WHEPManual 2003

North Carolina
Wildlife Habitat
Evaluation Program
Learning and Activity Guide
Revised by:
Dr. Chris Moorman

Extension Wildlife Specialist
College of Natural Resources
Department of Forestry
North Carolina State University
Renee Strnad
Environmental Education Assistant
College of Natural Resources
Department of Forestry
North Carolina State University
September 2003 3rd Edition
Based on original Tennessee edition by Drs. James Byford and Tom Hill, 1991
AND
National Edition by:
Dr. Delwin E. Benson
Cooperative Extension Wildlife Specialist
Department of Fishery and Wildlife Biology
Colorado State University
Edward L. Neilson, Jr.
Area Biologist
USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service
Montrose, Colorado
Revised by National WHEP Revision Committee, 1999
Table of Contents
Introduction
Principles of Wildlife Management in North Carolina
Wildlife Management Concepts and Terms

Habitat Needs for Wildlife
Wildlife Management Practices
The Contest
6
13
23
32
On-Site Habitat Management Recommendations

Interpreting Aerial Photos
Identifying Common Wildlife Species
Identifying Wildlife Foods
33
37
41
44
Contest Rules
48
Appendix
51
Introduction
Biologists most often manage wildlife by manipulating its habitat. If, for
example, a landowner desires more quail, we improve quail habitat using prescribed fire,
timber harvests, and plantings. The Wildlife Habitat Evaluation Program (WHEP)
teaches youth about wildlife habitat and how to manage it. Youth learn, match wits with
4-H'ers across North Carolina, and have the opportunity to win awards.
This manual was designed to provide a step-by-step guide for volunteer leaders
and WHEP coaches and a place for participants to go for needed information. The
Principles of Wildlife Management in North Carolina section the manual covers, in
detail, the basic principles of wildlife management including concepts and terms, habitat
needs for wildlife, and wildlife management practices used in North Carolina. Questions
and activities in the WHEP contest will be based upon the information provided in this
section. The Contest section describes the contest, the four different activities with
practice scorecards, and tips to help each participant perform successfully.
Principles of Wildlife Management in North

Carolina
Some of the principles presented have been simplified to make the materials
easier to understand. In addition, costs and budgets have not been considered when
recommending practices. In actual situations, wildlife managers must consider
economics when planning and recommending management practices. It is always wise to
call upon trained, experienced professionals for assistance when making proper decisions
to meet desired goals and objectives.
Wildlife Management Concepts and Terms

Before evaluating wildlife habitat and making management recommendations,
one must understand basic concepts about habitat management and the effects each has
on different wildlife species. This section presents some of the basic concepts.
Concept 1--Habitat Requirements

The four basic habitat requirements of all living organisms are food, water, space, and
cover. Each species has its own set of specific requirements that must be provided by the
habitat. For example, gray squirrels use acorns for food, while eastern bluebirds eat
insects. Mallards use thick grass and forb cover for nesting, while thrashers nest in
shrubs. Habitat requirements for wildlife change during the seasons of the year. The
food they eat in the winter may be much different than what they eat in the summer. The
cover they need for nesting may be much different than the cover needed to survive a
winter storm.
Concept 2--Featured Species

Wildlife managers often target a featured animal species when developing land
management plans. Landowners may have certain objectives for specific species, or the
general public may have concerns about particular game or endangered species. Once the
species are selected, managers identify the habitat requirements for each and evaluate the
capability of the environment to provide the requirements. If the land does not fully
provide the necessary habitat requirements, management practices are used to improve
the area's ability to supply needed requirements. It usually is best to select management
practices that provide the requirements in the shortest supply. For instance, if a species
requires trees for cover with water nearby and the current habitat has plenty of trees but
no water, a management practice that supplies water will improve the habitat more
effectively than planting trees. Management practices that improve habitat for some
wildlife species may be detrimental to others. It is impossible to manage habitat for any
one species without influencing other species in some manner.
Wild turkeys are often a featured species in wildlife management
Concept 3--Plant Succession

Vegetation and water are the basis of wildlife habitat. Every acre of soil and water has
a definite sequence of plant types that occurs over time. The different stages of this
sequence are called successional stages. We usually can predict the type of vegetation
that will occur in each stage until a final or "climax" stage is reached. When not
disturbed, the climax vegetation is stable and will remain the same for long periods of
time. If humans or nature disturb the soil, vegetation, or water level, succession may be
set back and the cycle will continue forward from the new starting point. In wildlife
management, areas in different stages of plant succession are often referred to as areas
with different vegetation types or habitat types. In general, the stages of plant succession
that occur on land are as follows:
1.Bare ground.
2.Annual forbs and grasses.
3.Perennial forbs and grasses.
4.Shrubs.
5.Young woodland or trees.
6.Mature woodland or trees.
The Stages of Plant Succession (From Bare Ground to Woodland)
In some regions, natural factors such as the soil or the climate will prevent succession
from proceeding past a certain stage. For instance, in the Great Plains, lack of
precipitation often prevents succession from proceeding past stage 3. In this case, stage 3
would be considered the climax stage. A single step in this succession may take weeks,
months, years, or even centuries depending on a variety of natural and human-caused
factors. If vegetation is disturbed, succession will revert to an earlier stage and begin
again. Disturbance can be caused by natural factors such as insect or disease outbreaks,
tornadoes, hurricanes, avalanches, or naturally occurring fires. More frequently, humans
7
alter succession by plowing (agriculture), burning, cutting forests, grazing, and clearing
shrubby areas, which may mimic natural disturbances.
Different wildlife species prefer different stages of plant succession. For example,
quail prefer stage 2, deer prefer stage 4 and squirrels prefer stage 6. This will be
discussed more thoroughly in the Habitat Needs for Wildlife section. Wildlife managers
can encourage the wildlife species of interest by manipulating plant succession with
management practices to meet the needs of those species.
Nature never gives up. Even abandoned concrete parking lots are eventually taken
over by plants, which first grow in the cracks and around the edges. If left alone,
concrete parking lots will eventually become "habitat" for wildlife.
Concept 4--Vertical Structure

Vegetation can be classified by how it grows. Grasses and forbs generally grow close
to the ground and make up the ground, or herbaceous, layer. The next highest level is
usually comprised of shrubs and is called the shrub layer. The tallest stratum is made by
trees and is called the tree canopy. How different layers of vegetation are arranged in
relation to each other is an important factor in managing wildlife species. For instance,
some species may require a herbaceous layer for food but also need a tree canopy for
cover. Not all areas in a single stage of succession are alike. One woodland in stage 6 of
plant succession may have a variety of layers, comprised of grasses, forbs, shrubs, and
trees, while another stage 6 woodland may have only one distinct layer of tall trees.
Vertical Structuring of Vegetation Layers
Concept 5--Arrangement and Interspersion

How different successional stages or vegetation types are situated in relation to each
other is often referred to as horizontal arrangement. Many wildlife species need more
than one successional stage to provide all their habitat requirements. To be of value, the
different successional stages must be close enough to each other to allow safe travel for
wildlife. Some species obtain all their habitat requirements from only one successional
stage. Mixing plots of different successional stages within an area is called interspersion.
Usually, more interspersion supports a greater variety of wildlife.
Concept 6--Edges And Contrast

The boundary where two or more different types of vegetation or successional stages
meet is called edge. Sometimes there is an abrupt change where one type of vegetation
stops and another begins. However, a change can be less distinct with a gradual
transition from one stage to another. In places where a gradual change occurs, an edge
looks a little like both successional stages or vegetation types. Where abrupt changes
occur, the edge is narrow. Gradual changes create a wide edge. Edges attract many
different wildlife species because food, cover, and other habitat requirements are
arranged close together. Edges produced when successional stages have extremely
different types of vegetation are defined as having high contrast. There is high contrast
where an area in stage 2 (grass and forbs) meets an area in stage 6 (tall trees) of plant
succession. A boundary between stages 2 and 3 has low contrast. In general, edges with
high contrast have more species of wildlife than edges with low contrast.
Edge is not beneficial for all wildlife. Some wildlife species need unbroken areas in a
certain successional stage to provide their habitat requirements. Such species are referred
to as area sensitive. For these species, large areas in one successional stage are required.
A balance of edge with unbroken blocks of vegetation in one successional stage is
desirable. Areas with unbroken blocks 10 to 40 acres in size are considered to have a
good balance of edge and unbroken blocks. In large forests, blocks of up to 100 acres
may be desirable.
Concept 7--Corridors
Corridors are areas of continuous habitat that permit animals to travel securely from
one habitat to another. As environments become more broken up (fragmented) from
construction of roads, parking lots, urban areas, clearing for agriculture, etc., small
islands of vegetation remain. Corridors allow animals to find and use the islands of
suitable habitat. For example, in an urban area, relatively unbroken corridors found along
riparian areas and ravines allow wildlife to move into parks and other suitable habitats.
Conservation, maintenance, and creation of unbroken corridors are very important in
wildlife habitat management.
Concept 8--Species Richness

Species richness is defined as the number of different kinds of wildlife found within a
specific area. Often, a landowner objective or a public goal is to provide habitat for as
many species as possible, contrasted with managing for a featured species. Lands high in
species richness usually have many of the following characteristics:
A mixture of areas in different successional stages.
A balance of edges with unbroken blocks of vegetation in one successional stage.
Unbroken blocks of 10 to 40 acres.

Edges with high contrast.
A wide variety of vegetation layers present within each area containing only one
successional stage.
These characteristics can be used to estimate the relative number of different wildlife
species that may be present in separate areas. They also may be used to identify
management practices that could increase species richness. For example, consider a
proposal to cut trees in areas of stage 6 plant succession. Clear-cuts in 40-acre blocks
that leave adjacent unharvested blocks 40 acres in size would be desirable. Strips or
corridors of trees that link the larger unharvested blocks could be left uncut (see Concept
7, Corridors). Remember, when managing habitat for species richness, it is often not
possible to provide the best habitat for featured species. Instead of providing the best
habitat possible for one species, the goal is to provide some habitat for as many species as
possible.
Concept 9--Carrying Capacity

Carrying capacity is a limit to how many animals can live in a habitat. The quantity
and quality of food, water, cover, and space determines the carrying capacity. If one
basic requirement is in short supply, the carrying capacity is lowered. By adding the
missing ingredient, a manager can increase the habitat's carrying capacity.
Carrying capacity varies from year to year and from season to season. It usually is
greatest from late spring through fall, when most young are born and grow. More
animals are produced each year than will survive to the next. With the coming of winter
or summer drought, food and cover gradually decline and young animals in poor health
experience the highest death rates. If the habitat cannot support any more animals, efforts
to increase birth rates or decrease death rates will fail. A long-term increase in the
population can only be accomplished by increasing the habitat's carrying capacity.
Concept 10--Pond Dynamics

No two ponds ever are exactly alike. Adjacent ponds in the same watershed can look
very different and each may respond somewhat differently to management efforts. These
visual differences usually are associated with water quality and algal bloom differences.
Management efforts are meant to control water quality, improve fishing, and attract
wildlife. Dissolved oxygen, alkalinity, hardness, and pH are water quality factors that
can be managed.
Oxygen from the atmosphere dissolves in water through the action of wind and waves
or is produced by aquatic plants during photosynthesis. Oxygen is only slightly soluble
in water (measured in parts per million--ppm) and can fall to lethal concentrations in
ponds. Ponds seldom have more than 10 or 12 ppm dissolved oxygen, even on sunny or
windy days. Dissolved oxygen below 4 ppm is stressful to most fish and below 2 ppm
fish die. Because aquatic plants perform photosynthesis when the sun is out, dissolved
10
oxygen concentrations tend to increase throughout the day. At night, everything living in
the pond (fish, plants, insects, bacteria, etc.) consumes oxygen and the dissolved oxygen
levels fall. Under normal conditions dissolved oxygen will not fall below 4 ppm
overnight.
Alkalinity, hardness, and pH of pond water are related to soil and vegetation in the
watershed and in the pond. Ponds should have a pH that fluctuates between 6.5 and 9,
and alkalinity and hardness of at least 20 ppm. Many soils are acidic and need to be
limed to adjust the pH, alkalinity, and hardness upward to a range that will promote
growth of natural food organisms. Usual liming rates can range from 1 to 5 tons per acre.
Concept 11--Migration and Home Range

