You are on page 1of 32

Turbomachinery and Turbomachines

Francis turbines are the most preferred hydraulic turbines. They are the most reliable workhorse of hydroelectric power stations. It contributes about 60 percentage
of the global hydropower capacity, mainly because it can work efficiently under a wide range of operating conditions. This video is aimed at giving a conceptual
overview of working of Francis turbine.

Water head and flow rate are the most vital input parameters that govern performance of a hydraulic turbine. But these parameters
are subjected to seasonal variation in a hydroelectric power station. Francis turbine is capable of delivering high efficiency even if
there is a huge variation in these flow parameters. Following are the head and flow rate under which Francis turbine is preferred to
operate.

Head = 45-400 m
Flow rate = 10-700 m^3/s
In this article we will understand working of Francis turbine and will also realize why it is capable to work under varying flow
conditions.

Runner At the heart of the system


Most important part of Francis turbine is its runner. It is fitted with a collection of complex shaped blades as shown in Fig.1

Fig.1 Runner - The most vital part of Francis turbine

In runner water enters radially, and leaves axially. During the course of flow, water glides over runner blades as shown in figure
below.

Fig.2 Water flow through Francis turbine runner

Blades of Francis turbine are specially shaped. One such blade is shown in Fig.2. It is clear from the figure that shape of blade crosssection is of thin airfoils. So when water flows over it, a low pressure will be induced on one side, and high pressure on the other
side. This will result in a lift force.

Page 1 of 32

Fig.3 Airfoil cross section shape of Francis blades & production of reaction force

You can also note one more peculiar thing about the blade. It is having a bucket kind of shape towards the outlet. So water will hit,
and produce an impulse force before leaving the runner. Both impulse force and lift force will make the runner rotate.

Fig.4 Francis turbine derive energy from combined action of reaction and impulse force

So Francis turbine is not a pure reaction turbine, a portion of force comes from impulse action also. Thus as water flows over runner
blades both its kinetic and pressure energy will come down. Since flow is entering radially and leaves axially, they are also called
mixed flow turbine. Runner is connected to generator, via a shaft, for electricity production.

Use of Spiral Casing


Runner is fitted, inside a spiral casing. Flow is entered via an inlet nozzle. Flow rate of water will get reduced along length of casing,
since water is drawn into the runner. But decreasing area of spiral casing will make sure that, flow is entered to runner region almost
at uniform velocity.

Fig.5 Spiral casing makes sure that flow is entered uniformly along the periphery of runner

Stay vanes and guide vanes are fitted at entrance of runner. The basic purpose of them is to convert one part of pressure energy into
kinetic energy.

Page 2 of 32

Fig.6 Stay vanes and guide vanes used in Francis turbine

Flow which is coming from the casing, meets stay vanes, they are fixed. Stay vanes steers the flow towards the runner section. Thus
it reduces swirl of inlet flow.

Governing of Francis Turbine


Demand for power may vary over time. The guide vane mechanism is used to control water flow rate and makes sure that power
production is synchronized with power demand.

Fig.7 First figure shows guide vanes in closed position; In 2nd figure guide vanes in open position

Apart from controlling flow rate guide vanes also control flow angle to inlet portion of runner blade. Thus guide vanes make sure
that inlet flow angle is at optimum angle of attack for maximum power extraction from fluid.

Living with Cavitation


Most often local pressure at exit side of runner goes below vapour pressure of water. This will result in formation water bubbles and
eventually damage to turbine blade material. This phenomenon is known as cavitation. It is impossible to prevent cavitation
completely. So a carefully designed draft tube is fitted at exit side to discharge the fluid out. Draft tube will transform velocity head
to static head due to its increasing area and will reduce effect of cavitation.

Fig.8 Conversion of velocity head to static head with help of drafttube

Page 3 of 32

Kaplan Turbine - A Mammoth


Hydroelectric Power Generation

in

||
Kaplan turbines derive motive force from pure reaction. They work efficiently when there is a huge water flow
available. Working and design principles of Kaplan turbine are discussed elaborately in this video lecture.

