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Francis turbines are the most preferred hydraulic turbines. They are the most reliable workhorse of hydroelectric power stations. It contributes about 60 percentage
of the global hydropower capacity, mainly because it can work efficiently under a wide range of operating conditions. This video is aimed at giving a conceptual
overview of working of Francis turbine.
Water head and flow rate are the most vital input parameters that govern performance of a hydraulic turbine. But these parameters
are subjected to seasonal variation in a hydroelectric power station. Francis turbine is capable of delivering high efficiency even if
there is a huge variation in these flow parameters. Following are the head and flow rate under which Francis turbine is preferred to
operate.
Head = 45-400 m
Flow rate = 10-700 m^3/s
In this article we will understand working of Francis turbine and will also realize why it is capable to work under varying flow
conditions.
In runner water enters radially, and leaves axially. During the course of flow, water glides over runner blades as shown in figure
below.
Blades of Francis turbine are specially shaped. One such blade is shown in Fig.2. It is clear from the figure that shape of blade crosssection is of thin airfoils. So when water flows over it, a low pressure will be induced on one side, and high pressure on the other
side. This will result in a lift force.
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Fig.3 Airfoil cross section shape of Francis blades & production of reaction force
You can also note one more peculiar thing about the blade. It is having a bucket kind of shape towards the outlet. So water will hit,
and produce an impulse force before leaving the runner. Both impulse force and lift force will make the runner rotate.
Fig.4 Francis turbine derive energy from combined action of reaction and impulse force
So Francis turbine is not a pure reaction turbine, a portion of force comes from impulse action also. Thus as water flows over runner
blades both its kinetic and pressure energy will come down. Since flow is entering radially and leaves axially, they are also called
mixed flow turbine. Runner is connected to generator, via a shaft, for electricity production.
Fig.5 Spiral casing makes sure that flow is entered uniformly along the periphery of runner
Stay vanes and guide vanes are fitted at entrance of runner. The basic purpose of them is to convert one part of pressure energy into
kinetic energy.
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Flow which is coming from the casing, meets stay vanes, they are fixed. Stay vanes steers the flow towards the runner section. Thus
it reduces swirl of inlet flow.
Fig.7 First figure shows guide vanes in closed position; In 2nd figure guide vanes in open position
Apart from controlling flow rate guide vanes also control flow angle to inlet portion of runner blade. Thus guide vanes make sure
that inlet flow angle is at optimum angle of attack for maximum power extraction from fluid.
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in
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Kaplan turbines derive motive force from pure reaction. They work efficiently when there is a huge water flow
available. Working and design principles of Kaplan turbine are discussed elaborately in this video lecture.
Head = 2-25 m
Flow rate = 70-800 m^3/s
Fig.1 Kaplan turbines are efficient in power production when there is huge flow available
Which means they are suitable for operation when water is stored in a big reservoir at a relatively shallow altitude. Owing to the
fact that Kaplan turbines handles huge flow rate, Kaplan turbines come in really huge size. They are the biggest among hydro
electric turbines.
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Fig.3 Force developed on runner blades due to airfoil effect is the driving force of Kaplan turbine
So it is clear that in Kaplan force is derived due to pure reaction force of flowing water. Due to this reason water absolute velocity
across the blade will remain same, but there will be a huge drop in pressure.
There will be efficient production of reaction force when flow rate is high. This is the reason why Kaplan turbines perform well
under huge flow rate.
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Fig.5 Governing mechanism to control flow: In first case flow is maximum, in second case flow is minimum
Even though absolute velocity is axial, relative velocity will be inclined depending upon blade velocity. Inclination of relative
velocity increases as we move from root to tip due to increasing blade velocity. This variation is shown in figure below.
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Fig.6 Continuous twist is given to the blade from root to tip to make sure that angle of attack is optimum under all cross-sections
So there should be continuous twist in blade from root to tip. Such twist will make sure at every cross section the angle of attack is
optimum.
Fig.7 Pitching action of blades: First figure is for high flow rate case Second figure is of low flow rate case
In short pitching action of blade make sure that blade is still in optimum angle of attack even under varying flow.
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Such a flow would reduce performance of turbine drastically due to its poor angle of attack. So guide vanes control swirl of flow by
making the flow more radial and makes sure that flow is still under optimum angle of attack.
But damage due to cavitation can be reduced by using suitable blade material. ASTM A487 Stainless steel is one of the commonly
used blade material to prevent it from cavitation. Use of anti-cavitation fin is another technique. Draft tube which transforms
dynamic pressure to static pressure due to its increasing area also helps in reducing cavitations effect.
