Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Spring 2014
AE172: Introduction to Aircraft
Performance
Asst. Prof. Dr. Ali Trker Kutay
Middle East Technical University
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Introduction
Instructor
Students
Course
http://www.ae.metu.edu.tr/~ae172/
Page 1 of 225
Teaching Philosophy
http://www.ae.metu.edu.tr/~ae172/
Online Sources
http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/physics/8-01-physics-i-classical-mechanics-fall1999/
http://www.ae.metu.edu.tr/~ae172/
Page 2 of 225
METU Online
Log on to https://online.metu.edu.tr/
http://www.ae.metu.edu.tr/~ae172/
METU Online
Lecture notes
Supplementary materials (reading materials, pictures, videos, etc.)
related to course topics
Other interesting things which I believe will make you better
engineers
Homework assignments
Important announcements (homework extensions, quizzes, )
http://www.ae.metu.edu.tr/~ae172/
Page 3 of 225
AE Prerequisite Chain
http://www.ae.metu.edu.tr/~ae172/
Page 4 of 225
Spring 2013
AE172: Introduction to Aircraft
Performance
Asst. Prof. Dr. Ali Trker Kutay
Middle East Technical University
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Page 5 of 225
Performance
Flight Mechanics
Page 6 of 225
dv
d 2x
m 2
dt
dt
m is assumed to be constant
Page 7 of 225
Aircraft
Page 8 of 225
Static Lift
Buoyancy
In physics, buoyancy is an
upward acting force exerted
by a fluid, that opposes an
object's weight. If the object
is either less dense than the
liquid or is shaped
appropriately (as in a boat),
the force can keep the
object afloat.
Dr. Ali Trker Kutay 9
Page 9 of 225
Balloon
LTA Aircraft
Unpowered
Powered
Page 10 of 225
Dynamic Lift
Page 11 of 225
Air Pressure
Page 12 of 225
Page 13 of 225
Page 14 of 225
10
Spring 2010
AE172: Introduction to Aircraft
Performance
Elements of an Aircraft
Asst. Prof. Dr. Ali Trker Kutay
Middle East Technical University
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Flight Mechanics
Yaw
Pitch
x
Roll
z
Dr. Ali Trker Kutay 2
Page 15 of 225
Conventional Aircraft
Unconventional Aircraft
V-22 Osprey
X-29
Fanwing
Page 16 of 225
Elements of an Aircraft
Fuselage: or body of the airplane, is a long hollow tube which holds all the pieces of
an airplane together.
Dr. Ali Trker Kutay 5
Fuselage
Page 17 of 225
Fuselage (contd)
Elements of an Aircraft
Page 18 of 225
Cockpit
Elements of an Aircraft
Pylon
Nacelle
Jet engine
Page 19 of 225
Elements of an Aircraft
Wings
Wing: is a surface used to produce lift for flight through the air.
Wing
Wing area (S)
Leading edge
ct
cr
cr
ct
Aspect Ratio AR
b2
S
Taper Ratio
ct
cr
ct
cr
c
Trailing edge
wingspan
b
Dr. Ali Trker Kutay 12
Page 20 of 225
Wing
Elements of an Aircraft
Rudder
Vertical stabilizer
Vertical stabilizer: is a fixed wing section
whose job is to provide stability for the
aircraft, to keep it flying straight. The
vertical stabilizer prevents side-toside, or yawing, motion of the aircraft
nose.
Rudder: is the small moving section at
the rear of the stabilizer that is
attached to the fixed sections by
hinges. Because the rudder moves, it
varies the amount of force generated
by the tail surface and is used to
generate and control the yawing
motion of the aircraft.
Dr. Ali Trker Kutay 14
Page 21 of 225
Vertical Stabilizer
Rudder
Page 22 of 225
Rudder Control
Elements of an Aircraft
Horizontal stabilizer: is a fixed wing
section whose job is to provide
stability for the aircraft, to keep it
flying straight. The horizontal
stabilizer prevents up-and-down, or
pitching, motion of the aircraft.
Elevator: is the small moving section at
the rear of the stabilizer that is
attached to the fixed sections by
hinges. It is used to generate and
control the pitching motion of the
aircraft. There is an elevator attached
to each side of the fuselage. The
elevators work in pairs; when the right
elevator goes up, the left elevator also
goes up.
Horizontal stabilizer
Elevator
Dr. Ali Trker Kutay 18
Page 23 of 225
Horizontal Stabilizer
Elevator
Page 24 of 225
10
Aileron
Page 25 of 225
11
Spring 2010
AE172: Introduction to Aircraft
Performance
Elements of an Aircraft
Asst. Prof. Dr. Ali Trker Kutay
Middle East Technical University
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Flight Mechanics
Yaw
Pitch
x
Roll
z
Dr. Ali Trker Kutay 2
Page 26 of 225
Dynamic Lift
V1 L1
aV1 a 2 L1
Flaps
Page 27 of 225
Elements of an Aircraft
Slats
Page 28 of 225
Elements of an Aircraft
Spoilers: are small, hinged plates on the top portion of wings intended to reduce lift
in an aircraft. Spoilers can be used to slow an aircraft, or to make an aircraft
descend, if they are deployed on both wings. Spoilers can also be used to
generate a rolling motion for an aircraft, if they are deployed on only one wing.
Spoiler
Page 29 of 225
Elements of an Aircraft
Landing gear: is the structure (usually wheels, but sometimes skids, floats or
other elements) that supports an aircraft on the ground and
allows it to taxi, takeoff and land.
Taxiing:
refers to the movement of an aircraft on the ground, under its own
power
Dr. Ali Trker Kutay 9
Aircraft Instruments
Traditional Cockpit
Glass Cockpit
Page 30 of 225
Traditional Cockpits
Page 31 of 225
Glass Cockpits
Page 32 of 225
Flight Instruments
Altimeter: The altimeter
shows the aircraft's height
(usually in feet or meters)
above some reference
level (usually sea-level) by
measuring the local air
pressure. It is adjustable
for local barometric
pressure (referred to sea
level) which must be set
correctly to obtain accurate
altitude readings
Flight Instruments
Artificial horizon: shows the
aircraft's attitude relative to
the horizon. From this the
pilot can tell whether the
wings are level and if the
aircraft nose is pointing
above or below the
horizon. This is a primary
instrument for instrument
flight and is also useful in
conditions of poor visibility.
Page 33 of 225
Flight Instruments
Airspeed indicator: shows
the aircraft's speed (usually
in knots) relative to the
surrounding air. It works by
measuring the ram-air
pressure in the aircraft's
pitot tube. The indicated
airspeed must be corrected
for air density (which varies
with altitude, temperature
and humidity) in order to
obtain the true airspeed,
and for wind conditions in
order to obtain the speed
over the ground.
Dr. Ali Trker Kutay 17
Flight Instruments
Magnetic compass: The
compass shows the
aircraft's heading relative to
magnetic north. While
reliable in steady level
flight it can give confusing
indications when turning,
climbing, descending, or
accelerating due to the
inclination of the earth's
magnetic field.
Page 34 of 225
Flight Instruments
Heading indicator: displays
the aircraft's heading with
respect to geographical
north. Principle of
operation is a spinning
gyroscope, and is therefore
subject to drift errors
(called precession) which
must be periodically
corrected by calibrating the
instrument to the magnetic
compass.
Flight Instruments
Turn coordinator: displays
the aircraft's heading with
respect to geographical
north. Principle of
operation is a spinning
gyroscope, and is therefore
subject to drift errors
(called precession) which
must be periodically
corrected by calibrating the
instrument to the magnetic
compass.
Page 35 of 225
10
Flight Instruments
Vertical speed indicator
(VSI) (variometer):
Senses changing air
pressure, and displays that
information to the pilot as a
rate of climb or descent in
feet per minute, meters per
second or knots
T Arrangement
Page 36 of 225
11
Flight Instruments
Glass Cockpits
Page 37 of 225
12
Head-up Display
Head-up display: is any
transparent display that
presents data without
requiring the user to look
away from his or her usual
viewpoint. Typically displays
airspeed, altitude, a horizon
line, heading, turn/bank and
slip/skid indicators.
Page 38 of 225
13
Page 39 of 225
Notes_2014.02.28.pdf page 1 of 4
At any instant millions of molecules hit the surface and apply a force on the surface.
