ADVANCED LEVEL GEOGRAPHY

NATURAL LANDSCAPE: Landform System

Topic 8: Drainage Basin System

(ii) The Slope Sub-system ()

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(A)

Definition:

There are few areas where the land surface is perfectly horizontal. The inclination of some
land surfaces with the horizontal is almost undetectable to the naked eye.
Slopes are vital part of our landscapes. Slope is an inclined being, and is the most
fundamental unit of the surface landscape. A remarkable feature of the land surface of the
earth is that it is largely made up of slopes. This is not only true of mountainous and hilly
regions but also of many plains , e.g. the Great Plains of the America West are not flat but
undulating' consisting of a series of gentle slope and valley floors.

However the slight the gradient the slope is, it is sometimes of a very complex nature.

Relatively few slopes are formed of bare rock. Most have a cover of weathered materials,
called regolith. The regolith includes both the soil and the weathered rock beneath it. When
rock is weathered, some is lost in solution, but much material passes into the regolith. So
the regolith is not static, its composition is being changed by continued weathering, and at
the same time, it is being carried down the slope by processes of transport.
Importance of slope study
It is the primary concern of geomorphologist but is also the least studied. The reason
for unconcern of slope are :
a. Many research worker prefer to study unique or well defined feature instead of
having to face the massive sampling which may involved in the study of slope.
However, with the progress made recently in the sampling techniques, the above
difficulties are solved.
b. Some of the hill slopes present difficult research problem because
their forms change either too slowly or too rapidly particularly as compared to the
work of the streams and rivers. For instance, in a rainstorm, landslides on the whole
slope can be completed in a second. Therefore, it is difficult to make direct
measurement of slope.

Importance:
It is a mean for controlling some hazardous slope processes (e.g.landslides) when man
modify the earth landscape.
For instance, landslides and rockfalls may creates risky site adjacent to
building. Therefore, the study of slopes is giving much attention.
(B) The concept of slope form, slope processes, and evolution.
(1) FORM "refers to the shape of the land surface which make up the slope, i.e.
slope profile.

Slope Profile:
= It is the shape of the slope viewed as a cross-section at right angle to the hillside.
= For analysis, it is divided into slope units. These are straight and curved parts.
= Straight parts are called rectilinear segments. It is characterized by a constant slope
angle.
= Curved parts are either Concave or Convex elements
= The maximum segment is the part which is steeper than the slope units above or
below it. Below the maximum segment is the concave slope and above it is
convex slope.
Diagram Drawing Convex segmentmaximum segmentconvex slope

= On simple slopes there is one sequence of convexity-maximum segmentconcavity. More complex slopes have more than one sequence.
= Free face : It is a steep or part of slope formed of bare rock.

Nearly, all slopes consist of a number of distinct parts :

>

- Each part called a segment

- Facet - a rectilinear segment
- Elements - those have a convex or concave profile.
- Free face (fall face) - when a facet is at an angle of more than 45 .

(2)"PROCESS" refers to the agents that are bringing about changes in slope form,
for example, the effect of rain.........
(3)"EVOLUTION": As a result of the action of processes, slope form changes in
the course of time. This changes, from past form to present
form, is the "evolution" of the slope.

(C). Time-dependence and Time-independence of Form.

a. Slopes are said to have time-dependence form because their forms depends on the
stage of evolution which they have reached. If a slope retains the same form at
successive stages which they have reached, it is said to have time-independence
form during the period of its evolution. Its length, steepness and shape remain the
same.

b. The extent to which slopes are time dependent or time independent is an important
question in geomorphology. The Davisian cycle of erosion emphasized the
time-dependent approach. Slopes were assumed to become progressively gentler from
youth through maturity to old stage.

c. On the other hand, it is a common fact of observations that particular

characteristics , neither the time-dependent nor time-independent approach offers a
complete a complete explanation of slope from. Each has a varying measure of truth
according to local circumstances.

(D). Factors affecting the stability of slope

1. Explanation:
The weathering process render particles of soil or rock ready for downslope
transportation. Whether or not these particles are actually moved implies the stability of
these particles.
It depends on the relative balance between the forces (stresses) which tends to induce
movement and the resistance (strength) which tends to prevent it.
Look at the following diagrams, insert stable slope or unstable slope in the
brackets provided.

Therefore, state the nature of the slope under the following conditions:
a. Stress >

Strength

: ________________

b. Stress <

Strength

: ________________

2. Where do the stresses and strength come from ?

Stresses: Gravity exerts a constant pull on all earth materials. Several other forces are
at work on them. As well as the direct action of gravity, there may also be an indirect
effect which operates through a transporting medium such as flowing water, raindrop
impact, wind or moving ice.
Strength: Weathered material on a slope would immediately slide down to the river
were it not for the fact that it posses a certain strength. This strength is due to a number
of material properties.
First, all particles have rough surfaces, which results in friction between touching
particles. Secondly, the shape of the particles may cause them to interlock rather as the
pieces of a jigsaw puzzle interlock.
Finally, the clay particles of the weathered material attract each other by electric forces
which produce cohesion between particles.
As a summery,
Stresses: ________________

Strength : _______________________

________________
_______________________
________________
_______________________
________________
_______________________
Slope instability, therefore, is caused by increase in stress / strength or decrease in
stress / strength of the slope-forming materials.
Discussion:
Factors leading to a decrease in strength (resistance) ?
1. Material factor:
~ it includes a host of bedrock features : in sedimentary rocks joints and bedding plane, in
schists foilation, cleavage, faults.
~ Materials may have low internal cohesion it doesnt hold together to well. Sand is an
obvious example but clays and organic matter exhibit the same properties.
~ Bedding planes may decrease in strength if the water content increases.
2. Weathering changes:
~ the reduction in effective cohesion and shearing resistance. As a result of weathering,
material may be more susceptible to movements on steep slope.