Migration is the movement of wildlife during different seasons of the year from one
habitat to another. For example, duck species in the northern United States must fly
south to warmer climates to find food sources and wetlands that do not freeze over.
Necessary habitats must be available along the migration route.
Animals living in the same area year around will have a home range. A home range is
an area of constant use that provides all the needed habitat requirements. The lower
quality the habitat, the larger the home range.
Concept 12--Food Webs

Food chains represent the transfer of food energy from one organism to another.
Overlapping food chains create food webs. Plants, the primary producers in a food chain,
supply food at the lowest level. Primary consumers are plant-eating animals, or
herbivores. Rabbits, deer, mice, some insects, and fish are considered primary
consumers. Primary consumers are prey for secondary consumers, or carnivores.
Secondary consumers are predators including foxes, snakes, birds of prey, and people.
Components of each level can be broken down by decomposing bacteria and fungi, which
in turn provides the soil with more nutrients for better plant growth. These categories are
broad and general and many animals fit into more than one group.
Food Pyramid
11
Concept 13--Wildlife Damage Management

Working with wildlife and humans to minimize danger and damage to property by
wildlife is an important aspect of wildlife management. Animals can cause health
hazards, destruction of crops, or be a nuisance in areas of high human population.
Wildlife biologists must often work with the public to reduce or eliminate the cause of
the problem. Examples of wildlife damage include coyotes preying on sheep or pets, bats
in the attic of a home, rabid raccoons, and pigeons roosting in trees and defecating on
sidewalks. Trapping and releasing into safe areas, euthanasia, repelling, and poisoning
are tools used by wildlife damage managers.
12
Habitat Needs For Wildlife

Habitat Requirements
American Kestrel
Food: During warm months, robins eat

insects and worms, but they eat fruits and berries
from shrubs and trees in winter. They rarely use
artificial feeders.
Plant fruit- and berry-producing shrubs such as
sumac, dogwood, black cherry, and holly.
Leave open areas of short grass and forbs.
Use insecticides only when necessary and
make sure to follow label instructions.
Cover: Robins nest and hide in shrubs,
evergreen trees, and broad-leaf trees. Evergreen
trees are preferred for early nests.
Water: During the warm season, robins
require water daily. They obtain water from yard
irrigation, rain filled gutters, low-lying areas and
ponds.
Provide birdbaths and pans of water.
Do not place water in areas where cats and
other pets can catch birds.
General Habitat Preference

Kestrels prefer stages 2 and 3 of plant
succession for feeding, and stages 4, 5, and 6 for
nesting.
Provide large open areas where adequate
nesting sites are available.
Food: Kestrels primarily eat insects and
small mammals associated with open areas.
Brush chop small areas (40 acres maximum, 10
to 20 acres preferred) in large expanses of stage
4 (shrub) vegetation.
Prescribe burn (40 acres maximum, 10 to 20
acres preferred) in large expanses of stage 4, 5,
and 6 vegetation.
Clear-cut areas in large expanses of stage 5 and
6 woodlands.
Manage livestock grazing to leave enough
herbaceous cover to support insects and small
rodents.
Cover: Kestrels nest in tree cavities and
other sites including holes in cliffs, canyon
walls, and artificial
nesting boxes.
Maintain small areas
of stage 5 and 6
vegetation interspersed
with stage 2 and 3
vegetation.
Plant trees in large
open areas (irrigate if
necessary) on idle
lands.
Provide nesting
boxes in areas lacking adequate tree cavities
(boxes can be placed on fence posts in open
areas).
Manage livestock grazing to maintain trees in
riparian areas.
Water: Kestrels obtain necessary water from
their diet.
Broad-winged Hawk
Broad-winged hawks prefer continuous dry
woodlands of oaks, beeches, maples and mixed
coniferous-hardwoods in stages 5 and 6 around
lakes, streams, and swamps.
Food: These hawks hunt for small mammals
like mice, moles, and squirrels from perches in
deep shady woodlands or when flying over
treetops or open meadows. Broad-winged hawks
will also eat snakes, frogs, lizards, and large
insects.
Cover: Broad-winged hawks nest near water
in a variety of tree species from 25-90 feet high.
Old crow, hawk, and squirrel nests are sometimes
used.
Leave snags and cavity trees in clear-cuts or
use selection cutting.
Leave corridors.
Provide suitable habitats for prey by creating
water developments if necessary.
Manage livestock grazing to maintain cover
for prey.
Water: Broad-winged hawks obtain
necessary water from their diet.
American Robin
Robins prefer urban settings with large open
areas and nearby trees and shrubs. Parks, golf
courses, and lawns in residential areas are
favorites.
13
Prescribe burn small areas in large expanses of

stage 4, 5, and 6 vegetation.
Use livestock grazing to keep some areas in
stage 2 and 3 vegetation.
Cover: Nesting sites are in natural cavities
and old woodpecker holes.
Leave three to four standing
dead or nearly dead large trees
per acre during timber harvest
operations.
Place nest boxes 4 to 5 feet
high in or adjacent to open
areas and spaced more than
200 feet apart.
Plant shrubs and trees along fencerows and
field borders.
Water: Eastern bluebirds obtain necessary
water from diet, but will use other water sources
when available.
Brown Thrasher
Thrashers prefer stages 3 and 4 of plant
succession or dense, woody vegetation
associated with shrub thickets, hedgerows, field
borders, forest edges, riparian areas, and young
forests.
Food: Thrashers primarily feed on
invertebrates and plant seeds on the ground and
occasionally feed on fruits and berries in shrubs
and trees. More food is available in areas with
thicker layers of ground litter. The management
practices listed under cover will usually supply
sufficient food.
Cover: Nesting and hiding cover are
supplied by dense shrubs with a few trees.
Thrashers will use areas without trees, but need a
minimum of 2.5 acres of woody vegetation to
support a breeding population.
Selection cut forests in large expanses of stage
5 or 6 woodland.
Clear-cut timber harvest can improve habitat
once succession proceeds beyond stage 4 after
harvest.
Plant shrubs and trees (hedgerows, field
borders, clumps).
Use brush chopping and prescribed burning to
rejuvenate and improve habitat in large areas of
old stage 4 vegetation.
Manage livestock grazing in riparian areas and
other woody areas so shrubs and trees can
regenerate and ground litter is present. Grazing
in the winter usually does less damage to woody
vegetation than at other times of year.
Water: Requirements unknown.
Great Horned Owl

Great horned owls mainly occur in woodland
habitats in stages 5 and 6 of plant succession
interspersed with areas in stages 2, 3, and 4.
Food: Open areas near woodlands, like
marshes and meadows, are required for hunting.
Great horned owls have a varied diet, but prefer
small to medium sized mammals and birds.
Reptiles, amphibians, large insects, and fish are
also taken.
Cover: Great horned owls use large tree
cavities, stumps, caves, ledges, and abandoned
nests of hawks, herons and crows.
Leave snags and cavity trees for nesting and
perching after harvesting trees.
Construct perching poles and nest boxes where
nest sites are limited.
Plant grasses and forbs for prey cover.
Manage livestock grazing.
Create openings in large stands of stage 5 and
6 woodlands by use of selection cuts or small
clear-cuts.
Water: Great horned owls obtain necessary
water from their diet.
Special: Wildlife damage management may
be required to reduce free range poultry loss.
Eastern Bluebird
Bluebirds prefer stages 2 and 3 of plant
succession interspersed with stages 5 and 6
vegetation.
Food: Bluebirds usually forage in open areas
with insects and spiders making up a large
portion of the diet, but including a limited
amount of fruit.
Clear-cut small areas (40 acres maximum, 10
5 and 6 woodland.
4 vegetation.
14
secluded areas on houses and buildings. Their

nest is made out of leafy materials and spider
silk.
Plant and maintain trees, especially those with
rough bark.
Do not disturb nests found on houses and
buildings unless they are causing a problem such
as plugging a rain gutter.
Water: Hummingbirds obtain necessary
water from diet.
Hairy Woodpecker
Hairy woodpeckers prefer stages 4, 5, and 6
of plant succession, but will use areas of stage 3
with mature trees nearby. These woodpeckers
also use wooded urban and riparian areas.
Food: The majority of food is animal matter
such as ants, beetle larvae, caterpillars, and adult
beetles, but the diet is supplemented with fruits
and nuts. Hairy woodpeckers feed in a variety of
places such as tree trunks, stumps, snags,
downed logs, and the ground. Where adequate
cover exists, food usually is not limiting.
Cover: Holes are excavated in mature and
dying trees (snags) for nesting.
Maintain areas with large mature and dying
trees, especially in open areas. Within wooded
areas, maintain at least one large snag per acre.
Manage livestock grazing in riparian areas to
maintain trees. Grazing during the dormant
season (fall and winter) usually does less damage
to woody vegetation than at other times of year.
Water: Hairy woodpeckers probably obtain
necessary water from diet.
Mallard (Winter Habitat)

During the winter, mallards prefer wetlands
with open water, harvested grain crops, and
riparian areas that have open water.
Food: Mallards' winter diet includes waste
agricultural grains, aquatic plants, and
invertebrates. Long distances are flown to feed,
but food closer to cover is more valuable.
Provide waste grains by not tilling grain fields
or leave some grain unharvested.
Flood grain fields, planted food plots, and oak
woodlands in the winter using small dikes.
Build ponds and reservoirs with some shallow
water (less than two feet deep) so aquatic
vegetation can grow.
Cover: Mallards rest on open bodies of water
including streams, rivers, and warm water
sloughs that are not disturbed. They also rest on
ice in the middle of lakes.
Build ponds, reservoirs, and sloughs.
Livestock drinking developments like dugouts
and catchment ponds are also used for resting.
Some cover should be maintained in shallow
areas by managing livestock grazing.
Keep human disturbance to a minimum.
Water: Mallards use water as described above.
Hummingbirds
Hummingbirds are found in or near mixed
woodlands and forests rich in flowering plants.
They prefer stages 5 and 6 of plant succession
mixed with areas in stages 2, 3, and 4. In urban
settings, they prefer areas with large trees and
nearby flowering plants.
Food: Hummingbirds require high-energy
foods, including nectar from flowers and insects
found on flowers. Nectar is high in sugars that
supply the needed energy and insects are an
important source of protein.
Plant flowers, flowering shrubs, and trees,
especially red, tubular flowers, including azaleas,
crossvine, morning glory, evening primrose,
columbine, cardinal flower, native honeysuckle,
lilac, trumpet vine, and various fruit trees.
Use artificial feeders filled with sugar water as
a substitute (1 part table sugar to 4 parts warm
water). Never use honey or artificial colorings.
Keep feeders clean.
Use insecticides only when necessary and
carefully follow instructions on the label.
Cover: Hummingbirds construct small nests
on tree branches, usually 5 to 20 feet above the
ground. Occasionally, they build nests in
Mourning Dove
Doves prefer stages 2 and 3 of plant
succession with some shrubs and trees nearby
and often use agricultural areas for feeding.
Food: Doves eat waste grain from cropland
and a variety of grass and forb seeds.
Do not till in fall after harvest of small grain
crops. Leave waste grain available.
Leave some areas of small grains including
wheat, barley, millet, milo, and oats unharvested.
Plant annual food plots in areas lacking grain.
15
Prescribe burn small areas (10 acres or less) in

large expanses of stage 3 and 4 vegetation.
Annual burning in stage 5 and 6 woodlands also
is beneficial.
Disk small areas in large expanses of stage 3
and 4 to encourage annual forbs and grasses used
by bobwhites.
Livestock grazing should avoid planted food
plots. Livestock grazing can be used to revert or
maintain vegetative succession in stages 2 and 3.
Ample amount of herbaceous vegetation used
for food by bobwhites should be left in
appropriate areas. This is especially important in
riparian areas.
Lime fields as needed when determined
necessary by soil tests.
Do not till in fall after harvest of small grain
crops. Leave waste grain available.
Cover: Quail use thick shrubs for hiding and
roosting cover.
Plant shrubs in areas where cover is scarce.
Construct brush piles.
Manage livestock grazing to maintain dense
shrub and herbaceous cover, especially in
riparian areas.
Water: Quail require water regularly in
warm seasons.