The sum of all these forces form the pressure force.
Page 40 of 225
Notes_2014.02.28.pdf page 2 of 4
Page 41 of 225
Notes_2014.02.28.pdf page 3 of 4
Page 42 of 225
Notes_2014.02.28.pdf page 4 of 4
If the air is steady (no air flow) a pressure transducer will measure the
same pressure at every orientation. If there is an air flow, then the
transducer measures a different pressure depending on its orientation
with respect to the flow.
Suppose that there is a flow with speed V0. This means every
particle has its random velocity plus the velocity of the flow.
Page 43 of 225
Notes_2014.03.04.pdf page 1 of 14
Page 44 of 225
Notes_2014.03.04.pdf page 2 of 14
Page 45 of 225
Notes_2014.03.04.pdf page 3 of 14
Just like camber, thickness of an airfoil also usually changes along the chord, it is also a function of x.
If you know the thickness and camber distributions you can draw the airfoil.
Flow close to the aircraft is not uniform. Magnitude and direction of the flow velocity changes around the
aircraft. Flow that is sufficiently far away from the aircraft is uniform (assuming that there are no winds) and
V_infinity represents the magnitude of the speed in that region. That is why the infinity symbol is used to
represent it. Note that in reality if there are no winds the air is steady and the aircraft moves through it.
V_infinity represents velocity of the air with respect to the aircraft (velocity of the air with respect to ground is
zero) and it is same as the velocity vector of the aircraft (with respect to ground), but in the opposite direction.
Page 46 of 225
Notes_2014.03.04.pdf page 4 of 14
Pressure difference occured due to flow (with respect to the no flow case) is the difference between the green
distribution and the blue distribution. This can be found by overlaying the green distribution on the blue one and then
subtracting the blue distribution from the green one. To show this graphically you can draw arrows from the green
pressure levels to the blue ones as shown below.
Here green arrows are shorter than the
blue arrows, meaning the pressure when
there is flow is less than the pressure
when there is no flow (freestream
pressure).
Page 47 of 225
Notes_2014.03.04.pdf page 5 of 14
The blue curve represents pressure distribution when there is no flow (pressure is the same at every point on
the surface). Green curve represents pressure distribuition with flow. Pressure gets lower on the upper
surface and higher on the lower surface.
Pressure is force per unit area. When integrated over a certain area, total force due to that pressure distribution
can be found. Total aerodynamic force can be found by integrating the pressure distribution over the entire wing
area. In the no flow case total aerodynamic force is zero since pressure is same everywhere and we have a
closed surface.
Distributed pressure
Page 48 of 225
Notes_2014.03.04.pdf page 6 of 14
When the pressure distribution with flow is integrated we get a total net force since the distribution is not symmetric
anymore. The total net force is a vector, which has a magnitude, direction, and a point of application.
Distributed pressure
Page 49 of 225
Notes_2014.03.04.pdf page 7 of 14
Total
aerodynamic
force vector for
the entire wing
Center of pressure of
the wing.
Centers of pressure
of the airfoils
Page 50 of 225
Notes_2014.03.04.pdf page 8 of 14
In the above situation there is an unbalanced nose down pitching moment. The
aircraft cannot fly straight, it will go nose down. To keep the aircraft fly straight,
we need to have zero pitching moment. One way to have no pitching moment is
to have center of pressure of the aircraft coincide with the center of gravity. This
is not a good way of doing that, due to many reasons both center of gravity and
center of pressure may change during the flight, resulting in nonzero pitching
moment.
Force on the horizontal stabilizer can be changed to make the total pitching
moment zero. That's why it is called horizontal stabilizer, its job is to make the
aircraft fly horizontally in a stable way.
Page 51 of 225
Notes_2014.03.04.pdf page 9 of 14
R is a vector in 2D space, which can be represented using two scalar quantities. If you chose to represent R using
polar coordinates, you need to specify its magnitude and angle. Or you can represent it using cartesian
coordinates. For that we need to choose two axes and then we can represent the R vector using its components
along these two axes. First axis is chosen to be along the direction of V_inf and the second one is perpendicular to
that. The component of R along V_inf direction is called the Drag force, and the other component perpendicular to
V_inf is called the Lift force.
The resultant force R (its magnitude, direction, and the point where it applies on the chord, i.e., center of pressure
(c.p.)) depends on various factors, including V_, alpha, c (chord length, i.e., size of the airfoil), and camber and
thickness distribution.
Flow on the upper and lower surfaces are symmetric. As a result of that we get no lift force. The net resultant
aerodynamic force is in the direction of flow. In this case R = D.
Page 52 of 225
Notes_2014.03.04.pdf page 10 of 14
Streamline
With a symetric airfoil we can get lift force if we have a nonzero angle of attack.
it's not pure rotation, length of the V vector may change as well.
Above diagram represents a conventional aircraft in horizontal flight. Horizontal stabilizor has a symmetric airfoil
and since alpha=0 there is no lift force on the horizontal stabilizor. Elevator is used to control the lift force (both
magnitude and direction) on the horizontal stabilizer such that the pitching moment on the center of gravity is zero
for
Page 53 of 225
Notes_2014.03.04.pdf page 11 of 14
By changing the elevator angle the horziontal stabilizor starts deflecting the air. This creates a lift force on the
horizontal stabilizor. In the above case we get a nose down pitching moment. We can get a moment in the orther
direction by changing the elevator angle in the other direction.
Page 54 of 225
Notes_2014.03.04.pdf page 12 of 14
If the angle of attack of a SYMMETRIC airfoil changes, R vector changes (both its magnitude
and direction, or both L and D), but the point of application (cp) does not change.
If the angle of attack of a CAMBERED airfoil changes, both the R vector (both its magnitude and direction, or
both L and D) and the point of application (cp) change.
Page 55 of 225
Notes_2014.03.04.pdf page 13 of 14
Page 56 of 225
Notes_2014.03.04.pdf page 14 of 14
Page 57 of 225
Notes_2014.03.07.pdf page 1 of 5
For various reasons (to compute its performance, motion, etc.) as aerospace engineers
we would like to compute the forces and moments acting on aircraft. We want to make
our lives easier by coming up with formulations that are easy enough to work with. We
will be considering conventional aircraft only. Conventional aircraft have a dedicated
part to create aerodynamic forces, called wing.
In reality every part of the aircraft is surface is subject to air pressure that contributes
to the total forces and moments. To make our lives easier we only consider the
forces generated by the main wing and the tail surfaces. We loose some accuracy by
doing that, but for conventional airfraft the results we get are very close to the real
numbers.
Another trick we do to simplify equations is that instead of the actual distributed
forces we work with equivalent concentrated forces (R). We don't loose any accuracy
here, the vector R represents the distributed forces exactly without any error. R
vector is represented using three scalar quantities (L and D forces and the location of
cp, x_cp).
R force creates a moment on a fixed point (leading edge for example) on the aircraft due
to having a moment arm (l). Pitching moment is equal to R times l. In this case instead
of using these three scalar quantities (L and D forces and c.p.) we can replace c.p. with
pitching moment with respect to a fixed point. In this case the R vector can equivalently
be represented by L, D, and M_LE (if it is moment with respect to the leading edge).
Other fixed points such as quarter chord point can be used as well.
Page 58 of 225
Notes_2014.03.07.pdf page 2 of 5
What we need to do now is to find some mathematical formulas that give numerical vaues of these three quantities
(L, D, and M for longitudinal motion) for the type of aircraft we have for all possible flight conditions (altitude, speed,
angle of attack, ...). In other words we are looking for mathematical functions that contain the effects of all the
factors that contribute to aerodynamic forces. For example for the lift force we are looking for a function of following
variables (and many others). We need similar functions for D and M as well.
There are a lot of factors that affect these forces (airfoil thickness, camber, wing planform shape, etc.) and every
one of these factors should be included in the equations for the results to be useful. Effects of some factors are
predictable and very easy to model. For example air density (denoted by Greek letter rho) has a direct effect on the
forces. In other words all aerodynamic forces change linearly with air density. This means if the air density is
changed by a factor "a", then the forces change by the same factor "a". In this case we can include the effect of
density by including it as a multiplicative term in our equations.
Page 59 of 225
Notes_2014.03.07.pdf page 3 of 5
There is one other thing that can be modeled by a simple linear relation, and that is the size of the aircraft.
