Offsetting an audio amplifier

Differences between the two halves of a differential, or

long-tailed, pair can be amplified resulting in a strong
DC bias appearing on a directly-coupled output. These
are not only wasteful but can result in non-linearities
contributing to distortion and even the destruction of
speakers. Common-mode rejection (in this case of the
ripple on the supply lines) is similarly affected. A
(below) shows a typical arrangement where the input
offset voltage is related to the base-emitter voltages of
the input transistors.

The differences between additional emitter resistances

(B) can be balanced by a potentiometer, however, gain
can be reduced although this may not be important.
Lost gain may be recovered by the use of bypass
capacitors (C) across the emitter resistances.
Ideally, both transistors and resistors should be
matched and in thermal equilibrium. For example, TO92
style cases can be bound together with a copper band
(offering some thermal regulation), or alternatively, dual

differential pairs can be fixed to a copper plate, or

block, which can be earthed, a smear of conductive
paste being placed between the mating surfaces, an
approach very rarely seen even in 'high-quality'
commercial designs.

A similar arrangement was used in the Practical

Electronics Gemini to bind the bias and driver
transistors together.

Differences can be made almost insignificant with the

use of dual transistors or a monolithic IC differential
stage. A close match between discrete transistors is,
however, unlikely. Thus, a DC amplifier's offset's
tendency to increase over time.
In symmetrical amplifiers, associated transistor pairs
should ideally be matched, complementary pairs
(NPN/PNP) may then be required, matched both in Vbe
and hFE. A relatively simple transistor matcher is
described by Giesberts (elektor, 7-8/'97, p98-9).
Resistors can be matched by using high tolerance types
or measuring them. However, it is often sufficient to
take, say, four successive resistors from the 'belt' in
which they are packaged.

The performance of a constant current source, which

importantly helps to isolate supply noise from the 'tail'
or say a class A driver, can be improved by adding an
extra transistor, the output characteristics of the
cascode circuit approach those of an ideal current
source much more closely than those of the single
transistor circuit.

Similarly, in a current mirror, a third transistor can be

added to reduce the error by a factor equivalent to that
transistor's current gain. Ideally, as with a differential
pair, these should be identical, ie; on the same chip
(CA3046/86, etc).

Many approaches, for simplicity's sake in a real world,

dispense with offset adjustment altogether and use a
capacitor to decouple the DC feedback path to ground,
thus reducing the amplifier's gain as it nears DC.
Residual voltages on the output would then typically be
below 50mV.

The time it takes this capacitor (usually a single

electrolytic) to charge and discharge can result in large
near-DC swings appearing on the output. Particularly
noticeable at high outputs, bass notes tend to lose
definition. The quality of the capacitor chosen can also
affect performance at high frequencies. To overcome
this, some designs will use, say, a 10F polypropylene
type. Feedback impedances can then increase, but this
may not be significant in subjective terms.
Alternatively, if single op-amps are used then
conventional off-setting can be applied. This has been
used in designs where fuses have been placed in the
supply rails, rather than the output (non-linear resistive
effects at low frequencies).

An approach that one could find in a lab is shown below.

This demonstrates a distinct reduction in the number of

capacitors in the signal and feedback paths.
One manufacturer took pains to match their input
transistors (below) and enclose them, thus isolated from
their surroundings but coupled thermally.

Offsets were then applied to both inputs from separately

regulated supply rails. Adjusting the (inverting) input
DC for 0V, the output was then set within 5mV. The
switchable (non-inverting) DC path thus requires an
additional adjustment. In use, personal preference
would leave the input capacitor switched in (-6dB/oct @
4Hz), thus reducing the risk of unwanted cone
excursions and damage from DC arising in the rest of
the signal path. When budgets allow, super matched
monolithic transistor pairs could be used. The RIAA
stage for this amplifier can be found here.
Other designs can use multiple pots on the same feed,
eg:

Problems with a 'noisy' (but inaudibly so) offset in one

design appeared to centre on the quality of the offset
pot itself. The prototype used open cermet for the
quiescent adjustment and an open carbon for the offset.
Enclosed cermet or multi-turn wirewound types are far
better exhibiting a temperature coefficient that is a
tenth, or less, than that of carbon and less of a
propensity to corrode. Multi-finger wiper contacts will
also exhibit less noise.

Once thermal drift has been considered, stabilisation of

the offset supply can merit attention. One (inverting)
design simply clamped both sides of the offset pot to
ground with diodes.

Any thermal coefficient then changing in one diode

would be matched by that in the other. Further
stabilisation can be achieved by binding both diodes and
input pair together (see above). LEDs can provide
particularly stable references.
DC servos, although adding complexity to an input
design, can offer advantages. A current feedback design
sits a precision DC opamp on top of a high-speed one.

This gives an offset of about 1mV which is constantly

and automatically adjusted in all operating conditions,
whilst not compromising speed.

A method of offsetting an RIAA stage is shown below...

and some Giesberts solutions...

Clamping of offset IC's input and supply rails

recommended.
When two symmetrical class A stages form one
amplifier, only one stage need be adjustable. However,
active offsetting negates the need for 'dual' input
devices and adjustment.
Class D design's offsets are determined by timing.
Distortion | Protection | Power Supplies | Layouts and
Heat-sinking | Dimensioning a design

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