4 vegetation.
Clear-cut areas (40 acres maximum, 10 to 20
acres preferred) in large areas of stage 5 and 6
woodland.
Prescribe burn small areas (40 acres maximum,
10 to 20 acres preferred) in large areas of stage 4,
5, and 6 of plant succession.
Use livestock grazing to keep some areas in
Disk small areas in large expanses of stage 2
and 3 to encourage annual forbs and grasses.
Cover: Mourning doves prefer tall shrubs
and trees for nesting and loafing. Their nests are
made of twigs placed on branches of shrub or
tree or on the ground.
Plant shrubs and trees in large areas of stage 2
and 3 of plant succession, or in agricultural areas
having few trees or shrubs including field
borders, fence rows, and idle land.
Water: Doves require water daily and prefer
shorelines and banks without vegetation.
Where water is limited or absent, develop
water sources (catchment ponds).
Remove trees near dam. Repair spillway. Stop
pond leaks.
Ovenbird
Northern Bobwhite
Ovenbirds can be found in stages 5 and 6 of

plant succession. They live on and near the
ground.

Quail prefer stages 2, 3, and 4 of plant
succession interspersed. Ideally, habitat
components are made up of one quarter
grassland, one half cropland, one eighth shrub
cover, and one eighth woodland.
Food: The diet of ovenbirds in comprised of
insects, slugs, snails, and earthworms.
Occasionally, seeds and fruits are eaten.
Selection cuts in large expanses of stage 6
woodlands can increase the amounts of insects.
Cover: Ovenbirds make arched nests on the
ground out of grasses and weed stems. The nest
is hidden in vegetation on the forest floor, which
also is used as hiding cover.
Manage livestock grazing to leave herbaceous
cover for nesting. Spring grazing can be
detrimental to nesting habitat.
woodlands would increase cover.
Plant trees and shrubs in large areas of stages 3
and 4 of plant succession.
Water: Water is obtained from diet.
Food: Young quail eat insects. Adults eat a
variety of seeds, green vegetation (mostly forbs),
insects, and small grains.
Plant 1/8 to 1/4-acre annual food plots in areas
with too little cropland. One plot per 15 acres
maximum.
Leave some grain unharvested.
Plant 1/8 to 1/4 acre perennial food plots in
areas with too little permanent food and cover,
making sure not to exceed 1 plot per 15 acres.
Clear-cut small areas (small, 10-acre patches or
strips) in large expanses of stage 5 and 6
woodland.
Selection cut stage 6 woodlands.
Brush chop small areas (10 acres or less) in
large expanses of stage 4 vegetation.
16
Cover: Red-tail hawks usually build their

nest 30 to 90 feet above
the ground in trees.
Cliffs are rarely used.
Plant trees if no trees
are present and irrigate
if necessary.
Maintain large mature
trees in areas where
trees are not plentiful.
Provide nesting
platforms.
Water: Red-tailed hawks obtain necessary
water from their diet.
Red-eyed Vireo
Red-eyed vireos are associated with stages 5
and 6 of plant succession in open deciduous and
mixed forests with a dense understory, in
wooded clearings, and on the borders of areas
maintained by prescribed fires. They can also be
found in upland and river bottom forests, but
seldom where conifers make up 75 percent of the
overstory area. Shade trees forming a
continuous canopy in residential areas provide an
urban habitat.
Food: A red-eyed vireo's diet consists of
insects on the leaf surfaces in the mid to upper
tree canopies. Spiders, snails, fruits, and berries
are also eaten.
woodlands will increase the number of insects.
Cover: These vireos nest in deciduous or
coniferous trees and shrubs as high as 100 feet
off the ground.
woodland increase cover.
Plant trees and shrubs in areas of stages 3 and
4 of plant succession.
Livestock grazing does not measurably effect
red-eyed vireos.
Water: Water is obtained from diet.
Ruffed Grouse
Ruffed grouse prefer stages 4, 5, and 6 of plant
succession. Optimum habitat includes all three
stages interspersed in close relation to each
other.
Food: Ruffed grouse forage on twigs, buds,
and flowers of trees and shrubs. Buds of
deciduous trees are needed for winter survival.
Young grouse eat insects.
6 woodlands. Benefits from this management
practice will not be visible until stage 4 and 5
vegetation becomes established.
Prescribe burn to maintain plant succession in
stages 4, 5 and 6.
Selection cuts in large areas of stage 6
woodland.
Manage livestock grazing to maintain young
deciduous trees and shrubs.
Create drumming log sites.
Cover: Winter cover is considered most
critical. Grouse use shrubs, deciduous, and
conifer trees for cover. Cover can be improved
with the management practices listed above.
Water: Ruffed grouse obtain necessary water
from their diet.
Red-tailed Hawk
General Habitat Preferences
Red-tailed hawks prefer open areas in stages 2
and 3 of plant succession interspersed with trees.
Single trees in open areas are often utilized.
Food: Small mammals such as gray
squirrels, rabbits, and mice are the major food
items for red-tailed hawks. Smaller birds and
reptiles are sometimes eaten.
Manage livestock grazing to maintain some
open areas with enough herbaceous ground layer
for small prey animals.
In large areas of stage 4 succession, use
prescribed burns or brush chopping to revert
succession to stage 3.
Prescribed burns and brush chopping can also
be used to improve small mammal habitat in
stage 3 of plant succession.
Clear-cut small areas (40 acres maximum) in
large expanses of stage 4, 5, and 6 woodlands.
Provide perching poles or plant trees in areas
where large trees are absent.
Wild Turkey
Turkeys prefer 1/2 to 3/4 of their range in
stages 5 and 6 of plant succession interspersed
with areas in stages 3 and 4.
Food: Turkeys feed mostly on the ground
for herbaceous plant seeds, nuts, acorns, and
17
insects, but will use waste grain from croplands

if adjacent to woodlands.
Brush chop or disk small areas to maintain
some stage 3 or 4 vegetation.
Prescribe burn every 3 to 5 years in stage 4, 5,
and 6 vegetation.
5 and 6 woodland.
Selection cut forests in large areas of stage 6
woodland.
Plant several perennial food plots and small (1
to 10 acres) fields to grasses and legumes in
large expanses of stages 4, 5, or 6 vegetation and
in any other areas where food is limited.
Plant mast trees.
Eliminate fall tillage of grain crops, especially
adjacent to woodlands. Leave small areas of
grain crops unharvested.
Plant annual food plots near woodlands.
Livestock grazing management should leave
some forbs and grasses available for food,
especially in riparian areas. Include
development of livestock watering facilities on
adjacent uplands to discourage congregation in
and overuse of these areas.
Cover: Turkeys nest in well concealed,
shallow ground depression lined with leaves and
grass. They
usually nest within
1/4 mile of
available water.
Turkeys roost in
trees or tall shrubs
at night.
Maintain a
significant
component of vegetation in stages 5 and 6 of
succession, especially near streams.
Plant trees and shrubs where cover is sparse.
Livestock grazing management should leave
thick herbaceous cover for nesting. Spring
grazing can be detrimental to nesting habitat,
especially in riparian areas.
Water: Turkeys require water frequently,
which they may acquire from succulent
vegetation, fruits, insects, or free-standing water.
5 and 6 woodlands, or wetlands dominated by

trees.
Food: These ducks eat fruits and nuts of
woody plants, some grains, seeds of water lily
and other aquatic plants, and some insects.
Insects are used by young wood ducks.
During late fall and winter, temporarily flood
stage 5 deciduous woodland with mast trees,
such as oak, and grain crops. Natural flooding
may occur, or small dikes and water control
structures may be used.
Leave small areas of cropland that are near
wetlands and open water unharvested.
Plant mast trees adjacent to wetlands or in
areas that can be temporarily flooded.
Selection cutting of woodlands that can be
flooded is desirable to improve mast production.
Construct ponds and/or wetlands and provide
shallow water areas where aquatic emergent
vegetation can grow.
Manage livestock grazing to maintain thick
herbaceous vegetation surrounding pond and in
watershed that drains into pond. Develop
livestock watering facilities away from pond or
allow access to only a small area of pond.
Cover: Wood ducks nest in cavities in trees
of flooded woodlands or adjacent to water and
use wetlands with an abundance of aquatic
vegetation to raise young.
Nest boxes should be provided if adequate nest
sites are limited.
Plant trees for future nesting sites.
Construct ponds and wetlands. Provide shallow
water areas where aquatic emergent vegetation
can grow. Control water level to provide open
shallow water areas adjacent to areas dominated
by emergent aquatic vegetation.
Remove trees near dam. Repair spillway. Stop
leaks in ponds.
Water: Require water as described above.
Bobcat
General Habitat Preferences
Bobcats are often associated with farmlands
in stages 2 and 3 of plant succession, stage 4
brushy areas, and stage 5 and 6 wooded uplands
and bottomland forests. The bobcat is classified
as a furbearing game species in North Carolina.
Wood Duck
Food: The bobcat preys on rodents, rabbits,

opossum, raccoons, skunks, birds, and snakes.
The cottontail appears to be the main prey

Wood ducks prefer stage 5 woodlands
flooded with water, open water adjacent to stage
18
species, and carrion deer are eaten in the autumn

in correlation with deer hunting seasons.
Small clear-cuts can increase prey abundance.
Livestock, domestic poultry, and pets can
become prey if natural food sources are not
available.
Cover: Bobcats use rock piles and rocky
ledges for den sites.
Brush piles, cavity trees, and hollow logs are
used as resting areas.
Manage livestock grazing to maintain
adequate cover for prey.
Plant shrubs where cover is sparse.
Water: Water requirements for bobcats are
not well known, but freestanding water is used.
be necessary
if bobcat
population
outgrows
food source
population
and
domestic
animals are
taken as
prey.
Eastern Cottontail
Cottontails prefer stages 3 and 4 of plant
succession. Ideally, habitat components are 1/3
grassland, 1/3 cropland, and 1/3 shrub cover all
interspersed together. Cottontail rabbits also use
parks, golf courses, and stream corridors in urban
areas.
Food: A variety of forbs and grasses are
eaten from spring through fall. In winter, rabbits
often eat bark of shrubs and trees.
Plant 1/8 to 1/4 acre annual food crops (grain
sorghum is good) in areas with too little
cropland. One plot per 15 acres maximum.
Plant 1/8 to 1/4-acre perennial food crops
(grass and clover) in areas with too little
grassland. Again, 1 plot per 15 acres maximum.
Brush chopping and prescribed burns can be
used to maintain or rejuvenate small areas of
Clear-cut or selection cut small areas (10 acres
maximum) in large expanses of stage 5 and 6
woodlands.
Livestock grazing management should avoid
use of food and cover plots, and leave ample
amounts of herbaceous vegetation in other areas
used by cottontails for food and cover.
Cover: Eastern cottontails use thick shrub or
herbaceous vegetation for hiding and resting
cover.
Plant shrubs in large areas of stage 2 and 3 of
plant succession, or in agricultural areas having
few trees or shrubs. Plant along field borders,
fence rows, or other idle land areas. This also is
appropriate for open areas in urban settings.
Provide brush piles where additional cover is
needed. In urban areas this practice may not be
compatible with the landowners landscaping
goals.
Water: Rabbits obtain necessary water from
their diet.
Coyote
Coyotes prefer stages 2, 3, and 4 of
succession in grass and timber areas cleared for
agriculture, but have also been seen in urban
areas. Dens are often located on brush covered
slopes, steep banks, rock ledges, thickets, and
hollow logs. Coyotes live in packs, alone, or in
mated pairs.
Food: Coyotes are opportunist feeders,
meaning they will eat about anything that will fit
in their mouth. Small mammals, rodents, birds,
frogs, snakes, insects, fruit, and carrion are all
part of the coyote's diet.
Small clear-cuts can increase prey abundance.
Cover: Den and resting sites are important.
Plant shrubs where cover is sparse.
Manage livestock grazing to maintain cover
for prey species.
Water: Water use by coyotes is not well
known, but most of water requirements are met
with diet.
be necessary for game managers and livestock
producers. Coyotes sometimes take young
livestock, domestic poultry, and deer fawns.
Gray Squirrel
Gray squirrels prefer deciduous woodlands
in stages 5 and 6 of plant succession.
Food: Squirrels spend much time foraging on
the ground, feeding on a variety of nuts, grains,
acorns, seeds, mushrooms, and buds.
19
Clear-cut small areas in large expanses of