Consider two aircraft with exactly the same design, but with different dimensions. One is a scaled model of the
other. The forces on these two aircraft will be scaled as well. In this case the effect of the size of the aircraft can
be taken out of the equation by introducing the wing planform area S:
With the factor 1/2 introduced above we get the dynamic pressure in the aerodynamic equations, which can be
considered as the kinetic energy of fluid particles. The remaining factors in the f_3 function are not easy to model
with simple analytic functions. Therefore we leave that function as it is and call it an aerodynamic coefficient.
is the lift coefficient that depends on the shape of the airfoil, wing, viscosity and compressibility
effects of the air, etc.
Page 60 of 225
Notes_2014.03.07.pdf page 4 of 5
Dynamic pressure has the physical unit of force per area. S is wing surface area. So dynamic pressure multiplied
by wing surface area gives a force. Left hand side of the equations are force as well, this means aerodynamic
coefficients (C_L, C_D, C_Y) are dimensionless. From the above equations we can write them as
Now the problem of finding equations that give aerodynamic force values becomes the problem of finding the
nondimensional values of aerodynamic coefficients. If you want to find the lift force for a particular aircraft flying
with a certain configuration (flaps, spoilers, ailerons, elevator, etc are all set to certain positions) at a certain angle
of attack you need to know the value of C_L for that particular configuration. The benefit of using nondimensional
coefficients for this purpose instead of the dimensional force (L) is that you can find the values of coefficients by
doing experiments on much smaller scale models.
Page 61 of 225
Notes_2014.03.07.pdf page 5 of 5
Dynamic pressure has the physical unit of force per area. S is wing surface area. So dynamic pressure multiplied
by wing surface area gives a force. Left hand side of the equations are also force, this means aerodynamic
coefficients (C_L, C_D, C_Y) are dimensionless. We use the same equation structure for aerodynamic moments
as well, but since moment has the unit of force times distance, to make moment coefficients dimensionless we
need to introduce a distance to the right hand side. For this purpose mean aerodynamic chord length is used for
the pitching moment and wing span is used for the rolling and yawing moments as follows:
Now the problem of finding equations that give aerodynamic force values becomes the problem of finding the
nondimensional values of aerodynamic coefficients. If you want to find the lift force for a particular aircraft flying
with a certain configuration (flaps, spoilers, ailerons, elevator, etc are all set to certain positions) at a certain angle
of attack you need to know the value of C_L for that particular configuration. The benefit of using nondimensional
coefficients for this purpose instead of the dimensional force (L) is that you can find the values of coefficients by
doing experiments on much smaller scale models.
Page 62 of 225
Notes_2014.03.11.pdf page 1 of 9
In order to find the forces for all possible configurations you need to have a huge database of aerodynamic
coefficients for all those configurations. There are different ways to obtain these values. One is to actually do
experiments and measure all these forces with sensors. ALso there are advanced computer programs that can
calculate these values by solving complex fluid mechanics equations. Obviously doing real experiments for large
aircraft is not possible. But much smaller scale models can be built and tested in wind tunnels to find these values.
In this example put the small model in a wind tunnel and measure the lift
force for a particular configuration. C_L will be
Once you find C_L for the small model you can compute the lift force for the
real aircraft as follows:
Dynamic pressure for the real flight condition and the wing surface area
of the full scale real aircraft.
Lift force acting on the real aircraft.
Page 63 of 225
Notes_2014.03.11.pdf page 2 of 9
At the point where the model is fixed we place sensors that can measure forces and
moment. In other words in the above example Fx, Fy, and Mr are directly measured,
which gives the drag force, lift force, and moment with respect to leading edge.
As you see, in a wind tunnel we can measure lift and drag forces and the pitching moment
with respect to a fixed point directly. From the moment measurement we can go back to
the center of pressure location as follows:
We use these forces to simulate the aircraft for example, for which we use the equations of
motion:
Even if we measure the center of pressure directly, we need to
convert it to moment for simulation purposes. Therefore
measuring the moment directly simplifies our job.
Page 64 of 225
Notes_2014.03.11.pdf page 3 of 9
So for every possible aircraft configuration and flight condition we need to know the
corresponding values of the aerodynamic coefficients. This requires a huge number of
aerodynamic coefficient values to be known.
Considering all the possible configuration changes you need a huge database to cover all possible options. Multi
dimensional databases are created for that.
??? You do a test to find the aerdynamic coefficients for this particular
configuration.
This is a slightly different configuration where the elevator deflection angle has
changed a little bit. You do another test to measure the forces for this configuration
as well and find the aerodynamic coefficients for this configuration.
Page 65 of 225
Notes_2014.03.11.pdf page 4 of 9
Considering the number of variables and that you need to find the values for combinations of all possible values for
all these variables, for a fairly realistic database you need millions of values for your aerodynamic coefficients.
Now the quesiton is how can we make sure that aerodynamic coefficients of a real aircraft with a wing span of 50
m flying at a speed of 800 km/h will be the same as the aerodynamic coefficient of a scaled model with a wing
span of 50 cm flying in a wind tunnel at a different speed? The answer is that you need to check the Reynolds and
Mach numbers. If they are the same (or in the same range) then you can be sure that the coefficients you
obtained on a scale model can be used to correctly estimate the forces and moments on the real aircraft. But what
are these Reynolds and Mach numbers?? These will be discussed below.
Suppose that a 100 m long ship is released in sea at a speed of 10 km/h, it will continue moving for some time
before it eventually stops. Then consider a 10 cm long model released at the same speed. It will come to stop
much sooner (even you measure the distance in terms of length of the model).
So far we have been talking about pressure forces that form the aerodynamic forces. By definition pressure
forces are perpendicular to the surface. Due to viscosity of air there are some tangential forces as well.
The total force acting on the airfoil is actually the
sum of the pressure and friction forces. For a
large aircraft flying at high speeds the pressure
forces are much greater than the friction forces
and hence the friction forces may be neglected.
But for a very small model under a slower flow the
importance of friction forces increases.
Page 66 of 225
Notes_2014.03.11.pdf page 5 of 9
There are various factors that determine when the friction forces become significant or negligible. Reynolds
number is a nondimensional number that practically tells this. A very important factor is how sticky the fluid is,
measured by its viscosity. From our point of view this is not an issue since we almost always consider aircraft
flying in air. Other factors are the speed of the flow and the size of the object.
You can also consider it as the ratio of the green arrows to the red arrows in the above figure. If the Reynolds
number is large that means the friction forces can be neglected. If it is low, especially less than one than that
means the frictions forces are the dominant forces acting on the object.
For a small bird Re may be on the order of 100, for a fly, on the order of 1, and for micro organisms
moving in water it may be on the order of 0.0001.
If Reynolds number is low (less than one) than the tangential forces are greater.
In this case stickyness of the fluid is very important. As a
result the fluid wants to stick, it stays together and that's
why you get a very smooth and non-splashy response
when you drop an object into a fluid.
You cannot predict flow conditions by checking viscosity only, you need to
consider the Reynolds number. A bacteria swimming in water has a very low
Reynolds number, on the order of 10^-5. This means the bacteria will feel too
much fluid friction, it will compare to an insect swimming in honey.
Page 67 of 225
Notes_2014.03.11.pdf page 6 of 9
Reynolds number (ratio of inertial to viscous forces) determines the characteristics of the flow. For low Re flow
viscous forces are important, meaning the fluid wants to stay together. This results in laminar flow. In laminar
flow streamlines are parallel to each other, at any given instant the velocity of the flow will be the same. We call
this steady flow.
In contrast for high Re flow, viscosity becomes negligible. The fluid doesn't want to stay together anymore. Just
like in the animations we saw the flow becomes random and chaotic. This means the streamlines get mixed up
and constantly change randomly.
Since the streamlines change constantly the flow is unsteady and such flows are called turbulent flows.
Page 68 of 225
Notes_2014.03.11.pdf page 7 of 9
Suppose that a ball of diameter 1 cm is dropped into honey and water at a speed of 10 m/s.
15<2000 meaning that the second test with honey results in laminar flow whereas for first test Re1=100000 and
that tells that we get turbulent flow. This agrees with what we see in the animation. Remember that viscosity is
very important in getting a laminar or turbulent flow, but it is NOT the only factor. So we can't decide on the flow
type by just considering the viscosity, we need to know the Re #.