Kaplan Turbine - A Mammoth


Kaplan turbines are suitable for power extraction when water energy is available at low head and high flow rate. Following are the
operating conditions Kaplan turbine is best suitable for

Head = 2-25 m
Flow rate = 70-800 m^3/s

Fig.1 Kaplan turbines are efficient in power production when there is huge flow available

Which means they are suitable for operation when water is stored in a big reservoir at a relatively shallow altitude. Owing to the
fact that Kaplan turbines handles huge flow rate, Kaplan turbines come in really huge size. They are the biggest among hydro
electric turbines.

Flow in Kaplan Turbine


In Kaplan turbine flow is entered through a spiral casing. Decreasing area of casing makes sure that flow is entered to the central
portion almost at uniform velocity throughout the perimeter.Water after crossing the guide vanes passes over the runner.Finally it
leaves through a draft tube.

Page 4 of 32

Fig.2 Water flow paths in Kaplan turbine in 2 different views

Energy Extraction at Runner


Most important part of Kaplan turbine is its runner. Cross section of runner blade will have a curved shape, as shown in figure below.
So when water flows over it, it will induce a lift force due to airfoil effect. Tangential component of lift force will make the runner
rotate.This rotation is transferred to a generator for electricity production.

Fig.3 Force developed on runner blades due to airfoil effect is the driving force of Kaplan turbine

So it is clear that in Kaplan force is derived due to pure reaction force of flowing water. Due to this reason water absolute velocity
across the blade will remain same, but there will be a huge drop in pressure.
There will be efficient production of reaction force when flow rate is high. This is the reason why Kaplan turbines perform well
under huge flow rate.

Kaplan Turbines - Axial Flow Machines


Kaplan turbines are axial flow machines, where absolute velocity of flow is parallel to axis of turbine. Water is precisely made to
pass through runner blades with help of a shroud as shown in figure below.

Page 5 of 32

Fig.4 In Kaplan flow over runner blade is parallel to axis of rotation

Meeting for Varying Power Demand


Power demand may fluctuate over time. Controlling the water flow rate is the most efficient way to meet for power demand. A
governing mechanism, which controls position of guide vanes is used to control water flow rate.When power demand is high guide
vanes are opened and when power demand is low guide vanes are closed. Figure below shows 2 extreme cases of power generation.

Fig.5 Governing mechanism to control flow: In first case flow is maximum, in second case flow is minimum

Blade Design Kaplan Turbine


Blades of Kaplan turbine are designed to operate under a wide range of operating conditions. A rotating blade experiences relative
velocity of flow. Fundamental principle in blade design is that, relative velocity of fluid flow should be at optimum angle of attack at
all cross sections. Such condition can generate maximum force production thum maximum energy extraction from fluid.

Even though absolute velocity is axial, relative velocity will be inclined depending upon blade velocity. Inclination of relative
velocity increases as we move from root to tip due to increasing blade velocity. This variation is shown in figure below.

Page 6 of 32

Fig.6 Continuous twist is given to the blade from root to tip to make sure that angle of attack is optimum under all cross-sections

So there should be continuous twist in blade from root to tip. Such twist will make sure at every cross section the angle of attack is
optimum.

Adjustable Blades for Optimum Angle of Attack


With varying flow condition relative velocity will change drastically. Kaplan turbine blades are adjustable. When flow rate is high
relative velocity of flow will be more axial. So blade should pitch vertically. If flow rate is low relative velocity of flow is more
tangential. So blades are pitched in tangential direction. This pitching action is shown in figure below.

Fig.7 Pitching action of blades: First figure is for high flow rate case Second figure is of low flow rate case

In short pitching action of blade make sure that blade is still in optimum angle of attack even under varying flow.

Controlling Swirl of Flow Guide Vanes


Apart from controlling the flow rate guide vanes have got one more function. They help in controlling swirl of flow. If guide vanes
were not present the flow would be highly swirling in nature due to its tangential entry.

Page 7 of 32

Fig.8 Flow in runner region without guide-vanes

Such a flow would reduce performance of turbine drastically due to its poor angle of attack. So guide vanes control swirl of flow by
making the flow more radial and makes sure that flow is still under optimum angle of attack.