3. Increase in pore-water pressure:

~ The regolith, consists of rock particles, minerals and organic matter, contains pores.
After heavy rainfall, or as a result of human interference with drainage, the pores can be
filled with water and the increase in pore-water pressure can lead to a reduction in
shearing resistance.

Factors leading to a increase in stress (forces) ?

1. Transitory earth stress:
e.g. earthquakes, continual passing heavy traffic.
2. Increase disturbing force:
e.g. accumulation of talus, snow and water,
~ man-made pressure through the construction of embankments, dams or buildings. .
3. Removal of underlying or lateral support
~ This removal may be by natural erosional agents such as streams, waves or moving ice.
It may be the result of weathering of weaker strata at the toe of the slope.
~ In some case, the seepage of water through the regolith may remove or wash out the
materials resulting in less underlying and lateral support for the remaining material.
~ The bulldozer might also be responsible when making hillside cuts for roads or
buildings.
4.

Water:
Water can increase the actual weight of slope materials and thus increase stress.
It is important to realize that water rarely acts as a simple lubricant, erasing the
downslope movement as it were, in some situations it can actually increase friction
between particles.

(E). Types of Slope Transport Processes:

Most landforms result from 2 groups of processes, action of rivers and the slope
processes.
River erosion is confined to a relatively small area, the channel.
Surface processes include weathering and transport. Weathering breaks down the rock,
converting it into regolith.
The process of slope transport carry the weathered material to the base of the slopes,
it is usually carried away by rivers. For slope retreat to occur, there must be both
weathering and transport.
There is an important distinction between the rate of weathering and the rate at which
weathering can be removed by transport.
Types of Slopes Processes (Mass Movement)
The term Mass Movement: describes all downhill movements of weathered materials
(regolith), include soil, loose stones and rock, in response to gravity. However, it
excludes movements where material is carried by ice, river or wind.
When gravitational forces exceed forces of resistance, slope failure occurs and
materials starts to move downwards.

SLOW MOVEMENT
1.

Soil Creep

Soil creep is the gradual downslope movement of the regolith.

It is a slow process, too slow to be seen by eye, but affects the whole of a
slope.
Evidence for the existence of soil creep is provided by
~ telegraph pole tilted,
~ tension gashes in road,
~ fences broken
~ base of tree turned downslope
~ terracettes
~ Soil piled up behind wall forcing it to bulge and break
curved outward.

Soil creep occurs mainly in humid climate where there is a vegetation cover.

The main cause of soil creep is the expansion and contraction of the soil,
combined with the influence of gravity. This is called the
Heave mechanisms. When the soil increase in volume, the only direction in which
it can expand is perpendicular to the ground (slope) surfaces.
When it contracts, cracks or other voids form and the gravitational force tend to
cause a vertical downward movement. Thus each cycle of repeated expansion and
contraction produces a net downslope movement.
Expansion and contraction of the soil is caused by freezing and thawing. When
moist soil freezes, the water itself increase in volume. When the soil is wetted the

clay minerals absorbs water and expand.

Besides the heave mechanisms, another cause of soil creep is the movement of
individual soil particles. These are caused by the growth of roots, trampling of
animals and other disturbances. In every cases, gravity acts as a constant force
tending to give a net movement downslope.

Measurements of the rate of soil creep have shown that:

In humid temperate climates there is a downslope movement of about 1-2 mm a
year.
In rainforest zone, values up to 5 mm have been recorded.
Factors:
~ If the regolith is deep, soil creep movement becomes very much faster.
~ If the soil is moist and dry during the whole year, soil creep is faster.
~ Soil creep occur in all climates. In many cases, however, it is relatively
unimportant, as much more regolith material is transported by other processes.

FLOW MOVEMENT
Slope material with a high proportion of fine particles and water content are prone to
movements by flow. Flow was defined as movement of a mass by internal deformation
under its own weight.

2. Mud flow: ()
~ Mud flow are more rapid (10 km per hr.), less viscous and flow on much
steeper slopes.
~ They occur most commonly in areas with very sparse vegetation cover and
subject torrential downpour.
~
The exposed regolith rapidly becomes saturated and in effect becomes a
viscous-river
~
Mudflows in desert wadis have been reported up to 2m thick and moving
so fast that they had waves.
~

They have usually stopped on lower angle slopes where

from the base of. the flow into permeable regolith.

the water drains

3. Solifluction : ()
The word Solifluction literally means "soil flow" but the term is limited to soil
movement that takes place in cold climates (periglacial areas) where vegetation
cover is limited. In summer, the layer above the permafrost melts and becomes
mobile. This is called active layer. The soil water content is very high because the
permafrost prevents downward drainage of melt-water and also temperature are too
low for effective evaporation. Top soil will soon become saturated. Soil flow may
then occur in the active layer. These process produces Solifluction sheet or lobes
which can be 10-50m wide and up to 2m high in a series of step-like terraces down
the slope. In other word, where there is a permafrost layer, the regolith is
particularly likely to become saturated because water cannot drain away downwards.
Water content is thus important.
However, Solifluction is not confined to the tundras permafrost zone.
It can occur wherever there is sever winter freezing, including the
temperate zone.