Now suppose that a dust particle with a diameter of 10^-5 m drops into water at a speed of 1 m/s. The Re # is
then:
Obviously we get a laminar flow for this case. In other
words even though we have water, the little particle
dropped into it will not cause any splashes and will
smoothly sink into it as in the bottom animation. Again, just
because water is not as sticky as honey, you can't say that
it will always cause a turbulent flow.
Now to complete the story, also consider a ball of diameter 1 m dropped into honey at a speed of 100 m/s. The
Re # for this case can be found as:
Page 69 of 225
Notes_2014.03.11.pdf page 8 of 9
In this figure you see lift coefficients measured for the NACA
4412 airfoil in a wind tunnel. The tests were conducted as
various Reynolds numbers. Remember the Re # formula is:
Page 70 of 225
Notes_2014.03.11.pdf page 9 of 9
When something moves in air, it disturbs the air and creates pressure waves. These waves travel at the speed of
sound. If the disturbing object approaches the speed of sound, the waves cannot get away fast enough and they
start to accumulate. Accumulated pressure waves form a shock wave. Shock waves and supersonic flow are
explained in detail in Aerodynamics 2 course. All you need to know for this course is that as the speed of flow
increases air becomes more and more compressible. Like viscosity, there is a single nondimensional number that
tells you whether you need to be worried about compressibility or not. This is the Mach number. If M<0.3 then you
have an incompressible (subsonic) flow. For the remainder of this course we will always assume that it is the case.
Page 71 of 225
Notes_2014.03.14.pdf page 1 of 2
Normally the elevator is used to control the pitching moment, but in a supersonic
flow, elevators become useless due to shock waves. To overcome this problem
and have a controllable aircraft at supersonic speeds, they proposed to use all
moving horizontal stabilizers. In other words the entire horizontal stabilizer is
used as an elevator.
Even when the aircraft is flying at M<1, local speed of the flow around the A/C may exceed M = 1 resulting in shock
waves. To be able to fly as fast as possible without getting the drag increase due to shock waves you should design
your aircraft such that the speed at which shock waves start to form is as high as possible. This speed is called the
critical Mach number, which is always less than 1 (why?). On old aircraft critical Mach number may be as low as
0.6. Today modern aircraft can fly at speeds close to M=0.9 without getting substantial drag increase. The optimum
cruising speeds are less than M=0.85. Formation of shock waves on the wings can be delayed by using special
airfoil designs called supercritical airfoil.
Critical Mach number is the greatest limit on the speeds of modern airliners. That's why the ideal cruising speeds of
all modern airliners are between M = 0.8 and 0.85. Sure you can make an aircraft that can fly at M = 1, but for a
very little benefit in speed you may have to consume twice as much fuel, which nobody wants, especially at today's
fuel prices.
Page 72 of 225
Notes_2014.03.14.pdf page 2 of 2
3D Effects
We have talked about how aerodynamic forces are created on a 2-dimensional airfoil. On many aerodynamic data sources you can find values of
aerodynamic coefficients given for airfoils. Data given for an airfoil refers to an idealized wing with infinite span.
The assumption here is that we have a wing section with the same airfoil at every y
location and the wing has infinite wing span. In this configuration nothing changes along
the y direction and the resultant aerodynamic force for every airfoil is the same as shown
in this figure. This idealized configuration is referred to as a 2D wing.
In reality however aircraft have finite wing spans and have 3D wings.
Page 73 of 225
If you look at the situation at either end of a wing (wing tip) you can easily
convince yourselves that the high pressure air from below the wing will jump
up to fill the low pressure zone at the top. In inner sections the wing
separates the air at different pressure levels and the high pressure air at the
bottom can push the wing up, creating the lift force. At the wing tips however
the physical separation ends and this allows the two flows to mix. High
pressure air from below swirls up to the low pressure area above forming a
rotating flow called a vortex. Since at the wing tip the pressure equalizes no
lift force can be created, but relatively strong drag force acts on the wing at
the tips. As you move from the centerline to the wing tips, lift force reduces
and drag force increases. In other words the resultant aerodynamic force is
tilted backwards as shown with blue arrows in this figure.
Page 74 of 225
Freestream flow
Page 76 of 225
In 2D case since all the force vectors on all the airfoil sections are the same you see
just one vector in the side view.
But in the 3D case due to high pressure air at the lower surface jumping up to the
upper surface at the wing tips we loose lift at the wing tips and get more drag
force. In other words the R vector gets tilted towards the drag direction as you
get closer to the wing tips.
If you look at the lift force distribution from the front you see something like this:
For the infinitely wide 2D wing you get the same lift force everywhere.
In 2D flow the only thing that determines the aerodynamic performance (how much lift force is
obtained for how much drag force) is the airfoil. But in 3D flow wing planform is important as well
for aerodynamic performance. In other words two wings with the same airfoil and same total
surface area, but with different planforms will have different aerodynamic performance.
Even if the two wings shown above have the same airfoil and surface area, their lift and drag
forces for the same flow conditions (speed and angle of attack) will be different. The one on the
right is aerodynamically more efficient because it has a smaller chord length at the wing tips. This
means the region where vortices are created is smaller and hence the wing tip vortices (wake
turbulence) will be weaker. As a result there will be less lift loss and less drag increase.
Page 77 of 225
2D wing data for an airfoil can be gathered in wind tunnel by making the wing extend through the entire width of the test section as shown above. This
leaves no gaps at the wing tips and hence the lower and upper flows cannot mix. In such a test almost constant lift force can be obtained at every y location
throuhout the entire wing span just like in a 2D wing.
Losses in lift and increases in drag due to wing tip effects can be improved by using a more slender wing planform.
If you compare the areas under the blue and red lift distributions you will find out that for the wing on the left you loose a bigger percentage of
the 2D lift. Wing tip effects depend on how slender the wing planform is, which is measured by the aspect ratio.
Page 78 of 225
High aspect ratio wings are good for aerodynamic efficiency, but for large aircraft it is not
practical to use them due to structural concerns. If you used a high AR wing on an airliner it
would look like this. It looks funny, but more importantly such an aircraft would have a very
large wing span. This would create problems at airports. Also making such a huge wing
strong enough is not easy. Probably it will end up being much heavier compared to an
aircraft with a normal wing, and this defeats the purpose of having a high AR wing.
High AR means that you have a wing that is closer to an ideal 2D wing. In the limit as AR goes to infinity a 3D wing approaches a 2D wing. And
as AR gets smaller you get farther away from a 2D wing. As you can see in the below CL vs alpha plot at a given alpha a low AR wing has a
smaller lift coefficient than a high AR wing. Low AR wings however stall at higher angles.
Page 79 of 225
Page 80 of 225
Page 81 of 225
Notes_2014.03.21.pdf page 1 of 7
Page 82 of 225
Notes_2014.03.21.pdf page 2 of 7
Page 83 of 225
Notes_2014.03.21.pdf page 3 of 7
Page 84 of 225
Notes_2014.03.21.pdf page 4 of 7
Page 85 of 225
Notes_2014.03.21.pdf page 5 of 7
Page 86 of 225
Notes_2014.03.21.pdf page 6 of 7
Page 87 of 225
Notes_2014.03.21.pdf page 7 of 7
Page 88 of 225
Notes_2014.03.25.pdf page 1 of 9
Induced Drag
Forces (lift and drag) on a 3D wing are different than the forces on a 2D wing due to
wing tip vortices, which are created by the pressure difference between the upper
and lower surfaces at the wing tips. These vortices cause the lift to reduce and drag
to increase around the wing tips. For airfoils usually 2D coefficients are measured in
wind tunnels and we need to make corrections for 3D wings to use these data for
real aircraft.
Decrease of lift on a 3D wing
is not easy to model and
there are no simple
equations that we can use to
compute lift loss. Therefore
to estimate the lift of a real
3D aircraft you need test
results obtained with the 3D
configuration.
Total drag
coefficient
of the 3D
wing
Form drag,
or parasite
drag. Drag
coefficient
when there is
no lift.
Page 89 of 225
Notes_2014.03.25.pdf page 2 of 9
For a single 2D design (airfoil) there may be infinitely many 3D designs. All these
different 3D designs will have different CDi coefficients. So we need to have a
mathematical mechanism to incorporate the critical aspects of 3D design into the CDi
formula. In other words we need to have an equation that will give us the CDi values of
the two wings shown above correctly.