Use selection cut timber management.
Cover: Raccoons nest and rest during the day
in natural tree cavities, dens in the ground, under
brush, old buildings, and rocky cliffs and ledges.
Plant and maintain large deciduous trees in
riparian areas and adjacent to wetlands.
Maintain corridors and riparian buffers.
Water: Raccoons require water frequently
during warmer weather.
Build and maintain ponds and wetlands.
Provide pools of water in urban areas.
Special: Raccoons can become pests in urban
areas so wildlife damage management may be
needed. Areas of waterfowl, quail, and turkey
nesting may also be targets of raccoon predation.
Leave some grain unharvested (corn preferred)

and/or eliminate fall tillage of croplands adjacent
to stage 5 and 6 vegetation.
Selection cut large expanses of stage 5 and 6
woodlands.
Plant mast-producing trees along fencerows,
adjacent to streams, or in other idle land areas.
When possible, locate plantings adjacent to
existing croplands.
Livestock grazing should be managed to
maintain adequate forage on forest floor.
Maintain deciduous tree corridors along
streams. Plant trees and shrubs in ravines, along
field borders, and in other idle land areas.
Cover: Squirrels nest in tree cavities or build
nests out of twigs and leaves, and they usually
place twig nests over 30 feet above the ground in
the crotches of trees. In areas where den sites are
scarce, they will use nest boxes. Squirrels need
three to four den trees or suitable nest boxes per
acre. Nest boxes are most beneficial in stage 5
woodlands.
Water: In warm seasons, squirrels require
water daily.
Special: Gray squirrels can cause property
damage in urban areas and wildlife damage
management techniques may be utilized.
White-tailed Deer
Deer prefer stages 3, 4, and 5 of plant
succession interspersed.
Food: Deer eat a variety of shrubs, forbs,
grasses, waste grain, acorns and nuts.
5 and 6 woodlands.
Selection cut stage 5 and 6 woodlands.
Plant several 1-acre perennial food plots of
grass and clover in large expanses of stage 5 and
6 woodland.
Plant annual food plots to grain.
Plant mast trees.
Leave small areas of cropland adjacent to
woodlands unharvested.
Eliminate fall tillage of grain crop residue
adjacent to woodlands.
Prescribe burn at 3 year intervals in stage 5 and
6 woodlands or periodically in stage 3 and 4
vegetation.
Brush chop small areas to maintain stage 3 and
4 vegetation.
Manage livestock grazing to leave some forbs,
grasses, shrubs, and trees available for food and
cover. May include the development of livestock
watering facilities in upland areas to discourage
congregation of livestock and overuse in riparian
areas.
Cover: Deer use woodlands and tall shrubs
for hiding and travel cover.
Raccoon
Raccoons are abundant near water, riparian
areas, and lands adjacent to wetlands. Riparian
areas in stages 5 and 6 of plant succession are
ideal, even though they can be found in all stages
and even in highly populated urban areas.
Food: Raccoons eat a wide variety of food
including eggs, birds, fish, small mammals,
insects, crayfish, grains, fruit, garbage and pet
food.
Manage livestock grazing along the banks and
shores of streams, rivers, and other wetlands to
maintain healthy vegetation.
Prescribed burns and brush chopping can
rejuvenate old wetland vegetation and revert
succession to stages 2, 3, and 4 where
appropriate.
Control water level if possible to provide areas
less than two feet deep where emergent water
plants can grow. Construct ponds and wetlands
with shallow water areas for water plants.
Leave small areas of grain crops unharvested
near woodlands or plant annual grain foodplots.
20
Plant trees and shrubs in ravines, along field

borders, and in other idle land areas.
Water: Deer drink water when it is available,
but can go for long periods without it.
Food: Frogs eat insects.
Cover: Frogs hide in thick, herbaceous
vegetation on the bank or shore adjacent to water
or among floating vegetation in the water
adjacent to the bank.
Construct ponds and wetlands. Include both
shallow water, to encourage emergent aquatic
vegetation, and deep water, for hibernation.
Small backyard pools often are adequate.
Control water levels with water control devices
to insure adequate water depth for hibernation.
Water: Frogs need water to hide. Many
kinds of frogs will dry up and die if their skin is
not kept moist.
Butterflies
In urban areas, butterflies are found in
gardens, yards, and parks planted with attractive
shrubs and flowers. They often lay eggs on a
specific plant species.
Largemouth Bass/Bluegill
These fish are present in ponds, lakes, and
slow-moving rivers/streams.
Habitat Requirements:
Food: Young bass eat insects and other
invertebrates (worms, crayfish, and
zooplankton). These invertebrates depend on
phytoplankton for food. Adult bass eat other
small fish such as bluegill and a variety of
minnows, tadpoles, and crayfish. Bluegill eat a
variety of insects, zooplankton (microscopic
animal life), tadpoles, small minnows, and
crayfish.
Construct ponds. Maintain a green color in
pond water (green enough that a white disk
cannot be seen 24 inches below the water
surface). The green color is caused by
phytoplankton (microscopic plant life--algae).
In clear water, fertilizer may be added to
increase phytoplankton.
Determine pond balance using a minnow seine.
A bass-to-bluegill ratio of 3 to 6 pounds of
bluegill to 1 pound of bass is considered a good
fish population balance.
Harvest more or fewer bluegill depending on
seine sample results.
Harvest more or fewer bass.
Remove existing fish and restock pond.
Prevent or clear up muddy water (brown or
gray color). Muddy water blocks sunlight
needed in producing phytoplankton.
Manage livestock grazing to maintain thick
herbaceous vegetation surrounding pond and in
watershed that drains into pond. Develop
livestock watering facilities away from pond or
allow access to only a small area of pond.
Reseed watershed.
Food: Butterflies usually drink nectar from
flowers.
Plant and maintain native shrubs and flowers
that attract butterflies. Some examples are aster,
verbena, milkweed, coneflower, blazing star, and
butterfly weed.
Plant and maintain specific types of plants on
which butterflies lay eggs. Some examples are
chokecherry and cottonwood for tiger
swallowtails; dill, parsley, and carrot for black
swallowtail; hollyhock and sunflower for painted
lady; and clover for clouded sulfur butterflies.
Cover: Use plantings to provide shelter from
wind.
Water: Some butterflies can be seen
collecting water on moist sand or mud around
water puddles.
Provide an area with water puddles to attract
groups of these butterflies.
Frogs
Frogs prefer weeds and aquatic vegetation on
the edges of ponds, lakes, and slow-moving
streams. Mud bottoms are needed so frogs can
bury themselves for hibernation during the
winter.
21
Water: Largemouth bass and bluegill require an

adequate quantity and quality of water.
Basic requirements are:
1) Dissolved oxygen at a minimum of 5
parts per million (ppm).
2) Carbon dioxide should not exceed 20
ppm.
3) pH should range between 6.5 and 9.0.
4) Water temperature should reach at least
70 degrees Fahrenheit during the
summer at 1 foot below water surface in
the shade.
Test water to see if requirements are met.
Aerate pond to increase oxygen and decrease
carbon dioxide.
Stop pond leaks when they occur.
Repair spillway if needed.
Ensure adequate water supply with diversion
ditches.
Remove trees from dike and dam portion of
pond.
Lime ponds to increase alkalinity if below
20ppm.
Cover: Bass and bluegill often are found

near submerged rocks, shrubs, and aquatic
vegetation where small prey fish hide.
Artificial reefs constructed of rock piles,
sections of plastic or cement pipe (a minimum of
6 inches in diameter and 18 inches long), brush
piles, old Christmas trees, and tires can be used
for additional cover. These practices are
recommended for ponds larger than 10 surface
acres in size.
Aquatic vegetation can become too abundant
when more than 30 percent of the water surface
is covered. Deepening the pond edges to 2 feet
deep or more discourages rooted aquatic
vegetation growth.
22
Wildlife Management Practices

In this section, various practices used to manage habitat are described in detail.
The descriptions are brief and general and are not meant to be comprehensive.
Additional reading, research, and guidance from wildlife management professionals is
suggested. Landowner objectives will determine which practices you recommend. The
best habitat management practice may be to maintain an area in its current condition by
protecting the area from development and applying various management practices that
will maintain the current condition.
23
low. Burn early in the spring as conditions

permit, before April 1 if possible, so ground
nesting wildlife are not disturbed. Conduct fires
under close supervision of wildlife, forestry,
and/or range professionals that have experience
with prescribed burns. Results vary with the
type of vegetation being burned, burning
conditions, and the frequency of burning. After
a fire, understory shrubs resprout, the vigor and
quality of forbs and grasses is improved, soil
nutrients are released, dead vegetation is
removed and seeds reach mineral soil and
germinate.
1. Artificial Feeders
General Description
Feeders are used primarily to feed wildlife in
urban areas. A wide variety of feeder designs,
methods, and different foods exist. Sunflower
seeds and white proso millet are universal
favorites. Some species prefer to eat fat rather
than seeds. Some prefer to eat on the ground
rather than in a tree or on a balcony. Research
the featured species for feeding preferences.
2. Brush Chopping (Mowing)

General Description
Brush chopping involves mowing dense
vegetation, including fairly large shrubs, with a
large rotary mower mounted behind a tractor.
Effect On Habitat
Helps keep vegetative succession in stage 2 or

stage 3, and sometimes reverts succession from
stage 4 to stage 3.
Helps remove competition from shrubs
allowing grasses and forbs to grow better, and
encourages resprouting of some shrub species.
In stages 2, 3, and 4, brush chopping helps
rejuvenate grasses, forbs, and shrubs which
improves quality of future nesting sites.
In stages 5 and 6, maintains a dense low
understory in properly thinned woodlands.
Prescribed fire in a southeastern pine stand
Effect On Habitat
Annual Burning:
Burning in stage 2 helps keep vegetative
succession in stage 2.
Burning stage 3 helps keep vegetative
Burning stage 4 causes succession to revert to
stage 3.
Burning stage 5 and 6 keeps understory shrubs
thinned out and stimulates grassy-weedy
undergrowth if stands are properly thinned.
3- to 5-Year Interval Burning:
Burning stage 2 allows succession to progress,
but more slowly than if left alone.
Burning stage 3 usually keeps vegetative
Periodic burning of vegetation-choked
wetlands can improve the water and cover
interspersion.
Burning stage 4 increases shrub growth
through increased resprouting.
Burning stage 5 and 6, in pines, stimulates
thicker understory shrubs if stands are properly
thinned.
3. Brush Piles
General Description
Brush piles can be made from saplings or tree
branches available from land clearing, timber
harvest operations, tree pruning, and other
management practices. For best results, piles
should be 3 to 5 feet high 15 feet in diameter and
very loose. This will allow grass and forbs to
grow in them, creating more food and cover for
wildlife. Brush piles can be used in ponds to
provide hiding places for small fish.
Effect On Habitat
Particularly useful for rabbits and quail in areas

with little cover, especially in areas with large
acreage of croplands.
Provides safe havens at the edge between fields
and woodlands.
4. Prescribed ("Controlled")
Burning
General Description
Burning should be done under cool, moist,
low-wind conditions, when danger of wildfire is
24
Fish Surveys
5. Disking
Population balance is important for fish and

pond health. Determine the balance in a pond by
using a 1/8-inch mesh minnow seine net to
sample the population at various locations
around the pond. Compare age groups,
condition, numbers, and species of fish caught.
Use this information to determine of the pond
has a balanced population or if a management
practice needs to be utilized.
General Description
Areas in successional stages 2, 3, and 4 can
be disked to promote the growth of annual and
perennial forbs and grasses.
Effect On Habitat
Disking keeps vegetative succession in stage 2.