4. Surface Wash:

It means the transport of soil by water flowing across the ground surface.
- There are two processes :

a. Rain splash :
- When raindrops hit bare regolith. Soil particles are detached. This produces
miniature craters.
- Raindrops in an intense storm have an immense amount of kinetic energy.
- Raindrops exert a considerable force when striking bare soil, detaching particles
and throwing them downslope.
On the flat ground, these particles merely change positions, but on a slope there is a
net downslope transfer since those particles splashed towards the lower part of the
slope have slightly longer trajectories than those which move upslope from the point
of impact.

In sheltered areas, where the rain does not often fall at the angle as it is blown by
the wind, large pebbles protect the soil beneath from the rain splash and an earth
pillar forms when the unprotected soil around the pebbles is splashed away.

b. Surface flow :
-

Surface flow can occur when:

(I) Rainfall intensity exceeds the rate of infiltration at' which the soil can
absorb water. The ground is saturated and the rain no longer percolates
into it.
(II)the water table rises (at the base of slopes) to the surface and thus the soil is
having absorbed all the water that it can.

The rate of transport by surface wash varies with:

= Slope angle - rate of surface flow increases with increasing angle.
= Distance from the crest - the volume of surface flow increases
downslope. Thus, for a given angle, wash becomes more powerful
towards the base of the slope.
=

Rainfall- amount and intensity.

= Vegetation cover - as a protection,
the effect of sheet flow is diminished drastically by the presence
of vegetation of the slope. It reduces the velocity of flow by
forming miniature dams and diversions. The soil surface is bound
together mechanically by roots and by the formation of humus
which, together with clay minerals, forms cohesive units of soil
particles.
The vegetation cover depends on climate:
e.g. humid temperate zone - wash is very ineffective because of
the low rainfall intensity and dense vegetation cover. Rates of
ground lowering as low as 0.01mm a year have been recorded.
e.g. Savannas - wash is more effective because grasses grow in
tufts leaving bare ground between them, so enhance surface wash
e.g. Semi-arid desert - wash reaches a high intensity (effective)
where rates of erosion as high as 5mm a year have been observed.

though rainstorms are infrequent they have a powerful erosive effect owning to
the sparse vegetation and high rainfall intensity.

Rapid Movements
5. landslides:
There are two kinds of landslides: slides and slump.
Landslides may be planar landslides (slides) or rotational landslides (slumping).

Slides:
Slides move "en masse" and are not affected by internal derangement.

Rocks which are jointed or having inclined bedding planes roughly

parallel to the angle of slope particular susceptible to slides.

In a planar slide, the weathered rock moves downhill leaving

behind it a flat rupture surface.
Slides affects both hard rocks and unconsolidated regolith.

Slumping:
-

In a slumping (rotational landslides), a curved slip plane

(rotational rupture surface) is produced. It occurs more likely in
areas with softer materials (clay or sand).

It occurs in weaker rocks than slides.

Characteristics :
1. Conditions favouring landslides occurrence are:
- Lithological weaker or unconsolidated rock, e.g.clay
- Structural - permeable beds overlying impermeable, dips
towards a slope.
- Topographical cliffs or steep slopes formed by basal
erosion.
- Hydrological -- conditions causing surface or subsurface
concentration of water, there is water
seepage within the rock or regolith.
- Climatic liability to high-intensity rainstorms
after the regolith has been saturated by exceptionally
heavy rainfall,
2. fast movement, localized and sporadic in their occurrence.
3. may occur at long intervals.

Very Rapid Movements

6. Rockfalls:
~ These are rapid debris movements on steepest bare rock slope which
exceeds 40.
~ They may result from extreme physical and chemical weathering in
mountains or earthquakes.
~ Falls usually occur on the steepest of 70-90, where the angle of
friction is greater exceeded, e.g. mountain slope and coastal cliff are
most common sites for rockfalls.
~ Mechanism: A number of processes are thought to be responsible for
actually triggering rock falls, including thermal or freezing expansion,
water pressure in pores or joints and chemical activity.
~ When the particles becomes detached, it moves down the slope
by a combination of falling. Rolling and bouncing until it reaches a point where the

slope angle is low enough to allow the particle to come to rest.

~ As a result, scree / talus is formed. Scree is an accumulation of rock
fragments at the foot of a slope. The rock fragments detached are usually
pebble sized or larger.

(G). FACTORS AFFECTING THE DEVELOPMENT OF SLOPE

Slope processes / development is the result of the interaction of
several factors.

(A) EXOGENETIC FACTORS:

Theses are those factors operating at or near the earth's surface. .

1. Effects of climate:
-

determines the types of slope processes e.g. soil creep, solifluction , landslides.

Temperature determines the rate and types of weathering, which provide

weathered materials for the slope processes.
e.g. increasing temperature increase chemical weathering,
increasing temperature range increase physical weathering

Rainfall determines the rates and types of weathering,

e.g. ~ increasing rainfall increase chemical weathering
~ affects the amount of surface runoff, freezing / frost
shattering, and so the nature of surface processes.

~ the soil moisture acts as lubrication effects within soil particles and also
weight-adding effects.
-

Climate (temperature and rainfall) also indirectly affect the extent of

vegetation cover and consequently the nature of weathering and surface
process.

