
200
Model
100
50
Test Gauge
150
Model Gauge
100
Model Net
50
Test
0
0
0
500
1000
Time (sec)
1500
2000
500
1000
Time (sec)
1500
2000
than that measured. Gauge heat flux is measured with

respect to some reference temperature in the gauge, often determined by a cooling water feed. While there are
peaks that are higher and lower than that measured, the
overall magnitude reasonably tracks that of the fire and
can be used for design purposes. Heat release rate can
be used as an indicator of the fire power. The net heat flux
was not measured. Net heat flux is the parameter used to
determine if fuel vaporization can occur and with it resulting target ignition. In both cases, the target ignited.
Figure 2 Comparison of model and test results for unsuppressed fire
97
Gas temperature (10m downstream of re)
Gas temperature (10m downstream of re)

500
1500
Deluge operation
400
Model Temp 5m
downstream of re
1000
Temperature (oC)
Temperature (oC)
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500
Model Temp 5m
downstream of re
300
200
100
500
1000
1500
Time (sec)
+L51 oMS1 +R51
2000
500
1000
1500
Time (sec)
+L51 oMS1 +R51
2000
Figure 3 Comparison of model and test results for unsuppressed and 12 millimeter/minute suppressed fire
50
120
110
45
100
Model
gauge
Model
40
90
60
Model
net
With deluge system (Test 1)

Heat Release Rate
50
Heat ux 5m downstream of re
Deluge operation
2.0
Heat Flux (kW/m2)
30
20
Test
0
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Target not ignited
1.5
1.0
Test
gauge
0.5
15
10
0
0
500
Time (sec)
Figure 4 Comparison of model and test results for 12 millimeter/minute suppressed fire
98
20
Deluge operation
40
10
25
1000
1500
Time (sec)
2000
Model Heat Flux (kW/m2)
30
70
Heat Release Rate (MW)
35
80
The model gauge heat flux was also calculated as higher

than the measured target gauge flux. The net heat flux
was much closer to the gauge flux. In the model, like
the test, insufficient target fuel vaporization occurred,
resulting in no target ignition.
It should be remembered that the purpose of this work
is to develop a spray system that meets a particular objective. Fire point theory shows that net heat flux is the
key parameter for predicting water effectiveness and
understanding this allows for better predicting of spray
performance. In the case of comparison with the LTA
tests, this modeling exercise showed reasonably good
correlation with the unsuppressed test for heat flux, and
FHRR profile, as well as gas temperatures. In the case
of the suppressed test, the model showed higher values than the test, but still showed that spread to the
target fuel pile was prevented.
Conclusion
Full-scale testing of fire suppression systems is expensive. Computer modeling provides a cost-effective means
of demonstrating proposed system performance. The
fuel vaporization process is well-defined in fire science
and the computer models can be structured to utilize
this approach.
Comparison with a test is beneficial to calibrate the
model. For this reason, the LTA tests are a significant
milestone in providing a benchmark to compare model
results and their contribution to the knowledge of the
industry is extremely important.
Kenneth Harris, PE is a Tunnel Mechanical and Fire Protection

Specialist and Principal Professional Associate with 40 years of
experience in design, construction and inspection of large civil
and industrial projects.1
Kenneth Harris has written a number of articles for Network including Hydraulic Modeling of Fire Protection Pipelines for the Westside Rail
Tunnel Network #34, Spring 1996, pp 24, 25.
The fire heat release rate (FHRR) and heat flux test results for the 12 millimeter/minute (mm/min) suppressed
fire, as shown in Figure 4, did not compare well at all. The
model heat release rate was calculated as considerably
higher than that tested. This is acceptable for design purposes, as the calculation indicates a higher value than
measured. The reverse would be problematic.
Fire
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andLife
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Safety
NETWORK
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Fire
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andLife
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Safety
NETWORK
Latest Enhancements to the Subway