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Fig.1 Pelton wheel derives rotation from impulse force produced by the water jet
In short, Pelton turbine transforms kinetic energy of water jet to rotational energy.
Fig.2 Water flow rate control in Pelton wheel by monitoring position of spear head
So in Pelton turbine synchronization between power demand and power supply is met by controlling the water flow rate. The same
technique is used in other types hydroelectric turbines. If the power supply is more than the demand, then the turbine will run over
speed otherwise in under speed. But such a governing mechanism in turn will balance the power supply and demand and will make
sure that the turbine rotates at a constant specified RPM. This speed should also conforms to the power supply frequency. So this
mechanism acts as a speed governing mechanism of Pelton wheel.
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Water jet is split into 2 equal components with help of a splitter. The special shape of bucket makes the jet turn almost 180 degree.
This produces an impulsive force on bucket. Force so produced can easily be derived from Newtons 2nd law of motion. Blade outlet
angle close to 180 degree is usually used in order to maximize impulsive force.
A cut is provided on bottom portion of buckets. This makes sure that water jet will not get interfered by other incoming buckets.
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So it is clear that Pelton turbine gains mechanical energy purely due to change in kinetic energy of jet, not due to pressure energy
change. Which means Pelton turbine is a pure impulse machine.
Impulse force produced by water jet is high when jet is having high velocity. Water stored at high altitude can easily produce high jet
velocity. This is the reason why Pelton turbine is most suitable for operation, when water is stored at high altitude.
You can easily understand why there is a nozzle fitted at water jet injection portion. Nozzle will increase velocity of jet further, thus
will aid in effective production of impulse force.
So power extraction is maximum when product of impulsive force and bucket velocity is maximum. Let's consider 2 different
operating conditions.
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Fig.6 Relative magnitude of bucket and jet velocity is important in power extraction from fluid
In short, power extraction is zero both at zero bucket speed and when bucket speed is same as jet speed. So with respect to jet to
bucket speed ratio, power extraction will vary with as shown below.
Fig.7 This graph shows how power extraction from fluid varies with respect to bucket to jet velocity ratio
It is clear from the above graph that optimum power extraction happens in between. It can be shown using Euler's turbo machinery
equation that maximum power extraction happens when bucket speed is half the jet velocity. So it is always desirable to operate
Pelton wheel at this condition. Pelton turbines can give efficiency as high as 90 %, at optimum working conditions.
Centrifugal Pump
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Centrifugal pumps are the most commonly used turbo machinery devices. They are used to raise the pressure or
induce flow in a control volume. Centrifugal pumps are radial flow devices. Various kinds of centrifugal pumps are
available in the market with different construction details. But working principle behind all of them remain same. In this
video we will analyze, working principle of a centrifugal pump with single suction, semi open impeller.
One of such pump (single suction, semi-open) is shown in figure below, with one part of its casing removed for ease of
understanding.
Fig.1 Single suction, semi open centrifugal pump with one portion of casing removed
Working of centrifugal pump is simple; as the impeller rotates it creates very low pressure at inlet of the impeller, called as eye of
impeller. This low pressure helps in sucking fluid surrounding in. The fluid is pushed radially along the impeller to the casing. Casing
collects the fluid , and it is pumped out through discharge nozzle.These processes are shown schematically in following figure. We
will go through main components of a centrifugal pump in a detailed way.
Impeller
Impeller is the device which rotates, and transfer energy to fluid. It has got collection of vanes fitted to a hub plate. Shape and
geometry of impeller blades are critical in pump performance.
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Casing
Casing collects fluid from impeller in an efficient way. The casing has got a special shape, with area of cross section increases from
inlet to outlet. As the impeller ejects fluid throughout casing, along length of casing mass flow rate increases. But, increasing area of
casing helps in maintaining almost same velocity. Thus volute shaped casing helps in converting dynamic part of fluid energy to static
part.
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Here you can see fluid velocity increases from inlet to outlet due to energy addition to fluid. The work required for changing inlet
velocity condition to outlet is given by following equation.
Details of such turbomachinery analysis will be discussed in a separate article. Here Q is the flow rate and Vthetarepresents
tangential velocity component of flow.From here we can find whats the head rise in meters of fluid. Please note that this is energy
head rise. It comprises of both pressure head and velocity head.
For a centrifugal pump, inlet velocity will be parallel to radius. So tangential component of velocity at inlet is zero.
Outlet blade angle beta can be derived in terms of velocities.
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Also flow rate through impeller is given as flow area times radial velocity.
So head rise in a centrifugal pump, can be derived in terms of flow rate.
Using this equation we can predict whats the head rise, as we change the flow rate for particular pump geometry and for a
particular impeller angular velocity. Most important parameter in this equation is, blade outlet angle, beta. There can be 3 different
pump characteristics depending upon value of this angle.