2. Gravity:
Gravity is the principal force affecting slope processes.
We may consider it as acting vertically downslope from the
center of mass of any particles. It has two effects:
(i) to slide the particles down the slope,
(ii)to stick the particles to the slope
3. Changes in the base lever -- uplift
The land uplift (changes in the base level) can affect the slope form.

(B) ENDOGENETIC FACTORES:

These are factors reflecting conditions within the earth.

4. Nature of the underlying rock structure and lithology:

a. Slopes of homogeneous lithology:
~ tend to be rectilinear (quite flat and straight)

b. Slopes of heterogeneous lithology:

-- more resistant rock overlying a less resistant, the underlying less resistant is more
rapidly weathered and the regolith removed by surface wash or landslides. This
undercuts the more resistant rock above, producing a free face. (because. steep slope
cannot hold the regolith)
- therefore, there are frequent marked breaks of slopes. The steeper slopes being
associated with the more resistant rocks and gentler with the less resistant rock.
- where there are several rock types of different resistance outcropping on a slope, the
resulting form is a repeated succession of convexity-free-face-concavity slope form.

c. Presence of lines of weakness on a slope

-

faults, thrust planes, it means increased permeability leads to increased seepage of

water and hence deeper weathering front.

= = > Rock resistance is reduced and hence the slope there are likely to be gentle.

horizontally bedded sedimentary rocks tend to maintain steep slopes because of

their resistance and their lines of weakness lie horizontally and hence not affected
by erosion. On the contrary, tilted sedimentary rock strata give uneven profiles at
the outcropping sites.

d. Strength of rock:
e.g. Clay :
- low strength
-

subject to landslides at angles steeper than 10 .

therefore, rock made of clay has predominantly gentle slopes
sand can be stable at up to 35.

e. Permeability
-

for permeable rock, surface wash is less important.

4. Slope Stability:
(Regolith is able to resist downpull movement of gravity)
Slope stability depends on :
a. friction among the materials making up the weathered regolith.
this can be reduced by the presence of water which acts as a
lubricant
b. State of interlocking of the regolith materials :
-

coarse materials tend to be well interlocked among one another

because they have more surface area of contact, so they would give
steeper slopes.

accordingly, gravel, sand, silt and clay particles tend to show

increasingly smaller angles of rest.

The closest state of interlocking is found in materials of a variety of sizes.

Effects of vegetation cover
positive - binding effect of plant roots -e.g. in TRF, a close canopy can thus
increasing soil permeability and hence reduce runoff, reduce raindrop effect,
and promote regolith stability. It can check minor and sloe mass movement.

5. Degree of saturation of regolith with water

a. dry regolith :
unstable, because the materials are loose and may be subject to
wind deflation, falling by gravity.
b. unsaturated - stable, because a cohesive regolith has been
built up with the filling up of pores spaces by the swelling of
clay particles.

c. saturated - very unstable, because of the heavy weight of water

and lubrication by water.

(C) Vegetation /Animals / Human activities.

Vegetation:
The main effect of climate is achieved indirectly through its influence on vegetation.
The main effects of vegetation is the protection it gives the soil from surfaces wash
and rainsplash. Other effects are : the action of rocks in holding the regolith on the
slope, the contribution to chemical weathering by the products of organic acids and
the supply of organic matters which improves soil structures.

Animals:
- a very powerful source of downslope movement
- e.g. = trampling of animals
- grazing on a grassy slope, cattle or sheep disturb surface particles of
soil which are pushed downslope by their feet.
- large burrowing animals like rabbits may dig out earth and much
smaller one like mice, moles, worms and termites must also make a
big contribution to surface movement by construction their nest.
Therefore, large quantities of soil are transported to the
surface. The nest collapse after the abandonment and hollow will
then be filled with earth until the earth is once again leveled.

Human activities:
Increased slope stability by :
~ improving drainage,
~ construction of retaining walls,
~ afforestation,

Increased slope instability by :

~ road cutting or shaking action of heavy traffic.

~ removal of vegetation/ deforestation increase the rate of slope
movement.
~ construction of roads, quarrying, building and tunnels at the foot
of slopes upset the equilibrium.
~ the grazing of animals and ploughing lossen soil and remove
protective vegetation cover.

(H) Classification of Slope Segments

Slope segments can broadly be classified by 2 ways :
A. According to slope form
1. Waxing slope
- also called convex slope, upper wash slope
- on the highest segment or the top of a hill / slope where the
slope curves over to meet the vertical face below.
- here the main processes: surface wash, creep, subsurface soil
water
- the gradient is so slight that nearly all movement is through
the downward action of soil water. As the angle begins to
steepen on the edge, there is a large component of downslope
movement. With growing steepness, the speed of movement
increase and the slope becomes potentially unstable.

2. Mid / Backslope
- free face, also termed as gravity/derivation slope, since any
rock waste littering the lower slopes comes from this face.
- it is any outcrop of bare rock, e.g. scarp, bluff of cliff
- because of the steep gradient, rock-waste falls or rolls rapidly
under gravity. Therefore, it is too steep to allow any
accumulation of weathered materials. - Frequently the slope is
rectilinear in form.

3. Waning slope

"

- concave slope, lower wash slope

- stretches to the valley floor or other local base level .
- built of alluvial deposits of finer materials brought by
sheetflow, usually dissected by streams.

According to local variations, the slope segments may come in perfect

order, repeating some segments or absent in some.