Environment Simulation (SES) Program
by Andrew Louie, New York, NY, US, +1-212-631-3767, louiea@pbworld.com;
Tom ODwyer, New York, NY, US, +1-212-613-8821, odwyer@pbworld.com; and
Silas Li, New York, NY, US, +1-212-465-5217, lisilas@pbworld.com
The Subway Environment Simulation (SES) computer

program is a designer-oriented tool which provides estimates of airflows, temperatures, humidity, and air conditioning requirements for both operating and proposed
multiple-track subway systems.
100
The capabilities of the SES program are comprehensive,

permitting the user to simulate a variety of train propulsion and braking systems; various systems of environmental control (including forced air ventilation, station air conditioning, and trackway exhaust); airflows in
any given network of interconnected tunnels, stations,
and underground walkways; any desired sequence of
train operation (including the mixing of trains with different operating characteristics and schedules); various
steady-state and non-steady-state heat sources; emergency situations with trains stopped in tunnels and air
movement solely by mechanical ventilation and buoyant
forces; and a special feature to simulate the long-range
thermal impact of a possible reduction in the heat absorption capacity of tunnel walls after many years of system operation.
The SES program was originally developed by Parsons
Brinckerhoff in 1975 under the aegis of the National
Transportation Systems Center of the United States
Department of Transportation. The last publicly available version of SES was version 4.1 distributed by the
Department of Transportation and was released in IP
(inch-pound) units in 1997. The first SES program in SI
(international system) units, SES2000, was released in
2003, based on SES version 4.1, and added many new
features such as: jet fan de-rating, air curtains, section
pressure changes, nighttime cooling, platform screen
doors, and many other components that enhanced the
normal analysis features of SES. The SES2000 was
the first version that was developed entirely by Parsons
Brinckerhoff and released to selected clients with a
hardware security lock to prevent the unauthorized distribution of the program.

SES Version 6 is an update to SES2000 that incorporates many new features as well as software bug fixes
and an updated security lock system that no longer relies on unreliable hardware dongles. All of the new components, bug fixes, and new software-based security system were developed in-house by Parsons Brinckerhoffs
tunnel ventilation team in the New York office. SES Version 6 is in internal testing right now, due to be released
in December 2014. The new features of SES Version 6
are described below:
AC (alternating current) Motors
Modern subway and passenger rail vehicles are using
more advanced train propulsion technologies that are
not analogous to the original DC (direct current) powered train propulsion systems that were state-of-the-art
when SES was originally developed. A new motor controller model was developed to complement the existing
DC controlled motors modeled in SES. The new motor
controller allows the SES user to input the manufacturer's provided motor efficiency versus train speed curve
to compute the energy losses for this new motor. This
model simplifies the computation of heat generation due
to accelerating trains and no longer requires the user to
input line current or voltage data.
Cooling Pipes
Cooling pipe networks are a novel and effective method
for cooling subway environments. In these systems, relatively cool ground water is pumped through pipes that
run along the trainway in subway systems. The circulating water acts as a heat sink and cools the subway system environment. The Channel Tunnel between France
and England is the first major transit system to utilize
cooling pipes to cool the tunnel environment as shown
Coefficient of Drag for the Back of the Train

By default, SES computes a rear train drag coefficient assuming a rectangular profile. New high
speed trains may have more aerodynamically
shaped rear train profiles and therefore this would
affect the airflow resistance of a train in the subway system. SES now allows the designer to specFigure 1 - Cooling Pipe Cross Section Schematic (left), Actual Cooling Pipe
Installation in the Channel Tunnel (right)
ify the rear train drag coefficient exactly as it allows the designer to specify the front of train drag
in Figure 1. The SES cooling pipe model was developed
coefficient. This feature also allows road tunnel designers
based on published research presented at the 13th Anto more precisely capture the airflow resistance due to
nual Symposium on Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vevehicle profiles, which are modeled in SES in the same
hicle Tunnels1. SES allows the system designer to set up
way as trains. Typical passenger cars have more aerodya number of cooling pipe networks and will compute the
namically shaped rear profiles than typical subway trains.
heat transferred to the pipe network and its corresponding effect on subway system temperature.
Software-Based Security System
The security system gives Parsons Brinckerhoff conLocation Specific Train Energy Recovery
trol over the distribution and use of the software which
The desire for greater energy efficiency in subway syswould allow Parsons Brinckerhoff to license the software
tems has led to the development of wayside energy
so that it remains the industry standard. Licensing fees
recovery systems (WERS) that consist of an electrical
could be used to continually develop SES and provide
energy storage system such as a flywheel or battery. As
great value to our customers and clients.
a train reduces speed in the vicinity of the WERS, the
train's traction motors convert the train's kinetic energy
Andrew Louie is a Professional Associate in Tunnel Ventilation.
to electrical energy and feed it back to the traction power
He has worked on tunnel ventilation projects for Parsons Brincksystem where the WERS stores this braking energy and
erhoff for the past 9 years across the United States and England.
then supplies it back to the traction power system when
He is currently one of the main developers of the SES program.
a train in the vicinity starts to accelerate. The effect of
Tom ODwyer is a Professional Associate in Tunnel Ventilation.
this system on the tunnel environment is a reduction in
He has worked in this field for over 22 years and had designed
heat generation by the train's braking system. SES can
the ventilation systems for many road, rail, and transit tunnels
now account for this reduction in heat from the train's
throughout the world. He has been involved in the development
braking system at specific locations in the tunnel sysof the SES program beginning at version 4.0, and is currently
tem as designated by the system designer.
one of the main developers of the SES program.
Variable Junction Losses for Type 2 Dividing Walls