Promotes the growth of annual forbs that some
wildlife prefer for food and cover.
In stage 3, disking causes succession to revert
to stage 2. Disking in stage 4 causes succession
to revert to stages 2 or 3.
Can be used to decrease vegetative cover and
increase interspersion in wetlands during dry
periods.
8. Harvest Less
Bass
Needed when seine samples and fishing
records of pond reveal these situations:
No recent bluegill hatch.
Many medium-sized bluegill in poor condition.
Bass few, large, and in good condition.
Bluegill
Needed when seine sample and fishing
Many recently hatched bluegill.
Very few medium-sized bluegill.
Bass less than one pound in poor condition.
No young bass.
Game Birds and Mammals

Needed when there is a high proportion of
young animals in the bag and hunting success is
low.
Tractor with Disk Implement
6. Grain and Hay Harvest

General Description
9. Harvest More
When possible, avoid harvesting grain crops

or hay during nesting and fawning seasons to
reduce nest destruction and mortality. Leave
strips or blocks of grain crops (1/8 to 1/4 acre is
usually sufficient) unharvested.
Bass
records of pond reveal these situations.
Many recently hatched bluegill.
Very few medium-sized bluegill.
Bass less than one pound and in poor
condition.
No young bass.
Increase bass harvest cautiously. Spread the
harvest over the entire summer.
Effect On Habitat
Provides a food source for many species of

wildlife.
Food strips especially valuable when adjacent
to herbaceous, shrub, or tree cover.
Use flushing bars on harvesting equipment
when possible.
Bluegill
No recent bluegill hatch.
Many medium-sized bluegill in poor condition.
Bass few, large, and in good condition.
7. Wildlife or Fish (pond) Survey

Wildlife Surveys
Monitoring wildlife for trends of increasing
or decreasing populations is important for land
managers. Methods such as roadside counts, call
counts, check stations, transects, and
questionnaires are used by wildlife biologists to
collect data. This data is used to determine
future management strategies.
Game Birds and Mammals

Needed when animals show signs of
overpopulation such as:
Disease.
Destruction of habitat by crowded animals.
25
Poor body condition.

Excessive fighting.
Few young animals in bag.
Higher percentage of older animals than young
in fall population indicates poor reproduction
due to inadequate nutrition. Thinning population
will leave more food to go around.
large animals such as deer, they should be

recommended only when necessary and designed
to allow passage. The top wire should be a
maximum of 42 inches above the ground (allows
some wildlife to jump over) and the bottom wire
should be smooth and a minimum of 16 inches
above the ground (allows some wildlife to go
under).
Water Developments: The more watering
places available, the less likely livestock will
concentrate in one area, and the more flexibility
one has in managing livestock.
Salting: Locating salting areas away from
watering places and occasionally moving
locations can be used to encourage uniform
distribution of livestock.
Herding: Using horseback or other means to
move animals is useful for achieving proper
distribution of grazing animals. Used to
discourage congregation of animals in attractive
areas for long periods of time.
10. Lime Ponds and Fields

General Description
When water quality tests show the alkalinity
is below 20 ppm it should be adjusted by using
agricultural lime. Lime also should be added to
food plots when soil pH is low and soil is acidic.
11. Livestock Grazing

Management
General Description
Exclude or include livestock in an area to
manipulate successional stages to benefit wildlife
(i.e. maintain open areas in woodlands).
General Principles
Proper Grazing Use: On native
rangelands and riparian areas, do not graze more
than 50 percent of the yearly growth of
vegetation preferred by livestock.
Timing: Avoid grazing areas during periods
when wildlife and/or vegetation is vulnerable to
damage. For example, grazing riparian areas in
the summer can damage young shrubs and trees
and grazing in spring can reduce cover needed
by ground-nesting wildlife.
Intensity: High intensity grazing, or many
animals grazing at once, should not be allowed
for long periods and should not be used in
important nesting areas during the nesting
season.
Rotation: Livestock should be moved from
an area before vegetation is over-used. The
vegetation is allowed to recover before it is
grazed again.
Grazing Cattle
Effect On Habitat
If properly managed, livestock grazing
usually is not harmful and in some instances may
improve wildlife habitat. Changes in grazing
management are recommended only when it is
evident that livestock use is damaging wildlife
habitat or is needed to improve the habitat for
selected wildlife species. Periodic grazing of
vegetation choked wetlands can improve water
and vegetation interspersion.
Tools
12. Nesting Boxes/Structures/

Platforms
Fencing, water developments, salting, and

herding are the most common methods used to
control livestock grazing. Whenever livestock
grazing is recommended, it is implied that the
necessary tools will be available. Information on
these tools follows.
Fencing: Useful to exclude livestock from
food plots, ponds, woodlands, or other areas.
Often necessary for managing livestock grazing
such as rotating areas being grazed and
controlling access to water. Because fences
interfere with movement of wildlife, especially
General Description
The particular design and placement of
nesting structures and boxes often determines
which wildlife species will use the structure.
Boxes: Some specific species nest in cavities
that they don't excavate themselves. If natural
cavities are not available, artificial cavities or
nest boxes will be used. Each wildlife species
needs a certain kind of cavity (diameter of hole,
26
depth, and area) in a certain location (field,

woods, or water) and at a certain height (4 to 20
feet high).
Platform: Species such as the red-tailed
hawk build nests in large trees or other structures
above the ground. If nesting sites are scarce,
artificial platforms placed on poles above the
ground may be used.
Structures: In wetlands dominated by open
water and lacking islands or peninsulas, floating
nest structures often are used by mallards.
deer, northern bobwhite, eastern cottontail,

American kestrel, great-horned owl, and wild
turkey.
Plantings should be native species and grazed,
burned, or mowed once every 3 to 5 years to
prevent deterioration of the vegetation.
15. Plant Trees or Shrubs

General Description
When properly located, shrubs and trees can
benefit many species of wildlife. Mast trees,
including oaks, dogwoods, and persimmons,
produce an annual crop of fruits, acorns or other
nuts. Deciduous trees provide leafy cover for
nesting songbirds and the foliage that is an
important food source of many insects. Brushy
shrubs and evergreens along fencerows, as
hedges, or in urban areas provide excellent
cover, especially during winter months. It is best
to plant shrubs and trees in early spring when
they are dormant.
Effect On Habitat
Boxes are especially useful in woodlands in
stage 5 succession, where trees are not old
enough to provide cavities. In stages 2, 3, and 4,
boxes are useful unless an abundance of nesting
cavities or locations already exist.
13. Plant Food Plots (1/8 to 2

Acres)
General Description
Effect On Habitat
Plots can be long and narrow (300 to 400 feet

long and 15 to 20 feet wide) or square. Plots are
best located at the edge between two or more
kinds of habitat, such as between woodlands and
a hayfield, and next to natural cover such as
shrubs. Foods should be planted prior to June 1,
except for grass-clover mixture, to ensure
maturity and should be protected from livestock.
Fruit and acorn producers are useful for

songbirds, deer, squirrels, raccoons, foxes, bears,
turkeys, and wood ducks in areas with little
available mast, including large expanses of
farmland, pine woodland, or urban areas. A
variety of mast tree species should be planted to
provide a variety of foods for wildlife.
In large open areas, multi-row plantings of at
least 15 rows of trees and shrubs are beneficial,
especially if planted adjacent to tall herbaceous
cover or a good food source. Row plantings act
as travel lanes for wildlife to move safely across
open fields between two areas of cover or along
the edges between fields and woodlands, around
farm homesteads, and urban areas.
Tree/shrub plantings also are used to restore
and improve riparian areas.
Effect On Habitat
Annuals: Planting grains is useful in areas of
natural plant succession where row-crops
including corn, soybeans, grain sorghum, and
other small grains are scarce. One small (1/8 to
1/4 acre) plot per 15 acres or large (1 to 2 acres)
plot per 60 acres is sufficient.
Perennials: Grasses, clovers, and other
forbs are useful in areas of row-crop farming
especially where shrub field borders are scarce.
These plots provide both food and cover for
many wildlife species.
16. Timber Harvest--Clear-cut

General Description
14. Plant Grass and Forbs
Clear-cutting is a type of timber management

where all trees are harvested at the same time on
a tract of land.
Different tracts are cut each year and rotated
over an area like a checkerboard. In general,
tracts should not be over 40 acres, and tracts as
small as 10 to 20 acres often are preferred. Cuts
should be long and narrow with irregular shapes.
The increased sprouting of shrubs, grasses, and
forbs that result from sunlight reaching the forest
floor benefits several wildlife species, and many
species prefer the edge between forest and
General Description
Plant fields (2 to 40 acres) of native grasses,
legumes, and wildflowers in large expanses of
stage 4, 5, and 6 vegetation.
Effect On Habitat
While smaller fields are useful for wildlife in

wooded areas with little acreage in stages 2 and
3, larger fields are useful in areas with little
acreage in hayfields, pastures, or small grains.
These fields will be used for food as well as
cover by many species, especially white-tailed
27
openings created by such cuts. This practice can

be harmful to wildlife species that need
woodlands to supply all of their welfare
requirements such as gray squirrels and some
songbirds. However, if harvested tracts are not
too large and there are sufficient amounts of
surrounding forest, sensitive species will remain.
to four den, old mature, and large dead (snags)

trees per acre should be maintained.
18. Snags, Dead and Down

Woody Material
General Description
Snags are standing dead trees. Snags should
be retained as a source of dead and down woody
material. Logs of different species with
remaining limbs, bark, and stumps should be
retained for habitat diversity. At least 3 to 4
den, large old mature trees, and large snags per
acre should be available.
Effect On Habitat
Snags are used by wildlife for perching and as

nesting sites.
Snags provide sites for cavity construction and
foraging for many species.
Dead and down wood creates sites for feeding,
hiding, resting, denning, and reproducing.
Down logs provide drumming sites for ruffed
grouse.
As logs decompose, they hold more moisture
and provide a cool microhabitat for reptiles,
amphibians, and small mammals.
Decomposing woody material provides rich
food sites for insect and fungi eating animals.
Opening created by clear-cut harvest in stages 2

and 3 of plant succession
Effect On Habitat
Useful in large forested areas with very little
acreage in stages 2, 3, and 4, of succession.
Reverts stages 5 and 6 to 2, 3, and 4, with more
emphasis on stage 4. At least 3 to 4 den and/or
large mature trees per acre should be left after
the cut.
17. Timber Harvest--Selection Cut
19. Ponds/Lakes--Artificial Reefs
General Description
General Description
Also called "all-aged management", selected

trees are cut a few at a time, eventually resulting
in trees of all ages. Animals preferring stages 2,
3, and 4 of succession benefit from the sprouting
of shrubs, grasses and forbs where individual
trees were cut, yet mature trees also are present
for species that prefer stages 5 and 6.
Large rocks, brush like used Christmas trees,

or submerged tires provide cover for fish. The
practice is recommended for ponds or lakes that
are larger than 10 acres. In smaller bodies of
water, artificial reefs may allow prey fish to be
overly successful at avoiding predators, leading
to an overabundance of prey fish that are in poor
condition.
20. Ponds--Clear Muddy Water