B. According to Slope Processes:

Slope segments can also be classified according to the different processes working.
Such classification has been done in humid temperate slope in New Zealand,
suggested by Dalrymple in 1968.

The classification divides a slope into 9 units. Like slope form. some segments may
repeat or be absent, or even there may identify more units.

1. Convex slope (Unit 1 to 3)

- main processes : ____________________
a. Unit 1: (interfluve)
- water divide (watershed), 0-1
- nearly horizontal to slightly inclined convex surface
- gentle gradient, therefore subsurface water movement is
mainly vertical rather lateral.
- has grass or scrub cover

b. Unit 2: (seepage slope)

- seepage slope, 2-4
- relatively potentially unstable due to increase gradient
- water movement - mainly percolation subsurface water flow

c. Unit 3: (Convex creep slope)

- convex creep slope
- more potentially unstable due to even more steep gradient
- soil creeps takes place and terracettes are marked resulting
in a stepped outline.

2. Convex slope (Unit 1 to 3)

- main processes : _________________________
a. Unit 4: (free face)
- fall face greater than 45 and normally > 65.
- more or less cliffs and rocky scarps
- uneven surface of the slope due to slumping of
materials
- it is the slope element where rapid mass movement occurs.
b. Unit 5: (transportation midslope)
- 26 - 35.
- it is located at the base of free face,

constant slope

(rectilinear slope)
- coarse regolith covered with short grass
- bare soil or rock surfaces in isolated patches can be
found
- characterized with active surface and subsurface water
action, rills or gullies can also be identified.

3. Footslope (Unit 6 & 7) (Colluvial footslope & Alluvial toe-slope)

- Main processes: slow downslope processes because of
increasing slope stability, transportation of materials
downslope, solution of minerals in soil particles over
the whole slope.
a. Unit 6 - colluvial footslope
- it is located at the base of the transportational midslope and is characterized with collection of rock debris
originated from the upper slope.

b. Unit 7 - alluvial toe-slope,

- 0-4
- concave slope segment
- dissected by gullies and streams with alluvial
deposits
4. Channel Wall (Unit 8) and Channel Bed (Unit 9)
- main processes : _______________________________________

a. Unit 8 - channel wall, close to river valley

- deep rocky cliffs in many mountainous regions
without vegetation cover, where active lateral
fluvial erosion takes place.
- It is subject to slumping, falls and river corrasion

c. Unit 9 - Channel bed

- right at the valley where fluvial processes are very
active,
- often completely covered by river water
(depend on the volume of flow)
- in the upper course of river channel beds are

usually uneven, asymmetrical and gentle gradient

slopes.

(I). Slope Evolution (Slope Development)

As a result of various processes, slope form may change in the course of time. This
change from past to the present form, is the evolution of the slope.

If the weathering is faster, a regolith will form. It is then the rate at which regolith
material can be removed that limits the rate of slope retreat, and thus the slope is
usually referred to as transport-controlled slope.

On the other hand, on some part of the slope transport processes are potentially able to
remove material faster than it is produced by weathering, a free face will be formed.
The rate of weathering is then the limiting factor for the rate of slope retreat and thus
the slope is weathering-controlled slope.

The slope processes examined may be thought of as conveyor belt, transporting the
products of weathering on the initial part of their journey to the sea. The lower end of
the conveyor usually dumps its load into a stream channel and it is rapidly taken away.
If this does not happen, the conveyor grinds to a halt, debris accumulates and
weathering slows down as a protective mantle builds up.
Different processes should give rise to different slope forms. Over time, slopes should
develop towards predictable, equilibrium forms.

The volume of regolith passing through a slope segment in a given time interval
increases towards the base of the slope. Each successive downslope segment must

accommodate the input of the previous segment plus the products of-weathering
from that segment in order to keep angle and regolith thickness constant. In order to
achieve this, the transport rate on the slope must increase. This steady state with a
constant regolith thickness is known as a graded slope.
If the input exceeds the output, the volume of materials in store increase, and regolith
at the top of the segment thickens. The slope of surface then becomes steeper than the
bedrock slope. The causes an increase in the velocity of slope movement which tends
to lower the slope angle by transporting more materials to the bottom of the slop and
effectively restores the balance between input and output
When output is greater than the input, the volume in store falls, the regolith thins as
debris is moved away downslope and. if the process continues, eventually bedrocks
will be exposed.
The base of the slope usually 'output' debris into a stream channel or into the sea.
Both these agents are very effective in removing the debris faster than the slope can
supply it. This is termed unimpeded basal removal and It tends to accelerate slope
movements by removing resistance to downslope movement from the last segment
The effect is feed back up the slope from segment to segment eventually affecting the
whole profile.
Should the removal of debris from the slope be inadequate to keep up with the rate of
supply from the slope, the feedback will be to slow down the rate of movement as the
regolith accumulates at the bottom of the slope. This is the situation of impeded basal
removal.

Evolution is the change of form over time as brought about by the action of processes.
The evolution of slopes provides clues as to how the landscapes as a whole has
evolved.

The slope processes may be thought as transporting the weathering products on their
initial part to the sea. It usually dumps its load into a stream channel and it is rapidly
taken away. If this does not happen, the debris accumulates and the weathering slows
down as a protective mantle builds up.
3 models of slope evolution have been proposed and widely accepted.
1. Slope decline (W.M. Davis, 1899)
2. Slope replacement (W. Penck.1924)

3. Slope retreat (L.C.King, 1948)

- No single one of these is universally correct, not one of them is completely
appropriate to all slopes. The extent to which the retreat of actual slopes
Corresponds to any one of them depends mainly upon structure and climate.