Overcoming Problem of Cavitation


Biggest challenge in design of Kaplan turbine is how to overcome problem of cavitations, which causes material erosion and
vibration. Cavitation is unavoidable in Kaplan turbine because there is huge pressure drop associated with energy extraction from
fluid. In most of the regions pressure goes very low.

But damage due to cavitation can be reduced by using suitable blade material. ASTM A487 Stainless steel is one of the commonly
used blade material to prevent it from cavitation. Use of anti-cavitation fin is another technique. Draft tube which transforms
dynamic pressure to static pressure due to its increasing area also helps in reducing cavitations effect.

Pelton Turbine - Working & Design


Aspects
||
Pelton turbines/wheels are suitable for power extraction, when the water energy is available at high head and low flow
rate. In this video we will go through working principle and design aspects of Pelton turbine.

Pelton Turbine The Basic Working Principle


Working principle of Pelton turbine is simple. When a high speed water jet injected through a nozzle hits buckets of Pelton wheel; it
induces an impulsive force. This force makes the turbine rotate. The rotating shaft runs a generator and produces electricity.

Page 8 of 32

Fig.1 Pelton wheel derives rotation from impulse force produced by the water jet

In short, Pelton turbine transforms kinetic energy of water jet to rotational energy.

Governing in Pelton Wheel


Demand of power may fluctuate over time. A governing mechanism which controls position of the spear head meets this
requirement. With lowering power demand the spear head at water inlet nozzle is moved in. So that water flow rate is reduced. If
power demand increases spear head is moved out this will increase the flow rate. Following figure illustrates this mechanism. The
first position of the spear head produces a low flow rate, while the second position produces a high flow rate.

Fig.2 Water flow rate control in Pelton wheel by monitoring position of spear head

So in Pelton turbine synchronization between power demand and power supply is met by controlling the water flow rate. The same
technique is used in other types hydroelectric turbines. If the power supply is more than the demand, then the turbine will run over
speed otherwise in under speed. But such a governing mechanism in turn will balance the power supply and demand and will make
sure that the turbine rotates at a constant specified RPM. This speed should also conforms to the power supply frequency. So this
mechanism acts as a speed governing mechanism of Pelton wheel.

Number of Buckets in Pelton Wheel


One of the most important parameter of Pelton turbine design is number of buckets on the disk. If number of buckets is inadequate,
this will result in loss in water jet. That means when one bucket departs from the water jet next bucket may not get engaged with
the jet. This will result in loss in water jet for a small time duration, thus sudden drop in turbine efficiency. Following figure
illustrates what happens when the number of buckets are lowered. With lowering number of buckets at some point of operation,
complete water jet might be lost (3rd figure). So there should be an appropriate number of buckets, which will make sure that no
water is lost (1st figure).

Page 9 of 32

Fig.3 Effect of number of buckets on water-bucket interaction

Pelton Bucket - Design & Features


Most vital component of Pelton wheel is its bucket. Buckets are casted as single solid piece, in order to avoid fatigue failure. You can
note that force acting on the turbine bucket is not constant with time. If you follow one particular bucket, it will have high force for
a small time duration (at the time of jet impingement) after that a larger idle period where no jet interaction takes place. So the
force acting on the bucket is also not constant. It varies with the time but it is having a cyclic nature. If bucket were made using
pieces by welding attachment such cyclic fore will easily lead to premature fatigue failure.

Fig.4 Different views of Pelton bucket

Water jet is split into 2 equal components with help of a splitter. The special shape of bucket makes the jet turn almost 180 degree.
This produces an impulsive force on bucket. Force so produced can easily be derived from Newtons 2nd law of motion. Blade outlet
angle close to 180 degree is usually used in order to maximize impulsive force.
A cut is provided on bottom portion of buckets. This makes sure that water jet will not get interfered by other incoming buckets.

Pelton An Impulse Turbine


Since the water jet is always open to atmosphere, inlet and exit pressure of water jet will be same and will be same as atmospheric
pressure. However absolute velocity of fluid will have huge drop from inlet to exit of bucket. This kinetic energy drop is the
maximum energy the bucket can absorb.

Page 10 of 32

So it is clear that Pelton turbine gains mechanical energy purely due to change in kinetic energy of jet, not due to pressure energy
change. Which means Pelton turbine is a pure impulse machine.