Fig.7 Head vs Flow rate curve for a bacward curved blade impeller
Radial Blades
If beta is 90 degree, with flow rate there is no change in pressure rise. Because second term in LHS of head vs flow equation is zero
here. They are called Radial type.
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Fig.9 Head vs Flow rate curve for a forward curved blade impeller
So backward curved blades which has got self stabilizing characteristics in power consumption is the most preferred one in industry.
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Fig.1 The rotating impeller imparts a centrifugal force to the water particles and the water moves radially out
Since the rotational mechanical energy is transferred to the fluid, at the discharge side of the impeller, both the pressure and kinetic
energy of the water will rise. At the suction side, water is getting displaced, so a negative pressure will be induced at the eye. Such
a low pressure helps to suck fresh water stream into the system again, and this process continues.
Fig.2 Negative pressure created by displacement of water from the eye helps to suckfresh stream of water
From foregoing discussions it is clear that, the negative pressure at the eye of the impeller helps to maintain the flow in the system.
If no water is present initially, the negative pressure developed by the rotating air, at the eye will be negligibly small to suck fresh
stream of water. As a result the impeller will rotate without sucking and discharging any water content. So the pump should be
initially filled with water before starting it. This process is known as priming.
The impeller is fitted inside a casing. As a result the water moves out will be collected inside it, and will move in the same direction
of rotation of the impeller, to the discharge nozzle.This is shown in the Fig.3.
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Fig.3 Water which leaves the impeller gets collected inside the casing, flow direction is also marked
Impeller Design
As we have discussed earlier impeller is the most vital part of a centrifugal pump. Successful impellers have been developed with
many years of analysis and developmental work. Fig.4 shows one of such impeller with its one shroud plate removed for better view
of vanes.
These vanes are backward curved. Backward curved vanes have the blade angle less than 90 degree. Backward curved vanes are the
most preferred vane type in the industry due to its self stabilizing power consumption characteristics. This means with increase in
flow rate power consumption of the pump stabilizes after a limit. Forward and radial blades are less common in the industry. The
eye configuration of the impeller shown is state of the art. This vane is extracted from a Kirloskar pump model. Such projecting eye
section induces better swirl of flow and guarantees high negative pressure at the suction.
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breaking the bubbles will send high impulsive shock waves and spoil impeller material overtime. This phenomenon is known as
cavitation. More the suction head, lesser should be the pressure at suction side to lift the water. This fact puts a limit to the
maximum suction head a pump can have.
Fig.5 Low pressure at the suction side can cause cavitation; More the suction head,lesser is the suction pressure required
However Cavitation can be completely avoided by careful pump selection. The term NPSH (Net Positive Suction Head) helps the
designer to choose the right pump which will completely avoid Cavitation. NPSH is defined as follows.
Where Pv is
V is
speed
vapor
of
pressure
water
at
of
suction
water
side
For a given pumping system it will have an NPSH called 'Available NPSH'. Pump manufacturer will specify the minimum NPSH required
for each pump for its safe operation, known as 'Required NPSH'. If the pump needs to work without Cavitation the 'Available
NPSH' should be greater than 'Required NPSH'.
Types of Impeller
The impeller type we have used for the discussion so far is called as an enclosed type. Here vanes are closed from both the ends with
shroud plates. Other types of impeller which are used in industry are Semi open and open impellers. If the working fluid is cloggy in
nature it is preferred to use an open kind of impeller. But they are slightly less efficient.
Fig.6 Kind of impellers used in centrifugal pumps : Enclosed, Semi-Open and Open
The mechanical design of centrifugal pump is always challenging. A shaft is used to connect between the impeller and motor. Since
water pressure inside the casing is huge, a proper sealing arrangement is imperative in arresting the water leakage through the shaft
casing clearance. Mechanical seal or stuffing box based mechanism is used for this purpose.
Fig.7 In this figure gland sealing is provided in order to arrest the water leakage
Impeller is mounted on the bearings. But at the suction side of impeller it is not advisable to fit a bearing, since it will block the
flow. As a result the bearings have to be fitted at the other end. This means impeller is mounted like a cantilever. For high flow rate
pumps, a bearing housing with cooling oil is necessary for improving the life of the bearings.
Fig.8 Both the bearings of the pump are fitted in the same side; A proper cooling arrangement improves life of such bearings
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Frictional Loss
One of the main energy loss is due to effect of friction in the flow. This loss increases quadratically with velocity. A similar loss
occurs when there is sudden expansion or contraction.