1. Slope Decline (By W.M. Davis, 1899)

The slope becomes progressively decrease in the angle of slope in each phase of
their development. It becomes less steep and a concavity develops at the base,
the convexity extends in length and becomes more gently curved, i.e. smoothly
convex-concave forms and in particular long and gently-curved convexities
associated with decline.
Cause: it is equilibrium between the rates of weathering and transport

- In stage 1, the elimination of the free faces is done by the processes of fall and
slump of the bedrock until the slope is gentle enough to develop a cover of
regolith.
- Stage 2 shows this phase which is called the graded slope. The regolith
maintains a constant thickness over the slope and all the weathered materials is
transported by mass movements and wash. The form of the slope is
concave-convex.
- Stage 3 & 4, the length of the straight segment increased. The curvature of the
elements decreases as the slope continues to decline, and the length of straight
segment diminishes. The upper convexity experiences more and more output
than input, whereas the lower concavity receives more input than what it can
output.

- Lower part of the slope - with the accumulation of the transported

regolith, lowering is less.

- Davis, the original proponent of this theory, based his arguments on

visual assessment of slopes in humid temperate areas.

figure 17 Slope decline .1-5' are successive stages of evolution

Stage 1 is an ungraded slope with rock outcrop.

The slope becomes graded from stage 2 onwards
2. Slope Replacement (By Walter Penck, 1924)

Slope replacement means original steep slopes being replaced by lower angle
slopes which extends upwards from the base at a constant angle.

A free face slope is slowly buried by a scree which accumulates at

the base of cliff. (It means the replacement of a cliff by a scree).

All parts of the cliffs face are exposed to weathering. The scree
accumulating at the base increase in height and if it is not
removed, it will eventually replace the entire cliff by a slope of
about 35 , the angle of rest.

Continued weathering and removal leads to an upward extension of

this gentler slope. This continues until the whole of the 35 slope
has been replaced from below by the gentler slope.

3. Parallel Retreat (By King, 1948)

-

Concave-convex slopes are, by no means ubiquitous. In many semi-arid areas,

more complex profile are common, comprising an upper convexity, a free-face, a
rectilinear debris slope, and a gently concave pediments, only 3-5.

Each of the upper parts of the slope retreats by the same amount and
maintain the same angle .

Therefore, the convexity, free face and debris slope all retain the same length.

The concavity extends in length and becomes slightly gentler in angle.

This is called pediment.

Pediment : The pediment is the name given to the gently concave area
which extends from the foot of the debris slope and becomes wider and
wider as the slopes retreat. The pediment is generally slightly concave
but the slopes are very gentle, only 3-5, and often they appear to be

completely flat. The pediment is only covered by a thin sheet of

regolith.

In the arid area, where chemical weathering is greatly impeded. The supply of
regolith is limited, the input of transported materials at the bottom of debris slope
is little, with respect to the rate of output. As a result, the debris slope is able to
maintain a constant angle, with an continual extension of pediments primarily by
the process of sheetwash.

Late in the erosion cycle, the hills are left as isolated, steep-sided
relicts, called inselbergs in Africa, or buttes and mesas in North
America.

Figure 20 Parallel retreat

(a)

Of a slope containing a free face and debris slope,

~ the angle of the free face is determined by the strength of the rock. A strong will often
form a vertical free face.
(b)

Of a slope without a free face

~ In less resistant rocks, the free face may not be present. Weathering reduces the slope
to a continuous debris-covered slope.

Conclusion : There are actually no universal pattern of slope evolution, slopes

are related to rock type, vegetation and various weathering and sediment
transport processes.

The theories of slope decline and replacement are time-dependent

approaches to slope development; slopes were assumed to become
progressively with time.

On the other hand, the theory of parallel retreat adopts a

time-independent approach; slopes retain a similar form as they evolve.

Neither the time-dependent nor the time-independent approach offers a

complete explanation of the slope form. each has a varying measure of
truth according to local circumstances.

(J) Slope as an open system

Slope can be viewed as a natural system, since without mans modification,

there
are numerous and complex linkages between factors, processes and forms within
it.

2 main types of system can be identified : closed and open. Open systems occur
widely in geomorphology; their prime attribute is that they exchange energy and
materials with their surroundings.

With the help of above diagram, complete the following table:

INPUT
ENERGY

MATERIALS

Types

Sources

OUTPUT

Identify the important processes on the slopes leading to the transport of materials (i.e.
water and soil)
Materials to be transported

Processes involved

1. Water

Runoff
Infiltration
Underground flow

2. Soil / weathered debris

River transport / surface wash

Mass Movement, e.g.

- Open System: - an exchange of energy and mass across the system boundary

- An individual slope (or part of one) may be regarded as an open system;

in which there are inputs of energy in the form of solar heat, rain, wind
and past uplift and mass from above slope.
- The slope itself may be considered as bedrock with a mantle of regolith
- continually moving downwards as a result of past and present energy
inputs.