Page 90 of 225
Notes_2014.03.25.pdf page 3 of 9
For any flying object, total drag coefficient is a function of the lift coefficient. When CL is
zero CDi will be zero as well. As CL increases, pressure difference will be increased as
well and as a result wing tip vortices will be stronger. In this case drag increase will be
more (CDi will be higher). From the physics of the problem we expect CDi values to
increase with increasing CL values. Relation between CD and CL can be studied
experimentally.
Page 91 of 225
Notes_2014.03.25.pdf page 4 of 9
For typical aircraft all experiments made shows a parabolic relation between lift and drag
coefficients:
The "a" coefficient in the parabolic equation is for the drag that exists even when
there is no lift force, and the "b" coefficient shows how much drag is increased
when there is lift force, which is related to the 3D design. Effects of the planform
shape and aspect ratio are both included in the "b" coefficient.
where K is a function of planform shape and aspect
ratio.
Above equation is called the drag polar equation. From the textbook: " The drag
polar of an aircraft contains almost all the information required to analyse its
performance and hence to begin a design".
In general there is a third component in the drag coefficient that represents
compressibility effects:
CDw gets very large when there are shock waves. In this course we assume
that flow is incompressible and hence ignore CDw.
Page 92 of 225
Notes_2014.03.25.pdf page 5 of 9
In a wing design there are three main factors. First one is the selection of the airfoil. Effect
of the airfoil is included in the CD0 term. The other two main factors related to wing design
are planform shape and aspect ratio. To study the effects of these two factors we can
study them separetly. First freeze the planform shape and change aspect ratio to see its
effect on the K coefficient. Then freeze the aspect ratio and change the planform shape to
see its effect on the K coefficient.
Aspect ratio of a 3D wing is important. Having high aspect ratio is better in the sense that the losses due to
wing tip effects get relatively smaller.
Aspect ratio is important, but it cannot by itself quantify the losses. This is because you may have various
wings with the same aspect ratio, but they may all have different losses.
Suppose that the two wings above have the same aspect ratio, but we
expect the one on the right to be more efficient (its C_Di must be lower).
Page 93 of 225
Notes_2014.03.25.pdf page 6 of 9
We already discussed that high aspect ratio is good for aerodynamic efficiency. Let's keep
aspect ratio fixed and consider the effect of the planform shape on aerodynamic efficiency.
Again there are some theoretical studies that show that the most efficient
planform design is the one that has an elliptical spanwise lift distribution.
From both theoretical and experimental studies we
know that the best possible aerodynamic efficiency
(smallest K value) is obtained when the lift distribution
is an ellipse.
Front view of a wing, showing the spanwise lift distribution. Theoretical studies
show that the best possible 3D design is the one where the distribution is an
ellipse. One obvious way to achieve elliptic lift distribution is to have the wing
planform in the shape of an ellipse.
Page 94 of 225
Notes_2014.03.25.pdf page 7 of 9
Page 95 of 225
Notes_2014.03.25.pdf page 8 of 9
In the dynamic pressure term we have the air density. To use these equations
for performance calculations we need to know its value.
Page 96 of 225
Notes_2014.03.25.pdf page 9 of 9
0.5
4
3
2
1
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-2
6
8
(deg)
10
12
14
16
-2
6
8
(deg)
10
12
14
16
Part a): Assuming that the drag polar of the aircraft is given by the following equation, find the
parasite drag coefficient 0 and Oswald efficiency factor for this aircraft:
2
= 0 +
Part b): The real aircraft with a mass of 2,500 is flying at an altitude of 4,000 at a speed of
100 /. What should the angle of attack be so that the aircraft can maintain its altitude? How
much thrust force should its engine provide so that it can keep its speed?
Solution: In the drag polar equation there are two unknowns, 0 and . We are given a set of lift
and drag force measurements obtained in the tunnel. We can relate these force measurements to
and coefficients and then using these coefficient values we can solve for the two unknowns in
the above equations. Since there are two unknowns, two sets of data will be sufficient to
find these unknowns.
Lift and Drag forces are given by the following equations:
1 2
2
1
= 2
2
=
Note that = 16.17 2 for the real aircraft and a 1/50 scale model is tested in the tunnel. So for
the test we can use the following equations for aerodynamic forces:
1
16.17
(1.225)(30)2 (
)
2
502
1
16.17
)
= (1.225)(30)2 (
2
502
Page 97 of 225
Notes_2014.03.28.pdf page 1 of 8
In the data plot given above there are 19 measurement points and any two will be sufficient for us to
solve for 0 and . From the figure it is seen that at = 2 we have = 0 and = 0.1 . If
we use this point we can directly solve for 0 using a single equation. For = 2 we can write
1
16.17
(1.225)(30)2 (
)
2
502
1
16.17
)
0.1 = (1.225)(30)2 (
2
502
0=
= 0
= 0.028
Inserting the above pair into the drag polar equation we get
0.028 = 0 +
(0)2
0 = 0.028
Now we are left with one unknown, . To find that we need one more pair. From the figure
we see that we have round numbers at = 14 . Using the data for = 14 we get:
1
16.17
(1.225)(30)2 (
)
2
502
1
16.17
)
0.5 = (1.225)(30)2 (
2
502
5=
= 1.40
= 0.14
Inserting the above pair into the drag polar equation we get
0.14 = 0.028 +
(1.4)2
2 (10.91)2
=
= 7.36
16.17
(1.4)2
= 0.76
(0.14 0.028)
To be able to claim that above number is the true Oswald efficiency factor, the wind tunnel test
must have been performed without any wall effects as shown below. Unfortunately the tunnel we
will use for our tests is small and our tests will look like the one on the left, with significant wall
effects.
Page 98 of 225
Notes_2014.03.28.pdf page 2 of 8
Part b): The aircraft is flying at a mass of 2,500 kg is flying at an altitude of 4,000 m at a speed of 100
m/s. We are asked to find the angle of attack.
To maintain the altitude there should be no acceleration in the vertical direction. There are two
forces in the vertical direction and their sum should be equal to zero.
Note that no wind tunnel data is used to find the necessary lift coefficient value above. We need the
data to find the corresponding angle of attack. Wind tunnel data is given in terms of dimensional
forces in Newtons. So first we need to find the dimensional lift force on the tunnel model when =
0.37:
From the given data we see that 1.32 N corresponds to approximately 1.5 deg. So we can conclude
that the real aircraft must be flying at an angle of attack of 1.5 deg. Here we are making a very
important assumption that lift vs angle of attack curves for the wind tunnel model and the real
aircraft are the same. For this to be true the Reynolds and Mach numbers for both cases must be
close enough! I didnt check them here, please find them yourselves and see how different these
numbers are.
Next we are asked to find the necessary thrust force so that the speed of the aircraft doesn't change.
This requires that there should be no horizontal acceleration and hence
Page 99 of 225
Notes_2014.03.28.pdf page 3 of 8
To find the necessary thrust force I need to find the drag force. I know that the angle of attack is
approximately 1.5 deg. From the wind tunnel data the drag force value for the wind tunnel test at
1.5 deg is seen to be approximately 0.13 . Corresponding drag coefficient can be found as
You should be careful to use the correct , and values here. Since = 0.13 is for the
tunnel model we should use the values for the tunnel test. Then using = 0.036 found above we
can find the drag force for the real aircraft as
So for the given aircraft to continue flying at the given altitude and speed it needs a thrust force of
2,384 .
This is a very simple example, but can be used to calculate many things. Here are a few examples,
please study them and find the answers yourselves:
Part c): Total drag force is found in part b. How much of this force is for parasite drag and how much
is for induced drag? Find the ratio of /0 where is the induced drag force with =
and 0 is the parasite drag force with = 0 .
Part d): The aircraft drops 500 of cargo and the total weight reduces to 2,000 . If the pilot
wants to maintain the same flight with = 100 / at = 4,000 , what should the new
angle of attack be? What will be the necessary thrust force? Find the /0 ratio.
Part e): Repeat part d for the case with an added cargo of 500 such that the total weight
increases to 3,000 .
Part f): Suppose that the weight reduces to 2,000 as in part d. Angle of attack changes such that
the lift force becomes equal to the new weight. But this time the pilot doesnt change the
thrust force. Will the aircraft accelerate or decelerate? Suppose that the speed of the
aircraft changes at the same altitude and aircraft reaches a new equilibrium speed. What is
the new speed?