Typically subway stations with center island platforms have trackway dividing walls at the platform
ends. The SES airflow junction losses for this type of
geometry was developed assuming a certain width of
the dividing wall. For stations with very wide or nar-
Silas Li is Manager of the Parsons Brinckerhoff Tunnel Ventilation Analysis Group and chairman of the NFPA 130 ventilation
task group. He has 29 years of experience in the design and
simulation modeling of fire/smoke management and ventilation
systems for numerous projects involving transit, rail and road
tunnels in seven countries.
Ting, Y S, et al., "CFD estimation of heat transfer enhancements on a cooling pipe in underground railway tunnels", 13th Annual Symposium on
Aerodynamics and Ventilation of Vehicle Tunnels, p. 629, BHR Group, 2009.
Fire
SESand
andLife
Modeling
Safety
row dividing walls, the junction losses may be

different than the built in losses in SES. SES
now allows the designer to adjust the turning
losses based on the actual geometry of the
dividing wall termination.
NETWORK
101
Fire
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NETWORK
Use of Building Information Modelling

(BIM) on Road Tunnels and Metro Projects
by YF Pin, Hong Kong, +852-2579-8899, pin.yf@pbworld.com;
R. Ashok Kumar, Singapore, +65-6290-7834, rajamani.a@pbworld.com; and
Steven Lai, Hong Kong/Singapore, +852-2963-7625/+65-6589-3661, lai.steven@pbworld.com
Background
One method to shorten the construction period, reduce

uncertainty factors, and lower overall cost of infrastructure
projects is to reinforce the coordination between systems
by using Building Information Modelling (BIM) to virtually
imitate the construction sequence. Parsons Brinckerhoff
has completed the first large-scale mechanical and electrical (M&E) BIM model for a road tunnel in Hong Kong. The
project is in the construction stage and the contractor
has taken the responsibility to further develop the BIM
model to a higher Level of Development (LOD)1. Parsons
Brinckerhoff is also currently working on the first largescale metro BIM model with M&E services in Singapore.
Some of the systems in the BIM model are shown in
Figure 1.
At present, building information modelling (BIM) software is replacing two-dimensional (2-D) drafting software
in the design stage as computer technology advances.
BIM can greatly help MEP engineers in their analyses
through integration with third-party software for heat
load calculations, lighting analysis, etc. BIM software
can assist engineers in identifying potential problems
or clashes among different disciplines (including interdiscipline and intra-discipline clashes). Based on the
three-dimensional (3-D) model, a four-dimensional (4-D)
timeline and a five-dimensional (5-D) cost analysis can
also be developed.
By using BIM, the project team can identify uncertainties, potential impacts, and safety concerns before construction even begins. As a result, the project schedule
is potentially shortened, and resources and budget are
more accurately defined.
Key Challenges and Samples

of Recommended Solutions
The following lists the key challenges faced in developing BIM models for infrastructure projects with many M&E
systems and sub-systems:
Singapore
Metro Project
Hong Kong Road