- The streams acts as base level for the slope and provides the means of
transporting water and soil brought down the slope across the boundary
out of the system.
- Inputs: - Energy -- (solar heat), winds,
initial and subsequent uplift from earth movement,
mountain building and vulcanicity.
- Mass : wind-borne deposits and materials from upslope;
Water in the form of rainfall and runoff.
rain, snowfall

- Outputs: - Energy
loss of heat to the atmosphere (terrestrial radiation)
- Mass :
- loose regolith being eroded off from the slope
surface by a slope process, wind loads or river loads
- water is lost by ______, ______ and ;_________.

Therefore, slope is regarded as a dynamic moving natural mechanisms with constant

complex interactions between the force of gravity, rain, heat, wind and vegetation and
rock of which it is made.

(K). Slope systems in the Sample Landscapes:

(1) Tropical Rain Forest :
Read the following extract:
Chemical weathering reaches its maximum intensity in the rainforest zone, and even quartz grains are
slowly attacked. Consequently, solution loss by the surface wash is an important processes of removal.

Both creep and surface wash occur.

The frequency of landslides scars has often been noted in slopes of 35 50.
Regolith covered slopes of up to 70 have been reported, th soil being held in place by tree, but such cases
are exceptional and slopes do not normally exceed 50.:

Q1. State the important slope processes in the TRF and say why it is favoured.
Slope processes are not very active in tropical rain forest because runoff is checked by
plant interception and infiltration, and infiltrating water is readily taken up by the large
number of plant roots.
All the slopes processes except solifluction have a similar chance of occurrence if they do
occur. Solifluction is non-existent because the subsoil is never frozen.
1. landslides (slides / slump)
2. Solution loss by surface wash
3. Soil creep
Q2. What is the main slope stabilizing factor in the TRF ?

~ very dense tree roots.

Q3. What kinds of human activities will likely lead to the removal of such stabilizing
factor ?
~ deforestation
~ mining
~ clear for cultivation
~ lumbering
As a slope form, we put the following conclusion:
Upper slope: ~ convex in shape (with rapid chemical weathering and removal in the
upper slope)
.
Mid slope: ~ small and short
Base slope: ~ Concave in shape (large supply of sediment from above cause ,
cause rapid deposition of sediment at foothill).
The entire slope is smooth because the whole slope is cover by a thick layer of weathered
materials.

Explanation:
In the rainforest region the ground is warm and moist throughout the year and
consequently chemical weathering reaches its maximum effectiveness. Weathering tend to
be faster than transport and so the regolith is deep.
Although the existence of deep weathering profile indicate that in many areas the removal
of material from slopes is slower that the rate of production of weathered material, this
does not mean that mass movements are ineffective.

The high intensity of rainfall, the high amounts of rainfall, the lack of much vegetation or
humus on the forest floor and the impermeable nature of many clay rich soils mean that
there are probably considerable quantities of surface wash over tropical forest floor caused
by rain splash. It was formerly thought that the forest protected the ground from surface
wash but measurement show that this is not so. Although much rainfall is intercepted by
leaves, it then drips from canopy with almost as much velocities the original rain; the leaf
litter on the ground surface is itself subject to wash during storms. There is much loss of
material in solution , and soil creep also occurs.
Following intense storms, steep slopes are commonly affected by landslides, facilitated by
the combination of rotted rock, clay soils, and generally shallowly rooted trees. Such
process usually strips the regolith cover and so expose bedrock to renewed weathering.
This has proved a particular hazard when cities like Rio de \Janeiro, Hong Kong and Kuala
Lumpur have expanded, causing building to spread to steep slopes.
Pediments, which are also widely developed in humid tropics, are always deeply weathered
and often pass upwards into the hill slopes without the intervention of basal knick. In
Johore, Malaysia, the main slope elements are
the hillslopes of 10 40
(i)
(ii) pediment at 1 9
(iii) the clay plain. The profile as a whole seems to be represent a modified
form of arid slope sequences.
The essential contrast between the arid and humid slopes may be stated as follows. In arid
areas there is active slope retreat, and extension of valley floors and plains via formation
of pediments. In humid areas the plain are formed by active weathering, which continually
leads to undercutting of hillslopes. Such contrast sees to suppose that this is primarily the
result of climatic control over weathering , mass transport and run-off.

(2) Tropical Desert :

Thing To Do:
Read the following extract:
The general slow rate of denudation and lack of weathering mantle results in many steep bare rock surfaces
upon which rockfall takes place. Scree slope transport most of the rockfall material, but there are also many
slopes on which debris appears to be moving. On such slopes, debris is not moving by rolling and sliding.
Movement is by downslope creeping following expansion and contraction with diurnal temperature ranges.
Other mass movement such as landslides are less common in deserts.

In deserts, the main transporting process is sheetwash following rare storms.

Mountain areas are dissected by closely-spaced gullies with steep slopes.
Where mountains adjoin plains, the typical slope form is a steep-side above a very gentle pediment.
Most desert slopes are either steep or very gentle. The steep slopes include bare rock cliffs of up to 90,
boulders-covered slopes of 20-35 (scree).

Q1. What are the slope processes taking place ?

Slopes processes are not very active in TD because of the shortage of runoff water except
in the rare event of a heavy rainstorm.
~ sheetwash
~ soil creep by expansion and contraction with diurnal range of temperature.
~ rockfall and earth flow are the only processes of importance in tropical deserts.
Q2. How and why the processes taking place ?
Q3. So what are the landform result ?
~ Landform produced by water-based processes (river erosion).
(Home revision exercise)
(You have leant desert landform in F.4. Label the desert landforms produced by
water in the diagram below. Briefly describe the formation and characteristics of
each.