Fig.5 Pressure and velocity variation across Pelton bucket

Impulse force produced by water jet is high when jet is having high velocity. Water stored at high altitude can easily produce high jet
velocity. This is the reason why Pelton turbine is most suitable for operation, when water is stored at high altitude.
You can easily understand why there is a nozzle fitted at water jet injection portion. Nozzle will increase velocity of jet further, thus
will aid in effective production of impulse force.

Extracting Maximum Power from Water Jet


Pelton turbine design is always aimed at extracting maximum power from water jet, or maximizing efficiency. Power extracted by
the bucket, P is product of jet impulse force and bucket velocity.

So power extraction is maximum when product of impulsive force and bucket velocity is maximum. Let's consider 2 different
operating conditions.

Buckets are Held Stationary


If Pelton wheel buckets are held stationary, there will be a huge impulse force produced. But power extraction will
be zero since buckets are not moving.

Bucket Speed Same as Jest Speed


If buckets are moving with same speed of jet, water jet won't be able to hit the bucket. This will lead to zero
impulse force. Again power extraction will be zero.

Page 11 of 32

Fig.6 Relative magnitude of bucket and jet velocity is important in power extraction from fluid

In short, power extraction is zero both at zero bucket speed and when bucket speed is same as jet speed. So with respect to jet to
bucket speed ratio, power extraction will vary with as shown below.

Fig.7 This graph shows how power extraction from fluid varies with respect to bucket to jet velocity ratio

It is clear from the above graph that optimum power extraction happens in between. It can be shown using Euler's turbo machinery
equation that maximum power extraction happens when bucket speed is half the jet velocity. So it is always desirable to operate
Pelton wheel at this condition. Pelton turbines can give efficiency as high as 90 %, at optimum working conditions.

Centrifugal Pump
||
Centrifugal pumps are the most commonly used turbo machinery devices. They are used to raise the pressure or
induce flow in a control volume. Centrifugal pumps are radial flow devices. Various kinds of centrifugal pumps are
available in the market with different construction details. But working principle behind all of them remain same. In this
video we will analyze, working principle of a centrifugal pump with single suction, semi open impeller.

Working of Centrifugal Pumps


Page 12 of 32

One of such pump (single suction, semi-open) is shown in figure below, with one part of its casing removed for ease of
understanding.

Fig.1 Single suction, semi open centrifugal pump with one portion of casing removed

Working of centrifugal pump is simple; as the impeller rotates it creates very low pressure at inlet of the impeller, called as eye of
impeller. This low pressure helps in sucking fluid surrounding in. The fluid is pushed radially along the impeller to the casing. Casing
collects the fluid , and it is pumped out through discharge nozzle.These processes are shown schematically in following figure. We
will go through main components of a centrifugal pump in a detailed way.

Fig.2 Fluid flow in a centrifugal pump

Impeller
Impeller is the device which rotates, and transfer energy to fluid. It has got collection of vanes fitted to a hub plate. Shape and
geometry of impeller blades are critical in pump performance.

Page 13 of 32

Fig.3 Details of impeller

Casing
Casing collects fluid from impeller in an efficient way. The casing has got a special shape, with area of cross section increases from
inlet to outlet. As the impeller ejects fluid throughout casing, along length of casing mass flow rate increases. But, increasing area of
casing helps in maintaining almost same velocity. Thus volute shaped casing helps in converting dynamic part of fluid energy to static
part.

Construction Details of Casing


Casing is made on 2 volute curves, which are at offset. A three dimensional volute is made from this curves. A portion is removed
from volute shape, in order to accommodate the impeller in it. A discharge nozzle is fit at exit portion of the casing, most of the
time discharge nozzle is diverging in shape. The steps followed are shown in following figure.

Fig.4 Construction details of volute casing

Use of Diffuser blades


For centrifugal pumps of small capacity as we discussed, impeller and casing are its main components. But for larger centrifugal
pumps, there will be additional diffuser blades also present, in order to reduce velocity further. Or they aid in dynamic to static
energy conversion.