Part g): Suppose that the weight reduces to 2,000 as in part d. Angle of attack stays the same as
before. Will the aircraft climb or descend? Aircraft changes altitude by keeping alpha the
same and reaches a new equilibrium at a different altitude. What is the new altitude? You
need to find the air density at the new altitude and then find the corresponding altitude from
a standard atmosphere table by interpolation. Assume that the pilot adjusts the thrust force
such that the speed of the aircraft stays constant at = 100 / during the altitude
change.
Notes_2014.03.28.pdf page 4 of 8
Part h): Consider part g where the altitude of the aircraft changes with constant angle of attack. This
time the thrust force stays the same during the altitude change so the speed will change as
well. Find the new altitude and speed. Note that in reality if the throttle is kept fixed, thrust
force changes with altitude as we will see later. But in this question we are assuming that
the thrust force doesnt change with altitude.
Notes_2014.03.28.pdf page 5 of 8
We need to know the density, temperature, and pressure of air to estimate aerodynamic forces. Rho directly
appears in equations, temperature and pressure are required to compute the Mach and Reynolds numbers.
Variations of these air properties on the surface of the Earth are impossible to model with deterministic equations.
However their variations with altitude are fairly uniform and easy to predict. Let's take a look at these three
properties separately.
Pressure: Air pressure at any altitude is determined by the weight of the air above that level. This is easier to
understand if you consider water. Water is incompressible. That means in a given volume of water the density will
be the same everywhere. For air things are more complicated because it is compressible.
Notes_2014.03.28.pdf page 6 of 8
In case of air, calculation of variation of pressure with altitude involves an integral equation that comes from the
equation of fluid statics. If you would like to see how this equation is obtained you can refer to the pdf file for
the lecture notes I posted at the beginning of the semester.
Temperature: Unlike pressure there are no simple equations that give variation of temperature with altitude.
However experimentally obtained measurements show that temperature variation with altitude consists of
straight lines as shown below.
Density: Once pressure and temperature are known, rho can be computed using the ideal gas law:
Notes_2014.03.28.pdf page 7 of 8
Notes_2014.03.28.pdf page 8 of 8
0.5
4
3
2
1
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-2
6
8
(deg)
10
12
14
16
-2
6
8
(deg)
10
12
14
16
Part a): Assuming that the drag polar of the aircraft is given by the following equation, find the
parasite drag coefficient 0 and Oswald efficiency factor for this aircraft:
2
= 0 +
Part b): The real aircraft with a mass of 2,500 is flying at an altitude of 4,000 at a speed of
100 /. What should the angle of attack be so that the aircraft can maintain its altitude? How
much thrust force should its engine provide so that it can keep its speed?
Solution: In the drag polar equation there are two unknowns, 0 and . We are given a set of lift
and drag force measurements obtained in the tunnel. We can relate these force measurements to
and coefficients and then using these coefficient values we can solve for the two unknowns in
the above equations. Since there are two unknowns, two sets of data will be sufficient to
find these unknowns.
Lift and Drag forces are given by the following equations:
1 2
2
1
= 2
2
=
Note that = 16.17 2 for the real aircraft and a 1/50 scale model is tested in the tunnel. So for
the test we can use the following equations for aerodynamic forces:
1
16.17
(1.225)(30)2 (
)
2
502
1
16.17
)
= (1.225)(30)2 (
2
502
In the data plot given above there are 19 measurement points and any two will be sufficient for us to
solve for 0 and . From the figure it is seen that at = 2 we have = 0 and = 0.1 . If
we use this point we can directly solve for 0 using a single equation. For = 2 we can write
1
16.17
(1.225)(30)2 (
)
2
502
1
16.17
)
0.1 = (1.225)(30)2 (
2
502
0=
= 0
= 0.028
Inserting the above pair into the drag polar equation we get
0.028 = 0 +
(0)2
0 = 0.028
Now we are left with one unknown, . To find that we need one more pair. From the figure
we see that we have round numbers at = 14 . Using the data for = 14 we get:
1
16.17
(1.225)(30)2 (
)
2
502
1
16.17
)
0.5 = (1.225)(30)2 (
2
502
5=
= 1.40
= 0.14
Inserting the above pair into the drag polar equation we get
0.14 = 0.028 +
(1.4)2
2 (10.91)2
=
= 7.36
16.17
(1.4)2
= 0.76
(0.14 0.028)
To be able to claim that above number is the true Oswald efficiency factor, the wind tunnel test
must have been performed without any wall effects as shown below. Unfortunately the tunnel we
will use for our tests is small and our tests will look like the one on the left, with significant wall
effects.
Part b): The aircraft is flying at a mass of 2,500 kg is flying at an altitude of 4,000 m at a speed of 100
m/s. We are asked to find the angle of attack.
To maintain the altitude there should be no acceleration in the vertical direction. There are two
forces in the vertical direction and their sum should be equal to zero.
Note that no wind tunnel data is used to find the necessary lift coefficient value above. We need the
data to find the corresponding angle of attack. Wind tunnel data is given in terms of dimensional
forces in Newtons. So first we need to find the dimensional lift force on the tunnel model when =
0.37:
From the given data we see that 1.32 N corresponds to approximately 1.5 deg. So we can conclude
that the real aircraft must be flying at an angle of attack of 1.5 deg. Here we are making a very
important assumption that lift vs angle of attack curves for the wind tunnel model and the real
aircraft are the same. For this to be true the Reynolds and Mach numbers for both cases must be
close enough! I didnt check them here, please find them yourselves and see how different these
numbers are.
Next we are asked to find the necessary thrust force so that the speed of the aircraft doesn't change.
This requires that there should be no horizontal acceleration and hence
To find the necessary thrust force I need to find the drag force. I know that the angle of attack is
approximately 1.5 deg. From the wind tunnel data the drag force value for the wind tunnel test at
1.5 deg is seen to be approximately 0.13 . Corresponding drag coefficient can be found as
You should be careful to use the correct , and values here. Since = 0.13 is for the
tunnel model we should use the values for the tunnel test. Then using = 0.036 found above we
can find the drag force for the real aircraft as
So for the given aircraft to continue flying at the given altitude and speed it needs a thrust force of
2,384 .
This is a very simple example, but can be used to calculate many things. Here are a few examples,
please study them and find the answers yourselves:
Part c): Total drag force is found in part b. How much of this force is for parasite drag and how much
is for induced drag? Find the ratio of /0 where is the induced drag force with =
and 0 is the parasite drag force with = 0 .
Part d): The aircraft drops 500 of cargo and the total weight reduces to 2,000 . If the pilot
wants to maintain the same flight with = 100 / at = 4,000 , what should the new
angle of attack be? What will be the necessary thrust force? Find the /0 ratio.
Part e): Repeat part d for the case with an added cargo of 500 such that the total weight
increases to 3,000 .
Part f): Suppose that the weight reduces to 2,000 as in part d. Angle of attack changes such that
the lift force becomes equal to the new weight. But this time the pilot doesnt change the
thrust force. Will the aircraft accelerate or decelerate? Suppose that the speed of the
aircraft changes at the same altitude and aircraft reaches a new equilibrium speed. What is
the new speed?
Part g): Suppose that the weight reduces to 2,000 as in part d. Angle of attack stays the same as
before. Will the aircraft climb or descend? Aircraft changes altitude by keeping alpha the
same and reaches a new equilibrium at a different altitude. What is the new altitude? You
need to find the air density at the new altitude and then find the corresponding altitude from
a standard atmosphere table by interpolation. Assume that the pilot adjusts the thrust force
such that the speed of the aircraft stays constant at = 100 / during the altitude
change.
Part h): Consider part g where the altitude of the aircraft changes with constant angle of attack. This
time the thrust force stays the same during the altitude change so the speed will change as
well. Find the new altitude and speed. Note that in reality if the throttle is kept fixed, thrust
force changes with altitude as we will see later. But in this question we are assuming that
the thrust force doesnt change with altitude.
In general there may be an angle between the chord line and the x axis of an
aircraft, called the wing incidence angle, shown above. In the below formulation
it is assumed to be zero. In our wind tunnel model it is 2.5 degrees. Also we
assume the thrust force to be parallel to the x axis, and in general there may be a
small angle between the two as shown below.