General Description
To clear muddy water:
Broadcast agricultural limestone on the pond
surface at the rate of 500 to 1,000 pounds per
surface acre.
Dissolve aluminum potassium sulfate
(commercial alum crystals) in water and spread
on the entire surface at the rate of 5 to 15 pounds
per acre-foot of water.
Broadcast cottonseed meal on the pond surface
at the rate of 100 pounds per acre.
Broadcast agricultural gypsum on the pond
surface at the rate of 12 to 25 pounds per 1000
Openings created by a selection harvest
Effect on Habitat
Selection cuts stimulate shrub, grass, and
forb understory production in woodlands where
sunlight is increased. Mast-producing and
adjacent mature trees also benefit. At least three
28
If bullheads, crappie, and other unwanted

species are caught in the seine, the pond may
need to be poisoned or drained.
cubic feet of water (500 to 1,000 pounds per

acre-foot of water).
Effect On Habitat
Removes/settles silt in the water, allowing

sunlight to produce phytoplankton.
Activates the first step in the pond food chain.
Any erosion of the watershed, which may have
caused the muddy water, must be stopped.
Poisoning or drainage may be necessary to
remove carp, which can cause muddy water.
24. Ponds--Diversion Ditches

General Description
Diversion ditches should be constructed so
that a small amount of water enters the pond and
exits the spillway. The bulk of water is diverted
around the pond through the diversion ditch. In
extremely dry regions, diversion ditches can be
used to bring extra water to the pond during
rains.
21. Small Dikes For Temporary

Flooding
General Description
Effect On Habitat
Temporary flooding is used on existing or

potential wetlands, including grain fields,
Japanese millet fields, and stage 5 and 6
hardwood woodlands. Temporarily flooding
these areas in the fall provides feeding and
nesting areas for waterfowl.
25. Ponds--Fertilize
Needed for ponds with high water flow or to

prevent flood damage. High water flow dilutes
and wastes fertilizer and requires expensive
water control structures.
General Description
22. Ponds--Deepen Edges
Well-fertilized ponds can produce up to three

times as many pounds of fish as unfertilized
ponds. Ponds should NOT be fertilized if they
have an aquatic weed problem. Fertilize ponds
in the spring when the water temperature is
above 60 degrees Fahrenheit. Apply at the rate
of 40 pounds of 20-20-5 granular per acre, one
gallon of 10-36-0 liquid fertilizer per acre, or
eight pounds of water soluble powder per acre at
two-week intervals, or until a good green color
(phytoplankton bloom) develops in the pond.
Make additional applications of fertilizer (at the
same rate per surface acre) every 3 to 4 weeks, or
after the water clears (become less green) so that
you can see deeper than 24 inches into the water.
Continue this program until water temperatures
drop below 60 degrees Fahrenheit in the fall. If a
pond does not develop a green bloom after
several fertilizations, then it probably needs lime.
If a pond has been properly fertilized for the
past 5 years and has no concentration of weeds,
future fertilizations can be done using phosphate
only. The rate is 10 pounds of super-phosphate
per acre per application. Make the first 3
applications 2 weeks apart, and at 3 to 4 week
intervals thereafter. Granular fertilizer must be
distributed from a fertilizer platform. Liquid
fertilizer should be mixed with pond water and
broadcast from a boat for large ponds or from the
bank of small ponds. Water-soluble powdered
fertilizers can be broadcast from a boat or from
the bank.
General Description
To deepen pond edges, draw the water down,
let banks dry out, and use a tractor with a blade.
Edges should be deepened to a minimum of 2 to
3 feet with steep side slopes. Soil removed from
the edge can be piled around the bank and then
smoothed out and planted to grass and legumes.
Effect On Habitat
Needed to reduce rooted aquatic vegetation

around the edge of a pond and improve ponds for
fish.
23. Ponds--Determine Balance

General Description
Initial population balance is established by
stocking the correct numbers of fish.
After the first year, check the fish pond balance
during the early summer using a 1/8-inch mesh
minnow seine 15 feet long and 3 feet deep.
Seine at intervals around the pond by
anchoring one end at the bank, pulling the seine
straight from the bank to its full length, and then
sweeping in an arc back to the bank. Four to five
sweeps in an average pond is usually enough.
Balance is determined by comparing age
groups, condition, and numbers of bass and
bluegill caught in the seine. Recent reproduction
of both bass and bluegill in the seine indicate
that the fish population is balanced.
29
Effect On Habitat
28. Ponds--Reseed Watershed
Fertilizer is needed if a white object can be

seen at 24 inches below the water surface.
Fertilizing ponds stimulates phytoplankton
production, which is the first step in the food
chain of a pond.
General description
If a pond's watershed does not have enough
vegetation to slow down rainfall runoff and
encourage percolation, then reseed the
watershed.
Effect On Habitat
26. Ponds--Remove Trees Near

Dam
Reseeding is one method of reducing erosion

of the watershed.
Reduces silt entering the pond water and
allows sunlight to promote phytoplankton.
Improves water quality and provides nesting,
brooding and winter cover for some wildlife.
General Description
Because tree roots loosen the compacted soil
and cause leaks, any trees on a pond dam must
be removed. No more than 1/3 of the remaining
pond bank should be occupied by trees.
Effect On Habitat
29. Ponds--Restock
27. Ponds--Repair Spillway
Restock only after all fish in pond are

removed, either by draining pond or applying
rotenone. Rotenone kills fish by interfering with
the fish's ability to use oxygen in the water. It is
applied as a liquid or powder during early fall.
Bluegill fingerlings are stocked in the late fall,
and bass fingerlings are stocked the following
June. Stocking rates are 1000 bluegill and 100
bass per surface acre if the pond is to be
fertilized, or 500 bluegill and 50 bass per acre if
the pond will not be fertilized. As many as 50
channel catfish fingerlings per acre also may be
stocked at the same time as the bluegill.
General Description
Trees growing around the pond will reduce the

water level and some species, such as doves,
prefer clean banks for watering.
Some nearby trees are desirable for many
wildlife species, but need not occupy more than
one-third of the pond bank.
General Description
Repair needed if spillway in existing dam or
dike is eroding or otherwise damaged, thereby
keeping the pond water level too low and
increasing the chance of the dam washing away
during heavy rains.
Effect On Habitat
The techniques of draining or rotenoning
ponds allow unbalanced fish populations to be
removed and new ones started with a balanced
ratio of bass to bluegill. Needed in ponds with:
Extremely unbalanced fish populations.
An overabundance of small, stunted bluegill.
Few, hard-to-catch fish of usable size.
Presence of wild fish such as carp, shad,
goldfish, suckers, crappie, green sunfish, or
bullhead catfish.
30. Ponds--Stop Leaks

General Description
Leaks in existing ponds may be stopped with:
Bentonite at 100 pounds per 100 square feet.
Salt at 16 to 20 pounds per 100 square feet.
Tetrasodium pyrophosphate at 2 tons per acre.
Soda ash at 5 tons per acre.
In severe cases, plastic liners may be used but
is costly.
Pond Repair
Effect On Habitat
Necessary in leaking ponds with limited water

supply.
30
Soil can be gathered from nearby sources or

pond/wetland bottom and used to build islands,
peninsulas, and the shallow water areas (less
than 2 feet deep). Areas above the water line
that are disturbed by this activity should be
smoothed and planted to grass and legumes.
31. Ponds/Wetlands--Provide
Shallow Water/ Islands/
Peninsulas
General Description
To increase emergent aquatic vegetation
and/or provide islands and peninsulas for
wildlife, but only for existing ponds and
wetlands. Not recommended for areas with
moving water such as rivers and streams. Draw
the water down, let the area dry out, and use a
tractor with a blade and front-end loader.
Effect On Habitat
Needed to increase nesting areas and emergent

aquatic vegetation.
31
The Contest
There are four parts of the wildlife habitat evaluation program:
Evaluating rural wildlife management practices and their effects on habitat.

Interpreting wildlife habitat from aerial photographs.
Identifying common wildlife species.
Identifying common wildlife foods and what eats them.
You will be scored on how well you complete each part of the program.
In each section you'll be given suggestions about what to study as you prepare for
that part of the program. You'll also be shown a sample scorecard or be given a
description of the activity you'll be scored on. Examples will be given showing how to
complete the scorecard or activity.
32
Activity I
On-site Habitat Management Recommendations
(30 Points)
This activity addresses the use of the Wildlife Management Practices (WMP's)
necessary to improve an area for each of the wildlife species listed. Consider each species
separately. In other words, make management recommendations for deer as if you were
managing for deer only; then make management recommendations for each additional
species as if you were managing for that species only. Consider the habitat only in its
present condition rather than its potential in the future or how it might look years later.
Completing Activity I Scorecard: On-site Habitat Recommendations
To complete the scorecard, write in the names of the species that have been
chosen for management recommendations. The appropriate box for all WMP's that
would improve the area for each species listed on the scorecard should be marked with an
"X". The practices can be found in the Habitat Needs for Wildlife and Wildlife
Management Practices sections.
Assume that all of the species on the scorecard are present in the area, except for
aquatic animals (bass, bluegill, and wood duck) when ponds, lakes, or streams are absent.
Also, assume that this area is large enough to support all the species on the scorecard.
Cost or other land management objectives should not be considered.
Example:
The area is 300 acres of stage 6 hardwood woodland, and wild turkey is the
species being considered.
Reading the information in Habitat Needs for Wildlife section, you can determine
that WMPs 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, and 17 are commonly used for
managing wild turkey. From these practices, select the appropriate ones that will
improve the given habitat for a wild turkey population.
WMP 2 should not be marked because there are no open spaces (stages 2, 3, and
4) in the woodland. Prescribed burning (WMP 4) is commonly practiced in stage 6
woodlands, so it should be marked. Since the woodland is all stage 6, we would not
choose WMP 5. We do not know the current wild turkey population, so we can't
decrease or increase the harvest (WMPs 8 and 9), but we do need to do a wildlife survey
(WMP 7). There is no agriculture, so WMP 6 will not be done. Livestock grazing on the
area is not known, so WMP 11 will not be marked. WMP 10 will not be marked because
there currently are no fields. Planting food plots (WMP 13) will be marked. WMP 14,
planting grass and forbs, will be marked because turkeys require these areas. WMPs16
and 17 will be marked because there are no openings and based on turkey habitat
requirements only one-third to two-thirds of the area in stages 5 and 6 are needed. There
are plenty of trees already, so WMP 15 will not be needed. With the given information
about the area, the only management practices marked would be 4, 7, 13, 14, 16, and 17.
33
8. Harvest Less
9. Harvest More
5. Disking
X

11. Livestock Grazing Management
12. Nesting Boxes/Structures/Platforms
14. Plant Grasses and Forbs
15. Plant Trees and Shrubs
16. Timber Harvest: Clear Cut
X
X
17. Timber Harvest: Selection Cut
X
X
19. Ponds/Lakes: Artificial Reefs

20. Ponds: Clear Muddy Water
21. Small Dikes for Temporary Flooding
22. Ponds: Deepen Edges

23. Ponds: Determine Balance
24. Ponds: Diversion Ditches
25. Ponds: Fertilize
26. Ponds: Remove Trees Near Dam
27. Ponds: Repair Spillway
28. Ponds: Reseed Waterway