Page 14 of 32

Fig.5 Use of diffuser blades in large capacity centrifugal pumps

Energy Head Rise


Blade and fluid velocities at inlet and outlet are shown in the figure below.

Fig.6 Flow and Blade velocities at inlet and outlet of impeller

Here you can see fluid velocity increases from inlet to outlet due to energy addition to fluid. The work required for changing inlet
velocity condition to outlet is given by following equation.
Details of such turbomachinery analysis will be discussed in a separate article. Here Q is the flow rate and Vthetarepresents
tangential velocity component of flow.From here we can find whats the head rise in meters of fluid. Please note that this is energy
head rise. It comprises of both pressure head and velocity head.

For a centrifugal pump, inlet velocity will be parallel to radius. So tangential component of velocity at inlet is zero.
Outlet blade angle beta can be derived in terms of velocities.

Page 15 of 32

Also flow rate through impeller is given as flow area times radial velocity.
So head rise in a centrifugal pump, can be derived in terms of flow rate.

Using this equation we can predict whats the head rise, as we change the flow rate for particular pump geometry and for a
particular impeller angular velocity. Most important parameter in this equation is, blade outlet angle, beta. There can be 3 different
pump characteristics depending upon value of this angle.

Backward Curved Blades


First case, if beta is less than 90 degree. Since second term in LHS of head vs flow equation is positive in this case, pressure head
decreases with increase in flow. These kinds of impellers are called backward curved.

Fig.7 Head vs Flow rate curve for a bacward curved blade impeller

Radial Blades
If beta is 90 degree, with flow rate there is no change in pressure rise. Because second term in LHS of head vs flow equation is zero
here. They are called Radial type.

Fig.8 Head vs Flow rate curve for a radial blade impeller

Forward Curved Blades


If beta is more than 90 degree, pressure increases with increase in flow rate. Such blades are called forward curved blades.

Page 16 of 32

Fig.9 Head vs Flow rate curve for a forward curved blade impeller

Most Suited Blade for Industrial Use


The big question is that out of these blade profiles, which one is the most suited for industrial use ?. To get answer for this question
lets see how power consumption varies with discharge for each of these cases. For backward curved blades as energy head
decreases with discharge power consumption stabilizes with flow. In radial blades since head does not have any connection with flow
rate, power consumption increases linearly. In forward curved blades since energy head increases with flow power consumption
increases exponentially.This will make the operation unstable and will eventually lead to burnout of motor.

Fig.9 Power consumption in different blade geometries

So backward curved blades which has got self stabilizing characteristics in power consumption is the most preferred one in industry.

Working of Centrifugal Pumps


||
Centrifugal pumps are the most preferred hydraulic pumps used in domestic and industrial world. In this video we will
have a conceptual overview of the working of centrifugal pumps.

Impeller - The Heart of Centrifugal Pumps


Centrifugal pumps are used to induce flow or raise pressure of a liquid. Its working is simple. At the heart of the system lies impeller.
It has a series of curved vanes fitted inside the shroud plates. The impeller is always immersed in the water. When the impeller is
made to rotate, it makes the fluid surrounding it also rotate. This imparts centrifugal force to the water particles, and water moves
radially out. In Fig.1 this process is illustrated.

Page 17 of 32

Fig.1 The rotating impeller imparts a centrifugal force to the water particles and the water moves radially out

Since the rotational mechanical energy is transferred to the fluid, at the discharge side of the impeller, both the pressure and kinetic
energy of the water will rise. At the suction side, water is getting displaced, so a negative pressure will be induced at the eye. Such
a low pressure helps to suck fresh water stream into the system again, and this process continues.

Fig.2 Negative pressure created by displacement of water from the eye helps to suckfresh stream of water

From foregoing discussions it is clear that, the negative pressure at the eye of the impeller helps to maintain the flow in the system.
If no water is present initially, the negative pressure developed by the rotating air, at the eye will be negligibly small to suck fresh
stream of water. As a result the impeller will rotate without sucking and discharging any water content. So the pump should be
initially filled with water before starting it. This process is known as priming.
The impeller is fitted inside a casing. As a result the water moves out will be collected inside it, and will move in the same direction
of rotation of the impeller, to the discharge nozzle.This is shown in the Fig.3.