Notes_2014.04.01.pdf page 1 of 12
To obtain the equations of motion we need to write the Newton's second law of motion two times (since we
are working on motion in 2D plane).
Notes_2014.04.01.pdf page 2 of 12
We simplify the problem further by considering a steady flight (at constant speed) at constant altitude. Since the
altitude doesn't change the flight path is horizontal (gamma = 0).
You can also call this steady level flight, steady means flight variables (V and alpha)
do not change with time, and level means flight path is horizontal, or altitude is
constant. This is also known as cruising flight.
Notes_2014.04.01.pdf page 3 of 12
We also make an additional assumption that angle of attack is a small angle and
hence cos(alpha)=1 and sin(alpha)=0.
To maintain a steady level flight at a given speed V, lift coefficient has to have a specific value that can be
found from:
Notes_2014.04.01.pdf page 4 of 12
Example: Consider a Boeing 747 aircraft in steady level flight at an altitude where rho = 0.8 kg/m^3.
Suppose that the CL vs. alpha curves for various flap configurations are as follows:
Find the minimum speed at which the Boeing 747 can maintain a steady level flight with a clean wing (no
flaps).
We are looking for the minimum V value for which the above equations should be satisfied. V can be solved
from the above equations as follows:
W and S are constants. Since the altitude is also constant, rho is a constant number as well. In this case the
only variable in the above expression is C_L. The minimum V value is the one that corresponds to the largest
C_L value, which is 1.5 with no flaps.
Notes_2014.04.01.pdf page 5 of 12
Find also the minimum speeds for half flap and full flap configurations.
The speeds found above are called stall speeds. That means if the speed gets lower than the above speeds,
the lift force will become smaller than W and the aircraft will start loosing altitude.
Notes_2014.04.01.pdf page 6 of 12
For a steady level flight the drag force on an aircraft is given by:
So the drag depends on rho (flight altitude), V (flight speed), C_L (depends on alpha, and alpha is
determined by the flight speed from the W=L equation), S, C_D0, e, AR, W (which are all properties of the
aircraft, W dependence comes from C_L).
To maintain the steady level flight on a given aircraft and flight condition (altitude and speed), the thrust
force generated by the engine(s) should be equal to the drag force.
Notes_2014.04.01.pdf page 7 of 12
Next let's calculate the necessary lift coefficient and resulting drag coefficients
and drag forces at another speed, V = 50 m/s.
Notes_2014.04.01.pdf page 8 of 12
If you compute C_L, C_D, D_0, D_i in a certain velocity range you get the
following plots:
Notes_2014.04.01.pdf page 9 of 12
As long as you can provide a thrust force equal to the drag force, your aircraft will continue is flight at the
same speed. This required thrust force can be supplied by various different engine types. Whatever type of
engine you use, the required thrust doesn't change.
Notes_2014.04.01.pdf page 10 of 12
Mathematically the V value at which the T_R will be minimum can be calculated from:
For T_R to be minimum, we need the ratio of C_L/C_D to be maximum. At a given flight speed C_L has to
have a certain value for the L=W equation to hold. C_D has two components. C_D0 is constant, but C_Di
depends on C_L. Therefore for every flight speed C_L/C_D has a certain value. The C_L/C_D ratio makes a
peak at a certain speed and this speed corresponds to minimum T_R.
Notes_2014.04.01.pdf page 11 of 12
We are looking for the condition where C_L/C_D ratio becomes maximum. This can
be found by using the drag polar relation as follows:
So for the lift-to-drag ratio to be maximum, induced drag coefficient should be equal to the
parasite drag coefficient. Therefore we can easily find the minimum T_R point if we know
the parasite drag coefficient.
Notes_2014.04.01.pdf page 12 of 12
Notes_2014.04.08.pdf page 1 of 9
If you know the parasite drag coefficient of your aircraft, then you can say that the minimum
required thrust force for a steady level flight is achieved when CDi=CD0 and hence the total
drag coefficient is equal to twice the parasite drag coefficient.
In most cases you measure CD and CL coefficients in a wind tunnel and obtain the drag
polar graph experimentally:
Notes_2014.04.08.pdf page 2 of 9
Drag vs. V curve for an aircraft in steady level flight is known together with the thrust force
provided by the engine. Since this is a steady level flight, there are only two possibilities for
the speed of the flight. The two possible speeds are shown above in the figure as V1 and
V2. If we have the Drag curve, we can simply find V1 and V2 graphically by intersecting the
constant thrust line with the drag curve as shown above. But if we want to calculate the two
possible speeds analytically we can use the drag equation as follows:
We are looking for two values of V for which the drag force given by the above equation
becomes equal to T.
Notes_2014.04.08.pdf page 3 of 9
Using the above relation we can find the possible flight speeds for different thrust values
as shown next.
Notes_2014.04.08.pdf page 4 of 9
Notes_2014.04.08.pdf page 5 of 9
Notes_2014.04.08.pdf page 6 of 9
For an aircraft to maintain a steady level flight at a given altitude and speed, the thrust force
produced by the engine(s) must be equal to the aerodynamic drag force, which is called thrust
required. T_R is determined by the flight condition and aerodynamic design of the aircraft.
T_A can be changed by the pilot through the throttle lever in the cockpit.
During a steady level flight
Notes_2014.04.08.pdf page 7 of 9
Note that this is the maximum cruising speed. An aircraft can reach higher speeds momentarily,
while diving for example, but the maximum sustainable flight speed at constant altitude can be
calculated from (T_A)_max = T_R.
Notes_2014.04.08.pdf page 8 of 9
When one person pushes another, his muscle power turns in to kinetic energy for both of them. The
energy transferred by the pusher to the other person is a loss for the pusher. If the same person
pushes himself agains a wall he gets a larger acceleration because his entire power becomes a kinetic
energy for himself.
If he pushes the wall with the same force
he gets a higher kinetic energy.
Notes_2014.04.08.pdf page 9 of 9
Let's assume that within time Delta_t, the amount of air that goes into the engine is Delta_m. In this case the
momentum of the air going in is equal to
Notes_2014.04.11.pdf page 1 of 3
So the thrust of an air breathing engine depends on mass flow rate and the speed increase of the air. There are
two things that determine the amount of thrust produced by an engine, these are mass flow rate
(m_dot) and speed difference. To get large thrust you need to make both of these large. That means
you need to breathe more air in and make it exit the engine at a higher speed.
Now let's take a look at the energy increase in the flow. As air accelerates, its kinetic energy increases and this is
actually lost energy for our purpose since our purpose is to generate thrust force and not to accelerate air. Within
time Delta_t, Delta_m amount of air flows through the engine and the kinetic energy increase for this air is given
by:
Notes_2014.04.11.pdf page 2 of 3
Notes_2014.04.11.pdf page 3 of 3
For an ideal engine (with no wasted energy) V_j should converge V_infinity and m_dot should
converge infinity. Helicopters come close to doing that by getting in a very high flow rate through
a very large disk area, while jet aircraft that can takeoff vertically (Harrier, F35) does the opposite.
They take in much smaller amount of air but give that air a very large acceleration. As a result
they can generate sufficient force to balance the weight, but they waste a lot of energy for doing
that.
Notes_2014.04.15.pdf page 1 of 7
Notes_2014.04.15.pdf page 2 of 7
The speed at which the required thrust force is minimum for aircraft performance. We found earlier that T_R
becomes minimum when the CL to CD ratio is maximum. Similarly minimum P_R point is important as well
and we can also find the aerodynamic condition for that point.
Notes_2014.04.15.pdf page 3 of 7
Notes_2014.04.15.pdf page 4 of 7
Fan in front of the engine works as a propeller. Big part of the thrust comes from the fan, smaller part comes from
the jet.
Notes_2014.04.15.pdf page 5 of 7
In a propeller engine, power generated can be considered to be constant with speed. If you plot
power available from a propeller engine together with power required you get something like this:
Since P=TV, thrust from a propeller becomes:
Notes_2014.04.15.pdf page 6 of 7
Notes_2014.04.15.pdf page 7 of 7
Example:Consideranaircraftwiththefollowingliftanddragcoefficientsobtainedinawindtunnelexperiment:
Alpha (deg)
CL
CD
-----------------------------0
0
0.0200
1.0000
0.1121
0.0221
2.0000
0.2242
0.0252
3.0000
0.3364
0.0288
4.0000
0.4485
0.0341
5.0000
0.5606
0.0408
6.0000
0.6727
0.0482
7.0000
0.7848
0.0565
8.0000
0.8707
0.0676
9.0000
0.9532
0.0777
10.0000
1.0000
0.0900
11.0000
0.9308
0.1046
12.0000
0.4925
0.1164
Notes_2014.04.18.pdf page 1 of 4
For more realistic plots we can use the experimental data directly without using the idealized drag polar curve.
