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INTRODUCTION
CHAPTERS
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
TURBOMACHINERY
THE DIFFERENTIAL APPROACH TO FLOW ANALYSIS
POTENTIAL FLOW
FLOW PAST IMMERSED BODIES
CO1
[PO1, LO1] {C3}
CO2
[PO3, LO3,SS1] {C4}
CO3
[PO3, LO3,SS1] {C4}
Contd
CO4
[PO10, LO7,SS5]
{P4,A3}
CHAPTER CONTENTS
Review of thermodynamics principles
One dimensional compressible flows
Stagnation properties
Speed of sound & Mach No.
One dimensional isentropic flows
Variation of fluid velocity with change of area
Isentropic flows through nozzles
- converging nozzles
- converging diverging nozzles
WHAT IS?
Flows involve significant density variations: compressible
flow
Deals with high velocity of fluid motions
Involve thermodynamics properties fundamentals
Considers the effect of kinetic energy which cannot be
neglected
Potential energy may still negligible
ASSUMPTIONS
Analyzing in one dimensional sense
Ideal gas
Constant specific heat
External Flows
Internal Flows
(1)
Pressure
Kelvin
(2)
Internal
energy
Differentiate,
(4)
Constant
volume
(7)
Differentiate ,
(8)
Specific heat of constant pressure:
(9)
Constant
pressure
(10)
(11)
Assume constant temperature:
(12)
Therefore,
Stagnation Process:
Define as the process when the fluid is stagnated or brought
to stop which is V = 0
KE
(kJ/kg)
Stagnation
enthalpy
(1)
Stagnation enthalpy:
The enthalpy of a fluid
when adiabatically or
isentropically brought
to rest or V = 0.
(2)
Combine (2) into (1)
(3)
Stagnation
Temperature
Static
Temperature
Dynamic Temperature
Dynamic Pressure
Static
Pressure
IMPORTANT:
-Stagnation enthalpy and stagnation temperature will never be change as long as
no heat and work transfer across the system boundaries
- However stagnation pressure may change
P0 Change
= 1.005 kJ/kgK
Solutions:
Assumptions: The stagnation process is isentropic
Analysis: The air that strikes the probe will be brought to a
complete stop thus undergo stagnation process. Thermometer
sense this stagnated air which is stagnation temperature, T0
(a) = 320.0 K
(b) = 320.1K
(c) = 325 K
k = 1.667
k = 1.329
Solutions:
Assumptions: The stagnation process is isentropic and Steam
and Helium are ideal gas
1.4
Mach No:
287 J/kgK
Sonic
Subsonic
Supersonic
what is ? significance ?
(3)
since
(5)
(7)
Step 8: Since,
(8)
Finally
(11)
This equation governs the subsonic and supersonic flows for both diffusers and
nozzles
Tutorial 1
Air enters a converging diverging nozzle at 800 kPa with
specific heat ratio of k = 1.4. Determine the pressure at the
throat area.
Tutorial 2
Solve the exit velocity for the nozzle shown:
Assume isentropic flow
T1 = 350K P1 = 1 MPa
P2 = 100kPa
Mat = 1
k = 1.4
Tutorial 3
Quiescent carbon dioxide at a given inlet temperature of 400K
and pressure of 1.2MPa is accelerated at Mach No. 0.6.
Tutorial 4
Helium enters a converging diverging nozzle at temperature of
800K , velocity of 100 m/s and pressure 0.7MPa.
Tutorial 1
Determine the air speed of a scramjet engine at Mach No. 7
with air temperature of -200C
R = 0.287 kJ/kgK
k =1.4
Conservation of mass
Area is same because NS
occurs within thin line
Conservation of energy
Conservation of momentum
Increase of entropy
Fanno line:
Combining the conservation of mass
and energy relations into a single
equation and plotting it on an h-s
diagram yield a curve. It is the locus
of states that have the same value
of stagnation enthalpy and mass
flux.
Rayleigh line:
Combining the conservation of mass
and momentum equations into a
single equation and plotting it on the
h-s diagram yield a curve.
upstream
Fan: relatively low pressure rise and high flow rate. Examples include ceiling fans,
house fans, and propellers.
Blower: relatively moderate to high pressure rise and moderate to high flow rate.
Examples include centrifugal blowers and squirrel cage blowers in automobile
ventilation systems, furnaces, and leaf blowers.
Compressor: designed to deliver a very high pressure rise, typically at low to
moderate flow rates. Examples include air compressors that run pneumatic tools and
inflate tires at automobile service stations, and refrigerant compressors used in heat
pumps, refrigerators, and air conditioners.
Free delivery: Max volume flow rate when its net head is zero, H = 0
Shutoff head: The net head when the volume flow rate is zero which achieved when the outlet port
is blocked off. H is large but V is zero; the pumps efficiency is zero
Best Efficiency Point (BEP): Max efficiency & notated by an asterisk (H*, bhp*, etc.).
Pump Performance Curves (or characteristic curves): Curves of H, pump, and bhp as functions of
volume flow rate.
Operating point or duty point of the system: In a typical application, Hrequired and Havailable match at
one unique value of flow ratethis is the operating point or duty point of the system.