Page 18 of 32

Fig.3 Water which leaves the impeller gets collected inside the casing, flow direction is also marked

Use of the Casing


From the illustrations of the pump so far, one speciality of the casing is clear. It has an increasing area along the flow direction. Such
increasing area will help to accommodate newly added water stream, and will also help to reduce the exit flow velocity. Reduction
in the flow velocity will result in increase in the static pressure, which is required to overcome the resistance of pumping system.

Impeller Design
As we have discussed earlier impeller is the most vital part of a centrifugal pump. Successful impellers have been developed with
many years of analysis and developmental work. Fig.4 shows one of such impeller with its one shroud plate removed for better view
of vanes.

These vanes are backward curved. Backward curved vanes have the blade angle less than 90 degree. Backward curved vanes are the
most preferred vane type in the industry due to its self stabilizing power consumption characteristics. This means with increase in
flow rate power consumption of the pump stabilizes after a limit. Forward and radial blades are less common in the industry. The
eye configuration of the impeller shown is state of the art. This vane is extracted from a Kirloskar pump model. Such projecting eye
section induces better swirl of flow and guarantees high negative pressure at the suction.

Fig.4 More details of vanes inside the impeller

NPSH - Overcoming the problem of Cavitation


If pressure at the suction side of impeller goes below vapor pressure of the water, a dangerous phenomenon could happen. Water will
start to boil forming vapor bubbles. These bubbles will move along with the flow and will break in a high pressure region. Upon

Page 19 of 32

breaking the bubbles will send high impulsive shock waves and spoil impeller material overtime. This phenomenon is known as
cavitation. More the suction head, lesser should be the pressure at suction side to lift the water. This fact puts a limit to the
maximum suction head a pump can have.

Fig.5 Low pressure at the suction side can cause cavitation; More the suction head,lesser is the suction pressure required

However Cavitation can be completely avoided by careful pump selection. The term NPSH (Net Positive Suction Head) helps the
designer to choose the right pump which will completely avoid Cavitation. NPSH is defined as follows.

Where Pv is
V is

speed

vapor

of

pressure
water

at

of

suction

water
side

For a given pumping system it will have an NPSH called 'Available NPSH'. Pump manufacturer will specify the minimum NPSH required
for each pump for its safe operation, known as 'Required NPSH'. If the pump needs to work without Cavitation the 'Available
NPSH' should be greater than 'Required NPSH'.

Types of Impeller
The impeller type we have used for the discussion so far is called as an enclosed type. Here vanes are closed from both the ends with
shroud plates. Other types of impeller which are used in industry are Semi open and open impellers. If the working fluid is cloggy in
nature it is preferred to use an open kind of impeller. But they are slightly less efficient.

Fig.6 Kind of impellers used in centrifugal pumps : Enclosed, Semi-Open and Open

Mechanical Design Aspects


Page 20 of 32

The mechanical design of centrifugal pump is always challenging. A shaft is used to connect between the impeller and motor. Since
water pressure inside the casing is huge, a proper sealing arrangement is imperative in arresting the water leakage through the shaft
casing clearance. Mechanical seal or stuffing box based mechanism is used for this purpose.

Fig.7 In this figure gland sealing is provided in order to arrest the water leakage

Impeller is mounted on the bearings. But at the suction side of impeller it is not advisable to fit a bearing, since it will block the
flow. As a result the bearings have to be fitted at the other end. This means impeller is mounted like a cantilever. For high flow rate
pumps, a bearing housing with cooling oil is necessary for improving the life of the bearings.

Fig.8 Both the bearings of the pump are fitted in the same side; A proper cooling arrangement improves life of such bearings

Centrifugal Pumps | Design Aspects


||
In this lecture, we will learn design aspects of centrifugal pumps. More precisely we will learn how to select a
centrifugal pump and motor for pumping fluid at a specified rate, for a given system.

Energy Loss in Pump Head Reduction


Energy head developed by backward curved pump decreases linearly with flow. But this is theoretically maximum energy head
possible. Obtained assuming whole shaft power input got transformed to fluid energy. This is true, only for ideal cases. In practice,
there will be lots of energy losses associated with pump flow.