As a slope form, we put the following conclusion:

Upper Slope: ~ small convex upper slope (limited chemical weathering)
Mid-Slope: ~ obvious and there are free-face.
Base Slope: ~ long concave slope (e.g., pediment)
~ There is little supply of material from upper slope so little
accumulation of material at the base slope and material
accumulated
in the base slopes can easily be eroded by sheet wash, and
flash
flood and wind.
Explanation:
The entire slope: there is a sudden change in slope gradient between upper, middle
and base slopes. The whole slope is covered by a very thin layer of weathered materials.
Landform features in deserts: rugged angular hills,
Cliffed canyons
Sand-covered plains,

Wadis,
Mesa and butte
Inselbergs, pediment
Mushroom rocks, sand
dunes
Alluvial fans.
Slope retreat takes place very slowly in tropical arid environment. Mechanical weathering
is more important than chemical weathering. The main transport process is sheetwash,
following occasional and torrential rainstorms. The effectiveness of sheetwash is enhanced
by the absence of vegetation. Most steep slopes are bare and chemical weathering is
limited..
Large alluvial fans and wadis fills occur because storms are too short in duration to
transport debris far. Much weathered material is removed by traction, saltation and in
suspension.
Slope profiles in arid areas, being little obscured by vegetation, show angularity. Most
slopes in deserts are either steep or very gentle. In mountainous regions and on isolated
hills, slopes consist mainly of cliff and rectilinear slopes of 30 - 35. Frequently the layer of
boulders is thin and penetrated by outcrops o f rock in situ. Once a boulder-slope is formed,
it retreat parallel. Conical hills and narrow-crested ridges are formed by the intersection of
such slopes.
The activity of surface running water is extremely efficient, so much that the finer products
of weathering `are rapidly transported away, permitting optimum development of the
idealized 4 - unit slope model with 4 components: the waxing slope, a free face, a constant
slope and a pediment.

Fig.

the pediment are long gentle slopes, formed in solid rock, that occur below substantially
steeper slopes. It usually consists of a gently sloping rock-cut surface, generally at angle of
between 1 and 7.

(3) Tundra Landscapes: ()

Periglacial regions are those areas in high latitudes where average air temperatures are
below freezing point but ice does not actually accumulate on the surface owning to
summer thawing when air temperatures are above freezing for several months,
Slope processes of mass movement occur with great power in the tundra environment.
There are various reasons for this.
First, the presence of the permafrost provides a barrier to the downslope infiltration of
water into the ground, thereby inducing high pressure in the soil pores in the surface layers.
Second, the layer above the permafrost, the active layer, is extremely moist and highly
unstable.
Third, the permafrost acts as a lubricated surface over which the materials of the active
layer can flow.
Fourth, the process of frost heave tends to cause a downhill movement of material under
the influence of gravity.
For this reason, hillside slopes tend to be characterized by instability, and slope failure is
frequent, posing problems for buildings and other engineering structures.

On exposed cliff faces blocks may be detached by frost weathering. Frost shattering is the
dominant process on steep slopes. On the hillslopes, weathering tends to be dominated by
freeze-thaw action, although chemical weathering is by no means entirely excluded.

Above 40 debris moves by rock avalanche. On slopes between 20-40, snow avalanches
transport frost-shattered debris.
Transport processes on hillslopes are debris flow, but solifluction is important.
Solifluction are the only important slope processes in tundra regions because the subsoil
is always frozen and the melting of ice, which supplies the bulk of water to slopes, is a
gradual and slow process. It is one of the most widespread processes of soil movement in
tundra regions. It forms terraces and lobes on slopes as gentle as 2.
The most characteristics feature of periglacial area, however, is the existence of permafrost.
This is the ground beneath the surface that is permanently frozen. In all the permafrost
areas, the top layers of soil thaw in summer. The depth of this active layers varies, being
up to 4m in the regions of 50-60 N in Siberia but decreasing northwards into cold
environments.
~ The effect of permafrost is most noticeable on slopes. When the surface layers thaw in
summer, the melt-water cannot percolate vertically into the underlying still-frozen ground
and the active layer becomes saturated. Under these condition, the active layer may move
downhill as an accelerated form of soil creep called solifluction ().

(L) Man Slope Relationship

Read the following passages,
Slopes can affect man profoundly; and man, in turn, can cause important modifications to
slope systems.

Slope steepness particularly affect mans activities in areas of high relief, where slopes are
often too precipitous for cultivation or habitation, and soil are so thin that they have to be
gathered into artificial terraces. Steep slopes can give rise to serious hazards, such as
landslides of various kind which can destroy village.

Man can himself modify the natural slope system in a variety of ways. He can play a
significant role in initiating or reactivating landslides. Conversely, he can counter
instability by grading slope by drainage, and by the construction of retaining structures.

Discussion:
1. What are the 2 relationship between man and slopes ?
2. What examples have been given to substantiate these relationship ?
Can you give examples too.

[END]

Reference materials:
1. Landscapes Processes: An Introduction to Geomorphology
Darrell and Valerie Weyman
George Allen and Unwin (1977)

2. Slopes
Anthony Toung
Longman (1972)

3. Process and Landform

Alan Clowes and Peter Comfort
Oliver and Boyd (1983)

4. Process and Pattern in Physical Geography

Keith Hilton
University Tutorial Press (1979)

5. Slopes and Weathering

Michael Clark and John Small
Cambridge University Press (1982)