For steady conditions, a pump can operate only along its performance curve.
-Involve rotating blades called impeller blades or rotor blades, which impart momentum
to the fluid.
-Sometimes called rotodynamic pumps or simply rotary pumps.
-Rotary pumps are classified by the manner in which flow exits the pump:
(a) centrifugal flow, (b) mixed flow and (c) axial flow
Mixed-flow Pump:
Intermediate between centrifugal and axial, with the flow entering axially, not
necessarily in the center, but leaving at some angle between radially and
axially.
r1 and r2 as the radial locations of the impeller blade inlet and outlet
b1 and b2 are the axial blade widths at the impeller blade inlet and outlet
-V1, n and V2, n are defined as average normal (radial) components of velocity at radii r1 and r2.
-Absolute velocity vectors of the fluid are shown as bold arrows. It is assumed that the
flow is everywhere tangent to the blade surface when viewed from a reference frame
rotating with the blade, as indicated by the relative velocity vectors.
X1
V1, t
X2
X1
V1, t
X2
Shaft Torque:
Net Head:
Shutoff Head:
-If head requirements not important, propeller fans is operated beyond BEP to achieve higher
volume flow rates.
-Since bhp decreases at high values of flow rate, there is not a power penalty when the fan is
run at high flow rates. For this reason it is tempting to install a slightly undersized fan and push
it beyond its best efficiency point.
-At the other extreme, if operated below its maximum efficiency point, the flow may be noisy
and unstable, which indicates that the fan may be oversized.
-It is usually best to run a propeller fan at, or slightly above, its maximum efficiency point.
108
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Affinity Laws
Equations 1438 apply to both pumps and
turbines.
States A and B can be any two homologous
states between any two geometrically
similar turbomachines, or even between two
homologous states of the same machine.
Examples include changing rotational
speed or pumping a different fluid with the
same pump.
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TURBINES
The rotating part of a hydroturbine is called the runner.
When the working fluid is water, the turbomachines are called hydraulic turbines or
hydroturbines.
When the working fluid is air, and energy is extracted from the wind, the machine is
called a wind turbine.
Most people use the word windmill to describe any wind turbine, whether used to
grind grain, pump water, or generate electricity.
The turbomachines that convert energy from the steam into mechanical energy of a
rotating shaft are called steam turbines.
Turbines that employ a compressible gas as the working fluid is gas turbine.
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Positive-Displacement Turbines
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Dynamic Turbines
Dynamic turbines are used both as flow measuring devices and as power generators.
Hydroturbines utilize the large elevation change across a dam to generate electricity, and
wind turbines generate electricity from blades rotated by the wind. There are two basic
types of dynamic turbineimpulse and reaction.
Impulse turbines require a higher head, but can operate with a smaller volume flow rate.
Reaction turbines can operate with much less head, but require a higher volume flow
rate.
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Impulse Turbines
In an impulse turbine, the fluid is sent
through a nozzle so that most of its
available mechanical energy is converted
into kinetic energy.
The high-speed jet then impinges on
bucket-shaped vanes that transfer energy
to the turbine shaft.
The modern and most efficient type of
impulse turbine is Pelton turbine and the
rotating wheel is now called a Pelton
wheel.
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116
Reaction Turbines
The other main type of energy-producing
hydroturbine is the reaction turbine, which
consists of fixed guide vanes called stay vanes,
adjustable guide vanes called wicket gates, and
rotating blades called runner blades.
Flow enters tangentially at high pressure, is
turned toward the runner by the stay vanes as it
moves along the spiral casing or volute, and
then passes through the wicket gates with a
large tangential velocity component.
A reaction turbine differs significantly
from an impulse turbine; instead of
using water jets, a volute is filled with
swirling water that drives the runner.
For hydroturbine applications, the axis
is typically vertical. Top and side views
are shown, including the fixed stay
vanes and adjustable wicket gates.
117
Reaction Turbines
There are two main types of reaction turbineFrancis and Kaplan.
The Francis turbine is somewhat similar in geometry to a centrifugal or mixed-flow
pump, but with the flow in the opposite direction.
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Kaplan turbines are called double regulated because the flow rate is controlled in two
waysby turning the wicket gates and by adjusting the pitch on the runner blades.
Propeller turbines are nearly identical to Kaplan turbines except that the blades are
fixed (pitch is not adjustable), and the flow rate is regulated only by the wicket gates
(single regulated).
Compared to the Pelton and Francis turbines, Kaplan turbines and propeller turbines
are most suited for low head, high volume flow rate conditions.
Their efficiencies rival those of Francis turbines and may be as high as 94 percent.
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121
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123
A pumpturbine is used by
some power plants for energy
storage: (a) water is pumped
by the pumpturbine during
periods of low demand for
power, and (b) electricity is
generated by the pump
turbine during periods of high
demand for power.
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Maximum efficiency as a function of turbine specific speed for the three main
types of dynamic turbine. Horizontal scales show nondimensional turbine specific
speed (NSt) and turbine specific speed in customary U.S. units (NSt, US). Sketches
of the blade types are also provided on the plot for reference.
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