Page 21 of 32

Frictional Loss
One of the main energy loss is due to effect of friction in the flow. This loss increases quadratically with velocity. A similar loss
occurs when there is sudden expansion or contraction.

Fig.1 Vortices generated due to sudden contractio or sudden expansion of flow

Magnitude of this is also proportional to velocity square. So head curve will come down as shown in figure.

Fig.2 Energy loss due to friction and flow area change and corresponding drop in pump head curve

This is the reason why we always try to transform dynamic part of fluid energy to static part in a centrifugal pump.

Recirculation Loss
Next is due to recirculation effect in the flow. When flow is below the designed flow rate, recirculation losses become predominant
as shown in figure. When pump operates at its designed flow rate recirculation loss is almost zero.

Page 22 of 32

Fig.3 Phenomenon of flow circulation and corresponding head drop

Incidence Loss
If there is a difference in blade angle and flow angle, it will cause further loss. Here energy loss happens due to flow impingement
and recirculation effect. This is again prominent in off design flow conditions. So it tends to have higher losses as we move away
from designed flow rate point.

Fig.4 Flow incidence and corresponding head loss

Energy losses we have discussed so far, which reduce head of the flow is known as hydraulic losses.

Pump Performance Curve


The effective head verses flow rate curve is shown in Fig. 5(a).

Page 23 of 32

Fig.5 Typical pump performance curves

The shape could be as in Fig. 5(b) depending upon pump parameters. Such curves are known as pump performance curves. Please
note that it is quite difficult to determine pump performance curve theoretically, rather they are determined experimentally.

Pressure Rise across the Pump


Using pump performance curve one can easily predict what is the pressure rise across the pump, by applying energy equation across
it.

Fig.6 Pressure rise across the pump due to energy addition to it

Where value of h is determined from pump performance curve for corresponding flow rate.

Power Gained by Fluid


Power gained by fluid will be lower than the power supplied.

Page 24 of 32

Fig.7 Power input to pump and power gained by the fluid

One main factor is hydraulic loss as we discussed. Other factors are volumetric loss and mechanical loss. So efficiency of a pump can
be defined as power gained by fluid by power supplied to the pump.

For a typical centrifugal pump, efficiency will vary as shown in figure.

Fig.8 Change in efficiency and pump shaft power input with flow rate

Corresponding shaft power variation is also shown. You can note that, there is an operating point in pump, where efficiency is
maximum. It is known as best efficiency point. Corresponding point is marked on head and shaft power input curves.

Impeller Selection
For a particular casing we could fit different sized impellers in it. Performance curves of different sized impellers are shown on same
graph. Best efficiency points are also marked.

Page 25 of 32

Fig.9 Different pump performance curves as we chnge size of impeller

So back to the basic question, how to select a centrifugal pump for this application. Main condition is that fluid should be pumped at
a particular flow rate to a specified height.

Fig.10 The fluid pumping problem, where we have to pump fluid at a specified flow rate for a given system

Performance characteristic of the system is given in a system curve. That means how pressure drop varies in system with flow rate.
Depending upon minor losses, major losses and altitude of network it would vary as shown in figure below. Please note that system
curve will change drastically depending upon valve opening. Assume following is the one system curve at a particular valve opening.
Required flow rate is also marked.

Page 26 of 32

Fig.11 System curve of the piping network

The operating point of pump will be intersection point of system curve and pump performance curve.

Fig.12 Different pump operating points possible depending upon selectio of impeller

So depending upon selection of impeller the pump could operate anywhere at dotted points. But we have requirement, a
requirement of specified flow rate. Out of these operating points the blue one is most near to the required flow rate. So we will
select corresponding impeller. In the same graph we can represent iso-efficiency curves.

Page 27 of 32

Fig.13 From iso-efficieny curves we can determine efficiency of pump at operating condition

So efficiency at the operating condition also can be determined. The required shaft power can be calculated, using following
equation.

Knowledge of power input requirement will lead to proper electric motor selection.

Problem of Cavitation
This pump will operate well if it can overcome one more problem, problem of cavitation. We will learn how to design against
cavitation in a separate article.