Magnitude of this is also proportional to velocity square. So head curve will come down as shown in figure.
Fig.2 Energy loss due to friction and flow area change and corresponding drop in pump head curve
This is the reason why we always try to transform dynamic part of fluid energy to static part in a centrifugal pump.
Recirculation Loss
Next is due to recirculation effect in the flow. When flow is below the designed flow rate, recirculation losses become predominant
as shown in figure. When pump operates at its designed flow rate recirculation loss is almost zero.
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Incidence Loss
If there is a difference in blade angle and flow angle, it will cause further loss. Here energy loss happens due to flow impingement
and recirculation effect. This is again prominent in off design flow conditions. So it tends to have higher losses as we move away
from designed flow rate point.
Energy losses we have discussed so far, which reduce head of the flow is known as hydraulic losses.
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The shape could be as in Fig. 5(b) depending upon pump parameters. Such curves are known as pump performance curves. Please
note that it is quite difficult to determine pump performance curve theoretically, rather they are determined experimentally.
Where value of h is determined from pump performance curve for corresponding flow rate.
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One main factor is hydraulic loss as we discussed. Other factors are volumetric loss and mechanical loss. So efficiency of a pump can
be defined as power gained by fluid by power supplied to the pump.
Fig.8 Change in efficiency and pump shaft power input with flow rate
Corresponding shaft power variation is also shown. You can note that, there is an operating point in pump, where efficiency is
maximum. It is known as best efficiency point. Corresponding point is marked on head and shaft power input curves.
Impeller Selection
For a particular casing we could fit different sized impellers in it. Performance curves of different sized impellers are shown on same
graph. Best efficiency points are also marked.
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So back to the basic question, how to select a centrifugal pump for this application. Main condition is that fluid should be pumped at
a particular flow rate to a specified height.
Fig.10 The fluid pumping problem, where we have to pump fluid at a specified flow rate for a given system
Performance characteristic of the system is given in a system curve. That means how pressure drop varies in system with flow rate.
Depending upon minor losses, major losses and altitude of network it would vary as shown in figure below. Please note that system
curve will change drastically depending upon valve opening. Assume following is the one system curve at a particular valve opening.
Required flow rate is also marked.
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The operating point of pump will be intersection point of system curve and pump performance curve.
Fig.12 Different pump operating points possible depending upon selectio of impeller
So depending upon selection of impeller the pump could operate anywhere at dotted points. But we have requirement, a
requirement of specified flow rate. Out of these operating points the blue one is most near to the required flow rate. So we will
select corresponding impeller. In the same graph we can represent iso-efficiency curves.
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Fig.13 From iso-efficieny curves we can determine efficiency of pump at operating condition
So efficiency at the operating condition also can be determined. The required shaft power can be calculated, using following
equation.
Knowledge of power input requirement will lead to proper electric motor selection.
Problem of Cavitation
This pump will operate well if it can overcome one more problem, problem of cavitation. We will learn how to design against
cavitation in a separate article.
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Fig.1 Rotating blades of turbine helps in transforming thermal in fluid to mechanical energy
So series of such blade which eventually transform thermal energy are the most vital part of a steam turbine. One of such rotor set is
shown in figure below.
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If you take a close look at one of the blade, it would be clear that a blade is a collection of airfoil cross sections from bottom to top.
When flow passes through such airfoils it induces a low pressure on bottom surface and high pressure on top surface of airfoil as
shown in figure below.
Fig.3 Fluid flow around airfoil cross sectioned blade induces a high pressure (P) and low pressure(P) on blade surfaces
This pressure difference will induce a resultant force in upward direction, thus making the blade rotate. So some part of fluid energy
will get transformed to mechanical energy of blade. Before analyzing energy transfer from fluid to blade, we will have a close look
at energy associated with a fluid.
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Last 2 components of energy together known as enthalpy. So total energy in a fluid can be represented as sum of kinetic energy and
enthalpy.
Fig.4 Velocity and enthalpy variations across rotor and stator stages of a typical steam turbine
Where both enthalpy change and kinetic energy changes are defined across the rotor blade.
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Fig.5 A typical impulse turbine rotor cross section and flow pattern
Here incoming flow stream hits the blade and produces and impulse force on it. Since enthalpy across the blade does not change
temperature will also remain same. There will be minor pressure drop across the rotor, but this is almost negligible. Here energy
transfer to the blade is purely due to decrease in kinetic energy of fluid.
Fig.6 A typical reaction turbine rotor cross section and flow pattern
Usually people use compromise of above two discussed cases, that is 50% D.O.R . Such turbines are known as Parson turbines, where
both kinetic and enthalpy energy transfer contribute equally to power transfer to rotor.
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