Loading Effects

The output of a sensor device may deviate from the correct

value due to loading effect. We can categorize two types
of loading effect:
Inter element loading
A given element in the system may modify the
characteristics of the previous element.
Process loading
The introduction of the sensing element into the process or
system being measured causes the value of the measured
variable to change.

Sensors and Interfacing

Loading effect

Electrical loading (two-port networks)

A. A sensor device is represented by Thevenin equivalent circuit

VL = iZ L = E th

ZL
,
Z th + Z L

loading of the Thevenin equivalent circuit

ZLZth, VLETH
maximum voltage transfer from the network to the load.
Eth: Voltage source, open circuit voltage of the network across the
output terminal.
All voltage sources reduced to zero and replaced by their internal
impedance.
Zth: The impedance looking back into the terminal.
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Loading effect

Example: Temperature measurement system

6
4
2
10
10

, VL = 1000VIN
VIN = 40 10 6 T
6
2 10 + 20
75 + 10 4

2 106
104
TM = 25VL = 40 10 25 1000T

6
2 10 + 20 75 + 104
= 0.99257T, loading error = 0.0075T
6

Sensors and Interfacing

Loading effect

Use of buffer amplifier to reduce loading effects

PH transducer (glass electrode): use of Buffer Amplifier
Sensitivity: Eth = 59 PH(mV) or 1 PH 59mV Sensitivity=59mV/PH
Zth = 109
Indicator : Zth = RL =104

1
PH/mV
59
4
10
1
5
PH M = 59 PH ( 4
)

10
PH
9
59
10 + 10

Scale sensitivity :

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Loading effect

Buffer Amplifier
Buffer Amplifier

PH M

1012
10 4
1
= 59 12

= 0.998003
9
4
10 + 10 10 + 10 59

Loading error: -0.002 PH

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Loading effect

Loading Effect of Potentiometer

The fraction displacement: x = d/dT

total resistance: RP
Open circuit voltage
E th R p x
across the output
E th = ?
=
E th = Vs x
Vs
Rp
thermals AB
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Loading effect

Loading Effect of Potentiometer

R th =?

Vs = 0

internal impedance = 0
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Loading effect

Loading Effect of Potentiometer

1
1
1
=
+
R th R p x R p (1 x)

R th =

R p (1 - x)R p x
R p (x + 1 x)

= R p x(1 - x)

RL
RL
1
VL = E th
= Vs x
= Vs x
Rp
R L + R th
R p x(1 x) + R L
x(1 x) + 1
RL
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Loading effect

Loading Effect of Potentiometer

Loading effect
the relationship between VL and x is non-linear,
the amount of non-linearity depending on the
ratio RP/PL

N(x) = E th VL = Vs x{1

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}
Rp
( )x(1 x) + 1
RL

Loading effect

Loading Effect of Potentiometer

Sensors and Interfacing

Loading effect

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Loading Effect of Potentiometer

Design
if

Rp
RL

x (1 - x)(

Rp

RL
N(x) = Vs {
}
Rp
1 + ( )x(1 x)
RL

N(x) Vs (

Rp
RL

N(x) has a maximum value of

)(x 2 x 3 )

Rp
4
= Vs ( )
N
27 , R L

when x = 2/3
as a percentage of full-scale deflection

Rp o
Rp
400
=
15
percent
N
o
RL
27 R L

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Loading effect

11

Loading Effect of Potentiometer

=2
N
dT = 10 cm
RL = 10 K

RP
20
15
2 R P 103
RL
15
1K potentiometer (=RP)

dVL
Vs the greater VS, the higher sensitivity
dx
But considering the power dissipation

VS 0.1 103 10V

VS
0.1W
RP

Sensitivity = 1.0 Vcm-1

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Loading effect

12

Norton equivalent circuit

Norton equivalent circuit

ZN: the impedance looking back into the output terminals with all
voltage source reduced to zero and replaced by their internal
impedance.
iN: the current which flows when the terminals are short circuited.
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Loading effect

13

Norton equivalent ckt

VL = i N Z
ZN ZL

1
1
1 VL = i N
=
+
ZN + ZL

Z ZN ZL
ZL << ZN, VLiNZL
maximum current through the load.

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Loading effect

14

Differential Pressure Transmitter

Output: 4 ~ 20 mA current
Input: differential pressure 0~2 104 Pa N/m2

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Loading effect

15

Differential Pressure Transmitter

VL = i N

R N (R C + R R )
R N + RC + RR

total load = RC+RR

VR
RR
=
VL R C + R R
VR = i N R R

RN
= 0.995 i N R R
R N + RC + RR

the recorded voltage derivates from the desired range of 1 to 5 volts by

0.05
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Loading effect

16

Piezoelectric Force Measurement

dt

1
1
= C N s + C Cs +
Z
RL

RL
Z=
(C N + CC )R Ls + 1

Influence the
VL (s)
RL
=
i N (s) (C N + CC )R Ls + 1 dynamic

characteristics

Sensors and Interfacing

Loading effect

17

Process Loading
Process F = kPx+FS
FS = ksx
FS
) + Fs
kS
k p + kS
= Fs (
)
kS

F = kp (

kS
FS =
F
k p + kS

We want : ks>> kP in
order to minimize
loading error.
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Loading effect

18

Mechanical impedance

d 2x
dx
F =m
+ + kx
dt
dt

F (s) = (ms + + k )x(s)

s
Mechanical impedance Z m =
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( s ) = ms + + k

Loading effect

s
19

Equivalent Ckt
i
L
V

1
V ( s ) = ( Ls + R + )i ( s )
Cs

Electrical impedance

R
k 1

x&
F

di
1
V = L + Ri + idt
dt
C

1
k

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ZE =

V
1
( s ) = Ls + R +
i
Cs

Equivalent Ckt
Loading effect

20

General Transducer

ZM

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E th
Z th

ZM

Loading effect

i N ZN

21

Process Loading

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Loading effect

22

Process Loading

process F - k x x F = m x
p

F k x x = m x
S

dx
+ x + k x dt = F F
dt

dx
m
+ x + k x dt =F
dt
k
(mps + + ) x = F - F
S
k
(mss + + ) x = F
S
k
Process impedance Z MP (s) = m ps + P + P
S
k
Sensor impedance Z MS (s) = mSs + S + S
S
Z MS
FS (s) =
F(s)
Z MS + Z MP

Sensors and Interfacing

Loading effect

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