29. Ponds: Restock
30. Ponds: Stop Leaks
31. Ponds/Wetlands: Provide Shallow Water,
Islands, Peninsulas
34
X
X
X
X
13. Plant Food Plots (1/8 to 2 Acres)
18. Snags, Dead and Down Woody Material
X
X
7. Wildlife and Fish (Pond) Surveys
3. Brush Piles
4. Prescribed (Controlled) Burning
Red-eyed Vireo
Ovenbird
Mallard (winter)
Northern
Bobwhite
Mourning Dove
Hummingbirds
Hairy Woodpecker
Great Horned Owl
Eastern Bluebird
Brown Thrasher
Broad-winged
Hawk
American Robin
Wildlife
Management
Practices
American Kestrel
Table 1. Wildlife Management Practices (will be determined by current conditions of habitat)
Butterflies
Largemouth Bass /
Bluegill
White-tailed Deer
Frogs
Raccoon
Gray Squirrel
Eastern Cottontail
Coyote
Bobcat
Wood Duck
Wild Turkey
Ruffed Grouse
Wildlife
Management
Practices
Red-tailed Hawk
Table 1. (Cont) Wildlife Management Practices (will be determined by current conditions of habitat)
3. Brush Piles
4. Prescribed (Controlled) Burning
X
X
5. Disking
8. Harvest Less
9. Harvest More

X
X
X
X
X
14. Plant Grasses and Forbs
16. Timber Harvest: Clear Cut

X
X
13. Plant Food Plots (1/8 to 2 Acres)

X
15. Plant Trees and Shrubs
X
X
29. Ponds: Restock

31. Ponds/Wetlands: Provide Shallow Water,
Islands, Peninsulas
35
Activity I
Scorecard
On-Site Habitat
Recommendations
30 Points
Contestant
County
JR
SR
Wildlife Species
1
Wildlife Management Practices (WMPs)

3. Brush Piles
4. Prescribed ("Controlled") Burning
5. Disking
8. Harvest Less
9. Harvest More
13. Plant Food Plots
14. Plant Grass and Forbs
15. Plant Trees or Shrubs
16. Timber Harvest: Clear-cut
29. Ponds: Restock
31. Ponds/Wetlands: Provide Shallow Water, Islands, Peninsulas
Number Incorrect
Number Correct
Score = [(total correct total incorrect) / 248] * 30
Total Correct__________
SCORE
Total Incorrect__________
Activity II
Interpreting Aerial Photographs
(30 Points)
To prepare for activity II of the program, you'll need to have a basic

understanding of aerial photographs and how to read them. Imagine how the countryside
would look if you were a bird flying over it. If you have flown in an airplane, you know
how it looks. The way a bird or pilot sees land is the way it appears on an aerial
photograph. For example, a silo appears round, buildings look like squares or rectangles,
woods are rough, and fields are smooth. When you read an aerial photograph, hold it so
that shadows of objects fall toward you; otherwise, valleys appear as ridges, and vice
versa. All objects are small, but you can determine what they are by comparing their size
with the size of a known object. Other clues are tone (shade of gray), shape, and shadow
(the length of shadow indicates the height of an object). The tone varies with season of
the year, so it is important to know when the aerial photographs were made. Most
photographs used in the contest will be made by the U.S. government, and the date they
were made often will be printed in the upper left-hand corner. The scale of such photos
can vary, but usually either 4 or 8 inches on the map equals 1 mile on the ground.
Completing Activity II Scorecard: Interpretation of Aerial Photographs
To complete Activity II, judge the quality of four areas, shown in four aerial
photos, for each chosen wildlife species. One species at a time, judge the habitat value of
the circled areas. Put an X in the box beneath the species of interest that best represents
the ranking of the four photographs in order of quality from left to right, starting with the
best. Do not consider the area's potential value; consider only its present quality. Also,
do not consider surrounding areas. If there is no difference between areas, place
parentheses around the numbers (e.g., (3,4)). Scoring will follow the Hormel system, in
which the fewest points are subtracted for answers similar to the correct answer.
Example - Using the four sample aerial photographs on page 35, complete the scorecard.
For American kestrels, the areas would be ranked 2, 3, 4, 1. These birds prefer
large open areas in stages 2 and 3 of plant succession interspersed with areas in stages 4,
5, and 6. Area 2 fits this well. Area 3 also supplies this type of habitat, but has less area
in stage 2 or 3 of plant succession. Area 4 has large open areas, but has little
interspersion of other plant succession stages and is ranked third. Area 1 has few open
areas and thus is ranked last.
Brown thrashers would prefer the areas in the order 3, 2, 1, 4. Thrashers prefer
dense shrub thickets. Area 3 supplies the greatest amount of this type of habitat. Area 2
has more area in stage 4 of plant succession than either area 1 or 4. Areas 1 and 4 are
difficult to judge. In this instance, we would assume there is more shrub cover associated
with the woodland area in Area 1 than what is shown in Area 4.
Eastern bluebirds would prefer the areas in the order 2, 3, 4, 1. Just as kestrels,
bluebirds like to nest in tree cavities adjacent to fields and prefer open fields for feeding.
Mourning doves would prefer the areas in the order 4, 2, 3, 1. Because doves
prefer fields for feeding, this rating order is based on the amount of open fields available.
37
For eastern cottontails, the area should be rated 2, 3, 4, 1. Area 2 is preferred

because it has nearly the proper ratios of habitat components for rabbits (one-third
grassland, one-third cropland, and one-third shrub cover), and they are well interspersed
(mixed together). Area 3 has less shrub cover than area 2, but it has more habitat variety
than area 4. Area 4 is lacking interspersion but has more cropland than Area 1.
For northern bobwhite, the areas would be ranked 2, 3, 4, 1. The rankings are the
same as for rabbits for the same reasons. However, in some judging cases, areas may be
rated differently for quail than for rabbits. Quail do not need quite as much shrub cover
as rabbits.
For eastern wild turkeys, the areas would be listed 3, 2, 1, 4. Turkeys need 1/4 to
1/2 of their range open, and 1/2 to 3/4 as mature woodland. Area 3 is preferred because it
has roughly 1/2 the area in woodlands, and nearly 1/4 of the area is open. Area 2 is
second, because it is the only one of the remaining areas that has a near equal mix of
open areas and forests. Area 3 is listed third because it has more timber than Area 4 and
more cover in general.
For white-tailed deer the areas would be rated 3, 2, 1, 4. Deer prefer woodland
interspersed with areas in various stages of succession. Area 3 fits this well, because it
includes three stages. Area 2 is selected over Area 1 because of the variety of
successional stages it offers. Area 4 is too open, so Area 1 is listed third and Area 4 is
listed last.
Wood ducks would prefer the order 3, 4, (1, 2). Areas 3 and 4 have a dendritic
(branchlike) drainage area indicating the possibility for pond building. However, the
stream in Area 4 is not bordered by woodland and is of lower quality than the stream in
Area 3. Area 1 and 2 show no evidence of ponds or streams.
Largemouth bass and bluegill would prefer the areas in the order 3, 4, (1, 2) for the
same reasons as wood ducks.
38
Aerial Photos
Aerial Photo #1
Aerial Photo #2
Aerial Photo #3
Aerial Photo #4
39
Activity II
Scorecard
Contestant
County
Habitat Evaluation of
Aerial Photos
30 Points
JR
SR
Wildlife Species
1
Instructions: For each species, rank the areas outlined

for their habitat value. Mark an "X" in the box with the
appropriate ranking for each species. Consider only
the area outlined on the photos in their current
condition, not potential of the area.
Ranking
1 2 3 4
1 2 4 3
1 3 2 4
1 3 4 2
1 4 2 3
1 4 3 2
2 1 3 4
2 1 4 3
2 3 1 4
2 3 4 1
2 4 1 3
2 4 3 1
3 1 2 4
3 1 4 2
3 2 1 4
3 2 4 1
3 4 1 2
3 4 2 1
4 1 2 3
4 1 3 2
4 2 1 3
4 2 3 1
4 3 1 2
4 3 2 1
Score
SCORE ____________
Activity III
Identifying Common Wildlife Species
(10 Points)
Activity III covers identification of wildlife species native to North Carolina.

Wildlife managers must be able to identify various wildlife species when conducting
surveys.
To prepare for this part of the program, you should learn to identify the species
listed in Table 2. Field guides, including Peterson's Field Guide to Eastern Birds,
Peterson's Field Guide to Mammals, Peterson's Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians,
and Peterson's Field Guide to Freshwater Fishes, should be used as study aids.
Completing Activity III Scorecard: Identifying Common Wildlife Species
Contestants will be asked to identify ten wildlife species. In most cases, animals
will be presented as slides. Correctly identify the wildlife species by writing the name on
the line that corresponds with the slide number.
41
Table 2. Selected Wildlife Species

Green-winged Teal
Birds:
Copperhead
American Goldfinch
Hooded Merganser
Cottonmouth
American Robin
Mallard
Coral Snake
American Woodcock
Pied-billed Grebe
Black Rat Snake
Blue Jay
Brown Thrasher
Carolina Chickadee
Ring-necked Duck
Wood Duck
Brown Pelican
Banded Water Snake

Corn Snake
Eastern Garter Snake
Eastern Bluebird
Cattle Egret
Hognose Snake
Northern Cardinal
Great Blue Heron
Ringneck Snake
Ovenbird
Mammals:
Scarlet King Snake
Red-eyed Vireo
Fox Squirrel
American Alligator
Ruby-throated Hummingbird
Gray Squirrel
Eastern Box Turtle
Tufted Titmouse
Southern Flying Squirrel
Snapping Turtle
Hairy Woodpecker
Eastern Chipmunk
Yellowbelly Slider
Pileated Woodpecker
Groundhog
Green Anole
Red-bellied Woodpecker
Eastern Mole
Fence Lizard
Red-cockaded Woodpecker
Short-tailed Shrew
Five-lined Skink
Red-headed Woodpecker
Eastern Cottontail
American Toad
Mourning Dove
Raccoon
Bullfrog
Northern Bobwhite
Striped Skunk
Green Treefrog
Ruffed Grouse
Virginia Opossum
Fish:
Wild Turkey
Beaver
Largemouth Bass
Black Vulture
Mink
Smallmouth Bass
Turkey Vulture
Muskrat
Spotted Bass
American Kestrel
River Otter
Striped Bass
Bald Eagle
Long-tailed Weasel
Bluegill
Broad-winged Hawk
Gray Fox
Green Sunfish
Osprey
Red Fox
Shellcracker
Red-tailed Hawk
Bobcat
Black Crappie
Barn Owl
Coyote
White Crappie
Barred Owl
White-tailed deer
Brook Trout
Eastern Screech Owl
Reptiles And Amphibians:
Channel Catfish
Great Horned Owl
Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnake Insects:
Canada Goose
Timber Rattlesnake
42
Monarch Butterfly
Activity III
Scorecard
Common Wildlife Species
Identification
10 Points
Slide 1.
Slide 2.
Slide 3.
Slide 4.
Slide 5.
Slide 6.
Slide 7.
Slide 8.
Slide 9.
Slide 10.
SCORE for Activity III ____________
Contestant ___________________________________________
County ____________________________
JR_____ SR_____
This page left blank intentionally.
Please continue to page 45.
44
Activity IV
Identifying Wildlife Foods
(30 Points)
To prepare for Activity IV, study Table 3, which lists some common foods eaten
by selected wildlife species. Table 2 lists only the foods commonly eaten by wildlife.
Under certain circumstances, most wildlife species will eat unusual things. Here are
some other important points to remember about the food preferences of wildlife species:
All wildlife species in a certain group do not eat all the foods listed for that group.
For example, not all turtles eat fruit and not all turtles eat crayfish.
A certain type of wildlife may not eat all species in a certain food group. For
example, deer do not eat tender twigs and leaves from all varieties of trees and
shrubs.
The following information about a few of the food categories listed in Table 2
will let you know what to expect when you see these foods during the program.
Aquatic plants may include specimens from the following genera: Sedges (Carex spp.), rushes
(Juncus spp. or Scirpus spp.), cattails (Typha spp.), watermilfoil (Myriophyllum spp.), coontail
(Ceratophyllum spp.), duckweed (Lemmna spp.), pondweed (Potomageton spp.), waterweed (Elodia
spp.), arrowleaf or duck potato (Sagittaria spp.), water primrose (Ludwegia spp.), and smartweed
(Polygynum spp.).
Carrion is stinking, rotten flesh and is not to be confused with the mammal or bird category. For
example, if a bird bone is present (hollow) then it represents the bird category, not carrion. If the item
has maggots (insect larvae) in it, consider it as carrion.
Eggs will be vertebrate eggs (mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish). Invertebrate eggs
(spiders, insects, etc.) will represent the category of the adult invertebrate.
Forbs can be shown with a flower part as part of the plant.
Fruit and berries will be soft, fleshy, pulp-covered seeds (soft mast).
Fungi are mushrooms.
Grains will be cereal grains, including wheat, oats, rye, barley, rice, and corn. Anything else will
be considered a miscellaneous seed (with the exception of fruit and nuts).
Lichens may be displayed on bark or alone.
Mammals may mean any mammal regardless of size. A photograph, live animal, museum mount
specimen, or any part thereof represents an animal in this category.
Nectar may be represented by flowers presented by themselves (no other plant parts) or honey
(processed nectar).
Nuts include hard mast (walnuts, hickory nuts, acorns, beechnuts, pecans, hazelnuts, almonds, etc).
Tubers may be peanut, chufa, and potato.
Completing Activity IV Scorecard: Identifying Wildlife Foods