Tunnel Project
Waterside System
Airside System
Mechanical Ventilation System
Power Supply System
Lighting System
Earthing System
Lightning Protection System
Not Applicable
Fire Detection System
Sprinkler System
FH/HR System
Not Applicable
Clean Gas System
Smoke Control System
Hot Water System
Not Applicable
Cold Water System
Sanitary System
Drainage System
Environmental Control System
Electrical System
Road Lighting System

Fire Services System
Plumbing & Sanitary System
Tunnel Ventilation System

Air Purication System
Not Applicable
Not Applicable
Control & Monitoring System
High Voltage System
ELV System
TCSS System
Figure 1 - Systems in the BIM models for the Singapore and Hong
Kong projects include, but are not limited to, the above.
The Level of Development (LOD) is a reference to help the designer and owner specify BIM deliverables and get a clear picture of what will be
included in a BIM deliverable. It is defined and developed by the American Institute of Architects (AIA) for the AIA G202-2013 Building Information Modeling Protocol. At present there are six LOD levels (LOD 100, 200, 300, 350, 400, 500). LOD 100 300 are suitable for the design
stage, LOD 350 and 400 are suitable for construction stage, and LOD 500 is specific to the as-built model for owner.
102
Many resources are required to develop a standard library for M&E equipment and BIM standards for infrastructure projects. Information from suppliers of BIM
services and software for infrastructure projects is limited. Parsons Brinckerhoff is using BIM experience from
other projects in different regions to help develop and
recommend standards across various disciplines.
tems, and the software tracks each of these components

inside the model. Due to the constraint of hardware and
software when working on a normal workstation, it is not
always possible to include all M&E features (e.g., cable
hangers, cable, cable brackets, etc.) in the BIM model
for a large-scale project, as the software performance
would degrade noticeably. Exporting the 2-D DGN format
and the 2-D DWG format from the BIM model may not
result in a 100 percent match of the exported layers.
Although extra time and effort could be spent to modify
the 2-D drawings to suit the traditional 2-D CAD standards, this approach may result in human error.
The 2-D output generated from the BIM model will be

different from the traditional 2-D layout, and the client as
well as the engineer will need guidance and instruction
on the expected drawing output from BIM.
There is equipment designed by the M&E sector that will

be installed by other disciplines (e.g., the civil sector)
such as earthing mats, an underground trench for cable,
and concealed conduit. Currently there is not always a
recognized guideline on which discipline shall develop
the BIM model, which services shall be shown on which
BIM model, or how the services in the 2-D drawings generated from the BIM model shall be shown. Communication and managing coordination are important factors
in the solution, and the above-mentioned issues can be
discussed and resolved at BIM coordination workshops
for a better collaboration among different disciplines.
There are two major software options (Revit and AECOsim) being used for infrastructure projects. Usually, the
architect and the structural engineer will create an individual BIM model for buildings and another model for
tunnels. For some projects, Revit software is used for
developing the station or ventilation building BIM model
and AECOsim software is used for the tunnel model.
When integrating the building model and the tunnel model, it is difficult but important to ensure continuity of the
M&E services at the boundary between the two models,
as compatibility issues and information loss has been
experienced. Partnerships with Bentley and Autodesk
will help to overcome the above issues and help to drive
the software changes needed.
Some engineering calculation programs and numerical analyses are available as add-ons to BIM software.
Input parameters for design can be gotten directly
from the BIM model and the engineering calculation or
analysis can be performed automatically. However, the
results of these engineering calculation programs may
deviate from other commonly used commercial engineering calculation programs. As a result, further development of these add-on programs is expected from
the suppliers.
The computer hardware requirement for creating a BIM
model for MEP (mechanical/electrical/plumbing) design
exceeds that for other disciplines. The normal workstation cannot handle a BIM model for a large-scale infrastructure project and generally needs to be upgraded.
M&E BIM models contain many systems and sub-sys-
Using BIM technology to create data-rich models in three