Page 28 of 32

Working of Steam Turbine


||
Steam turbines are heart of power plant, they are the devices which transform thermal energy in fluid to mechanical
energy. In this video lecture working of steam turbine is explained in a logical manner.

Energy Absorption from fluid - Role of Rotor


Blades
When high energy fluid (high pressure and high temperature) passes through series of rotor blades, it absorbs energy from fluid and
starts rotating, thus it transforms thermal energy in fluid to mechanical energy.

Fig.1 Rotating blades of turbine helps in transforming thermal in fluid to mechanical energy

So series of such blade which eventually transform thermal energy are the most vital part of a steam turbine. One of such rotor set is
shown in figure below.

Page 29 of 32

Fig.2 A typical steam turbine rotor

If you take a close look at one of the blade, it would be clear that a blade is a collection of airfoil cross sections from bottom to top.
When flow passes through such airfoils it induces a low pressure on bottom surface and high pressure on top surface of airfoil as
shown in figure below.

Fig.3 Fluid flow around airfoil cross sectioned blade induces a high pressure (P) and low pressure(P) on blade surfaces

This pressure difference will induce a resultant force in upward direction, thus making the blade rotate. So some part of fluid energy
will get transformed to mechanical energy of blade. Before analyzing energy transfer from fluid to blade, we will have a close look
at energy associated with a fluid.

Energy Associated with a Fluid


A flowing fluid can have 3 components of energy components

Kinetic energy - Virtue of its velocity


Pressure Energy - Virtue of its pressure
Internal Energy - Virtue of its temperature

Page 30 of 32

Last 2 components of energy together known as enthalpy. So total energy in a fluid can be represented as sum of kinetic energy and
enthalpy.

Energy Transfer to Rotors


When fluid passes through rotor blades it loses some amount of energy to the rotor blades. Due to this both kinetic and enthalpy
energy of fluid come down for a typical rotor. As kinetic energy comes down velocity of flow decreases. If we directly pass this
stream to next stage of rotor blades it will not transfer much energy because of low velocity of flow stream. So before passing the
stream to next rotor stage we have to increase the velocity first. This is achieved with use of a set of stationary nozzle blades, also
known as stator. When fluid passes through stator blades velocity of fluid increase due to its special shape thus one part of enthalpy
energy will get converted into kinetic energy. Thus enthalpy of stream reduces and kinetic energy of stream increase. It is to be
noted that here there is no energy addition or removal from flow, what happens here is conversion of enthaply energy into kinetic
energy. Now this steam of fluid can be passed to next rotor blades and process can be repeated. Velocity and enthalpy variation of
flow is shown in following figure.

Fig.4 Velocity and enthalpy variations across rotor and stator stages of a typical steam turbine

Degree of Energy Transfer


Total energy transfer to the rotor blade is sum of decrease in kinetic energy and decrease in enthalpy. Degree of contribution of each
term is an important parameter in axial flow machines. This is represented by a term called of degree of reaction, which is defined
as

Where both enthalpy change and kinetic energy changes are defined across the rotor blade.

0 % Reaction - Impulse Turbines


When D.O.R = 0 there will not be any enthalpy change across the rotor, such a turbine is known as impulse turbine. Blades of such a
turbine would like as shown below.

Page 31 of 32

Fig.5 A typical impulse turbine rotor cross section and flow pattern

Here incoming flow stream hits the blade and produces and impulse force on it. Since enthalpy across the blade does not change
temperature will also remain same. There will be minor pressure drop across the rotor, but this is almost negligible. Here energy
transfer to the blade is purely due to decrease in kinetic energy of fluid.

100 % Reaction Turbines


When D.O.R = 1 kinetic energy change across the rotor will be zero, energy transfer will be purely due to decrease in enthalpy. Since
kinetic energy is same across the rotor absolute value of velocities remain same. This is shown in figure below.

Fig.6 A typical reaction turbine rotor cross section and flow pattern

Usually people use compromise of above two discussed cases, that is 50% D.O.R . Such turbines are known as Parson turbines, where
both kinetic and enthalpy energy transfer contribute equally to power transfer to rotor.

Page 32 of 32

You might also like