Each food item in the event will be assigned a number. To complete the Activity
IV scorecard, mark an "X" in the appropriate box for each wildlife group that may eat the
numbered food item. More than one food item may be listed for each animal.
Remember, if any species in a wildlife group commonly eats any species in one of the
food groups shown, mark the box below the food item number and beside the wildlife
species. As an example, let's say that the judge has brought a persimmon with a tag
numbered 7. The persimmon is a fruit. Below # 7 an X should be marked beside all
wildlife groups that eat fruit whether or not they actually eat persimmons. Food items
may be shown to contestants with pictures, plant parts, growing plants, mounted
specimens, or live animals.
45
Bark
Birds
X
X
Carrion
X
X
Centipedes and Millipedes

Crayfish
Earthworms
X
X
Grain
Grass
X
X
X
X
X
X
Leaves and Twigs
Fungi
Fruit and Berries
Lichens
Lizards
Mammals (small)
Forbs
Insects
Ferns
Frogs and Salamanders
Eggs
Fish
Moles
Grouse
Frogs
Foxes
Ducks
X
X
Buds
Mink
Lizards
Hawks
Aquatic Plants
Doves
Deer
Butterflies
Bluegill
Bluebirds
Beaver
Bats
Wildlife
Foods
Bass
Table 2. Wildlife Foods
Mussels
X
Nectar
Nuts
X
X
Scorpions
X
Seeds
Snails
Snakes
Spiders
X
X
X
X
46
Tubers
Turtles
X
X
X
X
Bark
X
X
X
Wrens
X
X
X
X
Carrion
X
Centipedes and Millipedes
X
X
Earthworms
Eggs
Woodpeckers
Buds
Crayfish
Warblers
Aquatic Plants
Birds
Turtles
Turkeys
Trout
Thrashers
Squirrels
Sparrows
Snakes
Shrews
Salamanders
Rabbits
Quail
Owl
Wildlife
Foods
Otter
Table 2. (Continued) Wildlife Foods
X
X
X
X
X
X
Ferns
Fish
Forbs
Frogs and Salamanders
X
X
Fruit and Berries
Insects
X
X
X
X
Leaves and Twigs
X
X
Grass
Fungi
Grain
Lichens
X
Lizards
Mammals (small)
Mussels
X
X
Nectar
X
Nuts
Scorpions
X
Seeds
Spiders
X
X
Snails
Snakes
X
X
X
X
X
X
Tubers
X
Turtles
47
Contestant ___________________________________
Activity IV
Scorecard
JR _____ SR _____
County
Wildlife Foods
30 Points
Instructions: For each wildlife species below, mark an "X" in the

appropriate box for all food items which may occur in its diet. Some
wildlife species will not eat any of the food items shown.
Wildlife Species
Food Items
4
5
6
7
10
Bass
Bats
Beaver
Bluebirds
Bluegill
Butterflies
Deer
Doves
Ducks
Foxes
Frogs
Grouse
Hawks
Lizards
Mink
Moles
Otter
Owls
Quail
Rabbits
Salamanders
Shrews
Snakes
Sparrows
Squirrels
Thrashers
Trout
Turkeys
Turtles
Warblers
Woodpeckers
Wrens
Number Incorrect
Number Correct
Score = [(total correct - total incorrect) / 320] X 30
Total Correct __________
Total Incorrect __________
SCORE For Activity IV __________
Contest Rules
I. Contestants and Eligibility
A. Each county is allowed to enter junior and senior teams, or individual contestants
if there are not enough youth in an age group to form a team. A team will consist
of no less than three and no more than four official entrants who are 4-H members
in their county during the current year. If a county is unable to muster a team, it
may send up to two contestants to compete in the individual events.
B. The county senior team that scores the most total points wins the state
competition and may go to the National 4-H Wildlife Invitational. A team's total
score will be the sum of the three highest individual scores for each event.
Individuals may enter the National 4-H Wildlife Evaluation Invitational event
only once.
C. Contestants in the national 4-H Wildlife Invitational must not have participated in
official post-secondary (university, college, junior college, or technical school)
competitive events of a similar nature in the same subject matter. No individual in
a team may be a member of a post-secondary team undergoing training in
preparation for an event. (For example, a contestant who has competed in an
official collegiate wildlife contest, on or off campus, is ineligible to compete.)
The State 4-H Program Leaders are responsible for determining the eligibility of
participants in National 4-H Competitive Events from their respective states.
II. General Rules and Information

A. County team entries must be submitted to Contest Officials prior to the
competition.
B. Each team shall have no more than one coach and two assistants. Current 4-H
members may serve as coaches for the team, but those individuals will be
ineligible as future contestants.
C. Adult representatives from any counties competing or not competing in the
current contest are welcome to observe. The adults may be asked to assist in
the administration of the activities.
D. Each contestant will work independently and will turn in the scorecard to a
member of the Official Committee immediately after each event.
E. Each contestant must provide his or her own pencil and clipboard.
F. Absolutely no talking by contestants will be allowed during the contest. No
aspect of the contest will be discussed in the vicinity of contestants while they
are competing.
G. Anyone caught cheating will be disqualified.
49
H. No use of alcohol or tobacco will be allowed during competition.

I. All adults except Contest Officials will be separated from contestants at all
times while the contest is in progress.
J. An Official Committee will score the contest and analyze results. The Official
Committee decision is final.
K. After each event, individual and team scores will be sent to the team coach.
Contest score sheets will not be distributed.
L. All contestants should prepare for the contest by studying the Habitat
Needs for Wildlife and Wildlife Management Practices sections. Only
questions relating to contest procedure will be allowed during the contest.
M. Awards categories for junior and senior teams include:
First Place Team
First Place High Individual
Second Place Team
Second Place High Individual
Third Place Team
Third Place High Individual
Scoring The Contest

Each card is scored as follows:
Activity I
The score for this activity is based on the formula [(C-I/T] x 30, where: C = the
number of correct answers on the contestant's scorecard (T-I); I = the number of incorrect
answers on the contestant's scorecard; and T = the total number of blocks on the official
scorecard. If a contestant marks a block that is not supposed to be marked, it is counted
as an incorrect answer. Likewise, it a contestant does not mark a block that is supposed
to be marked, it is counted as an incorrect answer. For example, the points scored by a
contestant who had 208 answers correct and 40 incorrect out of 248 possible correct
answers would be [(208-40)/248] x 30 = 20.32.
Activity II
The Hormel computing slide is used to score this activity. The judge will
determine the official placing for each of the nine species, then establish by number the
margin of difference between each of the three pairs of photographs. These numbers
represent the penalties for switching the top, middle, and bottom pairs. A contestant
makes six decisions when he ranks four aerial photographs. The Hormel slide penalizes a
50
contestant the amount of the margin between the two photographs involved for each
incorrect decision. Once a total score for Activity II is computed with the Hormel slide,
this score is adjusted to a scale of 0 to 30 points, since a perfect score for Activity II is 30.
Activity III
Activity III will consist of a maximum of ten points. One point will be allocated
for each correct answer. Guessing is not penalized.
Activity IV
Activity IV is calculated the same way as Activity I.
Team Score
The team score will be calculated by adding Activities I, II, III, and IV for each
contestant and dropping the low individual score for each event (if there are four
members on the team). The three remaining scores are added together to create the total
team score for that event. The maximum team score is 300 points.
51
Appendix
Photo Credits:
Wild Turkey (6), Scotty Lovett, National Wild Turkey Federation; American Kestrel
(13), David Menke, USFWS, National Image Library; Eastern Bluebird (14), Dr. Chris
Moorman, NCSU Extension Forestry; Red-tailed Hawk (17), Dr. Chris Moorman, NCSU
Extension Forestry; Wild Turkey Nest (18), Dr. Chris Moorman, NCSU Extension
Forestry; Bobcat (19), Renee Strnad, NCSU Extension Forestry; Eastern Tiger
Swallowtail (21), Brian Kenney; Bluegill (22), James Parnell; Prescribed fire in
southeastern pine stand (24), Dr. Chris Moorman, NCSU Extension Forestry; Tractor
with Disk Implement (25), Dr. Greg Clary, Texas A&M University; Grazing Cattle (26),
www.freefoto.com; Opening created by clear-cut harvest in stages 2 and 3 of plant
succession (28), Dr. Chris Moorman, NCSU Extension Forestry; Openings created by
selection harvest (28), Dr Chris Moorman, NCSU Extension Forestry; Pond Repair (30),
Travis Critzer, Unlimited Excavating, Scottsdale, VA.
52

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North Carolina

Dr. Chris Moorman

Principles of Wildlife Management in North Carolina

Wildlife Management Concepts and Terms

On-Site Habitat Management Recommendations

Principles of Wildlife Management in North

Wildlife Management Concepts and Terms

Concept 1--Habitat Requirements

Concept 2--Featured Species

Wild turkeys are often a featured species in wildlife management

Concept 3--Plant Succession

The Stages of Plant Succession (From Bare Ground to Woodland)

Concept 4--Vertical Structure

Vertical Structuring of Vegetation Layers

Concept 5--Arrangement and Interspersion

Concept 6--Edges And Contrast

Concept 8--Species Richness

Unbroken blocks of 10 to 40 acres.

Concept 9--Carrying Capacity

Concept 10--Pond Dynamics

Concept 11--Migration and Home Range

Concept 12--Food Webs

Concept 13--Wildlife Damage Management

Habitat Needs For Wildlife

Food: During warm months, robins eat

General Habitat Preference

Prescribe burn small areas in large expanses of

Great Horned Owl

secluded areas on houses and buildings. Their

Mallard (Winter Habitat)

Prescribe burn small areas (10 acres or less) in

Brush chop small areas (40 acres maximum, 10

Ovenbirds can be found in stages 5 and 6 of

General Habitat Preference

Cover: Red-tail hawks usually build their

insects, but will use waste grain from croplands

5 and 6 woodlands, or wetlands dominated by

Food: The bobcat preys on rodents, rabbits,

General Habitat Preference

species, and carrion deer are eaten in the autumn

Clear-cut small areas in large expanses of

Leave some grain unharvested (corn preferred)

Plant trees and shrubs in ravines, along field

Water: Largemouth bass and bluegill require an

Cover: Bass and bluegill often are found

Wildlife Management Practices

low. Burn early in the spring as conditions

2. Brush Chopping (Mowing)

Helps keep vegetative succession in stage 2 or

Prescribed fire in a southeastern pine stand

Particularly useful for rabbits and quail in areas

Population balance is important for fish and

Disking keeps vegetative succession in stage 2.

Game Birds and Mammals

Tractor with Disk Implement

6. Grain and Hay Harvest

When possible, avoid harvesting grain crops

Provides a food source for many species of

7. Wildlife or Fish (pond) Survey

Game Birds and Mammals

Poor body condition.

large animals such as deer, they should be

10. Lime Ponds and Fields