or more dimensions to facilitate better design, improve
construction efficiency, foster better collaboration, provide
shorter construction periods, reduce conflicts and rework,
improve productivity, and create higher project profits is
the upcoming trend. Parsons Brinckerhoff has successfully
used BIM technology in various road tunnels and metro
projects and will continue to enhance the skills and resources on the use of BIM in projects.
YF Pin is a BIM Coordinator for a road tunnel project in Hong
Kong. His responsibilities include BIM E&M Coordinator, interface
coordinator, model management, and technical support. He is
also the BIM E&M Coordinator for other building projects, such
as hotels, hospitals, and high-rise commercial buildings.
R. Ashok Kumar is a BIM Manager for a M&E metro project in
Singapore. He is responsible for model management, production
documentation, inter-discipline and intra-discipline coordination.
Steven Lai is a Mechanical Engineer and a Senior Professional Associate at Parsons Brinckerhoff. He is M&E Project Manager for a
road tunnel project in Hong Kong which has used BIM for the first
time. He is now working in Singapore as a M&E Project Manager
for a metro project which has used BIM for the first time.
Fire
SESand
andLife
Modeling
Safety
As BIM is relatively new in the M&E discipline, there are

limited skillful BIM modellers in the market. To develop
the BIM model in a cost effective way, it is preferred
to have BIM modellers with an M&E engineering background. Furthermore, when resolving clashes concerning an M&E model, input from multi-disciplines is required. A collaboration process is recommended, and it
is effective to conduct coordination workshops so that
experienced engineers and architects can resolve conflicts together. All members of the project team should
be encouraged to attend these workshops to ensure the
model is kept up to date.
NETWORK
103
Fire and Life

Network
Safety
NETWORK
Call for Articles

We invite all employees to participate in technology transfer and submit articles to Network.
We look forward to hearing from you.
Network 79, Resiliency
Parsons Brinckerhoff is helping communities to build or improve their ability to "bounce back" after hazardous events, extreme weather, or climate
change. We will explore topics such as risk reduction through policy and engineering, flood mitigation, habitat restoration, climate change adaptation, green infrastructure, carbon reduction, layers of protection, and connections with sustainability, health, and livability.
Contact editors John Chow (chow@pbworld.com) and Susan Lysaght (lysaght@pbworld.com).
Our Goal
The goal of Network is to promote technology transfer by featuring
articles that:
Tell readers about innovative developments.
Appeal to a broad range of readers.
Include only essential information in a readable format.
Encourage readers to contact authors for more information.
Guidelines for Articles

Articles should conform to Network format (defined below).
Keep your article as short as you caninclude only relevant
details and descriptions.
Papers written for other publications must be modified to conform
to Network format.
Network Format
104
Length: Articles should be 1,200 words or less.

Byline: Include the name, location, phone number, and e-mail
address of each author.
Introduction/Overview: Provide a brief paragraph stating your topic
and how it is significant.
Body of text:
Clearly describe the challenge you faced and how you or your
team solved it.
Provide exact name of client and state your firms role and
responsibilities.
Tell what innovative technologies or approaches you developed
or used.
Provide all units of measures in metrics followed by US
Customary in parentheses. For assistance in converting

measures, see http://www.onlineconversion.com/
Conclusion:
What lessons did you learn?
What was the impact of your solution on your project?
What does your new technology or technique mean to our firm
and the state-of-the-art of the industry?
What is the current status of your project, technique,
or technology?
Biographical Information: Please provide your title and a brief
description of your work in 12 sentences at the end of your article.
Related Web Sites: Provide any web addresses that readers can go
to for related information.
File Formats (provide electronic files)

Text: must be an MS Word file without graphics embedded.
Graphics:
Format should be bitmap, tiff, eps, jpeg, or psd.
Resolution should be at least 240 dpi.
Screen captures are only 72 ppi and not acceptable.
Submit Your Article

E-mail article and graphics files to:
John Chow, New York, chow@pbworld.com, 1-212-465-5249 and
Susan Lysaght, Lancaster, PA, lysaght@pbworld.com, 1-717-859-7427.
All graphics files and a clear hard copy at least 165mm (7 inches)
wide must also go to Suzanne Daloisio, Parsons Brinckerhoff
Corporate Graphics Services, 4139 Oregon Pike, Ephrata, PA 17522,
1-717-859-7449, daloisiosl@pbworld.com
Network December 2014.

Parsons Brinckerhoff Inc., One Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10119, 1-212-465-5000. All rights reserved. Articles may be reprinted only with
permission from the executive editor. This journal is intended to foster the free flow of ideas and information among Parsons Brinckerhoff
staff. The opinions expressed by the writers are their own and are not necessarily those of Parsons Brinckerhoff.
Past issues of Network are available electronically on Parsons Brinckerhoffs web site, (http://www.pbworld.com) or go directly to:
http://www.pbworld.com/news/publications.aspx. Past issues are available to employees via the Parsons Brinckerhoff intranet.
Employees may request printed copies to use for conferences, seminars, and proposals. Send your request to pbnetwork@pbworld.com.
Executive Editor: John Chow, New York, NY, chow@pbworld.com
Editor: Susan Lysaght, Lancaster, PA, lysaght@pbworld.com
Graphic Designer: Suzanne Daloisio, Lancaster, PA, daloisiosl@pbworld.com
Advisor: Judy Cooper, New York, NY
Guest Reviewers for this issue: Guest reviewers for this issue: Doug Graham, Sydney, AUS;
Kenneth Harris, Sacramento, CA; Kate Hunt, Godalming, UK; Steven Kam-Hung Lai, Hong Kong;
John Munro, New York, NY; Norman Rhodes, New York, NY
Cover photo: Eurasia Road Tunnel (Istanbul Strait Road Tube Crossing), Tolga Togan

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systems

ISSUE NO. 78 DECEMBER 2014

A technical journal by Parsons Brinckerhoff employees and colleagues http://www.pbworld.com/news/publications.aspx

CLIMATE CHANGE AND RESILIENCY

Global Perspectives on Tunnel Systems

Railway Cooling Challenges

FIRE AND LIFE SAFETY

Dynamo Enhancing Tunnel Ventilation Modelling

Subway Tunnel Cross-Passage Spacing:

DECEMBER 2014 http://www.pbworld.com/news/publications.aspx

ASSET MANAGEMENT AND PROGRAM

COMMUNICATIONS / POWER AND

CONSTRUCTION AND REHABILITATION

SES AND MODELING

Call for Articles .............................................................. 104

Introduction: Global Perspectives on

Advances in tunnel systems have evolved to account for

programs such as the Memorial Tunnel Fire tests1 in

DECEMBER 2014 http://www.pbworld.com/news/publications.aspx

Tunneling Overview in the United States

DECEMBER 2014 http://www.pbworld.com/news/publications.aspx

described in Subway Tunnel Cross-Passage Spacing: A

Tunnelling Overview in the United Kingdom,

Alongside this infrastructure investment, Transport for

DECEMBER 2014 http://www.pbworld.com/news/publications.aspx

Tunneling Overview in Asia

by Steven Lai, Hong Kong/Singapore, +852-2963-7625

Parsons Brinckerhoff has a rich history of working on

instead of 82 degrees F), a reduction of air velocity at the

nel ventilation equipment in long tunnels to reduce the

Tunnelling Outlook in Australia and New

DECEMBER 2014 http://www.pbworld.com/news/publications.aspx

minimizing the tunnel construction cost of the 3.9km

Forresteld Airport Rail Link (WA)

Legacy Way (QLD)

North West Rail Link (NSW)

Airport Link (QLD)

Melbourne Rail Link (VIC)

Source: BIS Shrapnel, ABS Data

DECEMBER 2014 http://www.pbworld.com/news/publications.aspx

In addition, the Australian government is focused on

tion for Australian Road Tunnels describes the unique

nels. Climate projections beyond 2030 and 2050 are

Steven Kam-Hung LAI

tion plants. There are currently three tunnels in the early

DECEMBER 2014 http://www.pbworld.com/news/publications.aspx

Subway Tunnel Cross-Passage Spacing:

DECEMBER 2014 http://www.pbworld.com/news/publications.aspx

The US National Fire Protection Association's Standard

Physical Scenario for Computer Model

Bored Tunnel Geometry

The location of the fire is in the middle of the train.

Cross-passage spacing is particularly important in bored

Clearly the spacing of cross-passages has a significant

The evacuation method was assumed to be all doors open

X= Cross Passage Spacing

Figure 1 Evacuation Scenarios

DECEMBER 2014 http://www.pbworld.com/news/publications.aspx

These observations are based on the sample data and

The emergency exiting analysis was done using the

Fire and Life Safety

are located far away from the end of the

Fire and Life Safety

of tunnel ventilation systems for road and rail tunnels worldwide