Here's how we do it:
Notes_2014.04.18.pdf page 2 of 4
To find the minimum throttle setting at which the aircraft can maintain a steady level flight, we find the
minimum PR value, which is 9750 W. This corresponds to 16.25% of the maximum power.
Notes_2014.04.18.pdf page 3 of 4
Notes_2014.04.18.pdf page 4 of 4
18.04.2014
Dr. A. Trker Kutay
Example: Consider an aircraft with the following lift and drag coefficients obtained in a wind tunnel
experiment:
Alpha (deg)
CL
CD
-----------------------------0
0
0.0200
1.0000
0.1121
0.0221
2.0000
0.2242
0.0252
3.0000
0.3364
0.0288
4.0000
0.4485
0.0341
5.0000
0.5606
0.0408
6.0000
0.6727
0.0482
7.0000
0.7848
0.0565
8.0000
0.8707
0.0676
9.0000
0.9532
0.0777
10.0000
1.0000
0.0900
11.0000
0.9308
0.1046
12.0000
0.4925
0.1164
vs and drag polar curves can be drawn as follows:
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
C
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0
0
5
(deg)
0
0
10
0.05
C
D
0.1
The aircraft has a wing surface area of = 30 2 , weight of = 6,000 and is flying at the altitude
where = 1 /3 . Plot vs and vs curves for this aircraft.
First we should find a velocity range. The maximum lift coefficient is given to be ( ) = 1. This
can be used to find the stall speed of the aircraft from:
1
= = 2
2
Minimum will be obtained for the largest :
2
=
( )
20 /
The aircraft cannot maintain a steady level flight at a smaller speed, so we can start the and
curves from this speed. At this speed where = 1, we see that = 0.09. Using this we can find
the and values as:
1
Page 145 of 225
= =
18.04.2014
Dr. A. Trker Kutay
1 2
2
1
1 (20)2 30 0.09
2
= 540
1
= = 3
2
1
= 1 (20)2 30 0.09
2
= 10800
=
Above numbers correspond to a single point on and curves at = 20 /. To obtain the curves
we need to find and values for a number of velocities. When flying at a different velocity, the
aircraft should have a different value to satisfy the = equation and there will be a different
value corresponding to that. For the second point of our curves we can use the values before
( ) , which corresponds to = 9. For that point we have:
=9 =
2
( )=9
20.5 /
Corresponding drag coefficient from the table
is = 0.078. Then we find the following
values:
1000
800
R
T (N)
1
( = 20.5) = 1 (20.5)2 30
2
0.078
489
1
( = 20.5) = 1 (20.5)2 30
2
0.078
= 10024
1200
600
400
200
0
0
20
40
60
40
60
x 10
P (W)
6
4
2
0
0
20
V (m/s)
2
Page 146 of 225
18.04.2014
Dr. A. Trker Kutay
1200
800
600
T @50% throttle
400
200
0
0
40
P @100% throttle
A
P @50% throttle
A
2
0
0
20
42.9
V (m/s)
3
Page 147 of 225
60
x 10
20
4
P (W)
T @100% throttle
1000
T (N)
R
55.3
Notes_2014.04.22.pdf page 1 of 9
Notes_2014.04.22.pdf page 2 of 9
Notes_2014.04.22.pdf page 3 of 9
Notes_2014.04.22.pdf page 4 of 9
Notes_2014.04.22.pdf page 5 of 9
Notes_2014.04.22.pdf page 6 of 9
Notes_2014.04.22.pdf page 7 of 9
Notes_2014.04.22.pdf page 8 of 9
Notes_2014.04.22.pdf page 9 of 9
Notes_2014.04.25.pdf page 1 of 7
In the above expression for TRmin, there is rho. But this doesn't mean that TRmin depends on rho. The
reason is the V^2 term in the expression is not a variable. In other words V cannot be anything, it has to
have a certain value that corresponds to the minimum TR point. So we need to find that specific value of V
and put it there. Once we do that rho gets cancelled and we get the below experssion for TRmin which
doesn't depend on rho.
Notes_2014.04.25.pdf page 2 of 7
Previously we had concluded that if the altitude is increased (rho is reduced), (TR)min occurs at
a higher speed. Now let's find how the (TR)min speed precisely changes with air density.
As you can see in the above equation the speed at which T_R becomes minimum depends on
rho. It is inversely proportional to the square root of rho. As rho decreases (when altitude
increases) V_TR_min increases.
Notes_2014.04.25.pdf page 3 of 7
Notes_2014.04.25.pdf page 4 of 7
These results tell us that if the air density is changed, both the minimum PR value and the speed at which
PR becomes minimum change by the same scaling factor. This means that as rho is changed, minimum
PR point slides along a straight line as shown below
Notes_2014.04.25.pdf page 5 of 7
Notes_2014.04.25.pdf page 6 of 7
Next consider the same aircraft flying at a higher altitude where rho=rho1<rho0
Notes_2014.04.25.pdf page 7 of 7
The required power to maintain a steady level flight at sea level and V=61 m/s is given above.
The engine should actually be generating more power than that and this is because some of the
power generated will be lost due to propeller efficiency.
To get 52% of the maximum power the pilot should set the throttle lever to 52%.
Let's also compute the minimum TR and the speed at which TR becomes minimum:
Previously we saw that the minimum speed of an aircraft is determined by the maximum lift coefficient.
Maximum lift coefficient can be increased using high lift devices (flaps, slats, etc.) and this reduces the
stall speed. If you reduce the stall speed limit too much, then engine power can become the limiting
factor. Below a certain speed required thrust (or required power) will become greater than the
maximum engine thrust (or power) and that means even if your aircraft can aerodynamically generate
enough lift force, your engine cannot balance the resulting drag force.
Steady climb, in other words the aircraft's altitude increases at a steady rate.
The only difference between a steady level flight and steady climb is that in the former flight path
angle gamma is zero whereas in steady climb gamma is a positive nonzero number.
Normally in these
equations we should have
acceleration terms, but
here we are studying
steady climb, which
means accelerations are
In steady level flight L should be equal to W, but as you can see above in a steady climb L is
actually less than W.
Since in this expression we are taking the difference between the applied power and consumed
power, this term is called the excess power. Rate of climb for an aircraft is equal to the excess
power divided by the weight of the aircraft.
In a steady level flight thrust of the engine should be equal to the drag force (this is called required
thrust) and in this case the excess power is:
To have excess power thrust available should be greater than the drag (thrust required).
While in steady level flight engine thrust should be equal to drag, to maintain a steady climb the
aircraft needs to have a positive excess power, which means the engine thrust should be greater
than the drag force.
Since rate of climb (R/C) depends on excess power, it becomes easier to use P_R curves to study
climbing flight for both propeller and jet engines.
In these graphs you see changes of speed and altitude of an aircraft with time.
This is the transient region where the flight is NOT steady. An aircraft cannot
jump from one steady flight condition to another instantaneously. It goes through
an unsteady phase as shown here. In this course however we only study steady
flights.
But the reduction in excess power is really slow so we can still call
it a steady climb.
The aircraft starts climbing steadily at a rate of 5 m/s. Note that this is not exactly a "steady" climb.
As the A/C climbs, both P_R and P_A change with altitude. That means as the altitude increases
the rate of climb changes even if the speed and throttle setting don't change.
As the aircraft gains altitude, excess power
reduces. But the loss in excess power is
relatively slow and we consider this to be a
steady climb.
In this figure the red curves indicate P_R and
P_A at a higher altitude. Finally the aircraft
reaches an altitude where the P_A and P_R
becomes equal and the aircraft cannot climb
anymore.
Another way to have excess power while doing a steady level flight is to reduce required power.
This can be done by changing the flight speed unless the aircraft is already flying at min P_R
speed. If the aircraft is already flying at the min P_R speed, then P_R cannot be reduced any
further, since it is already at the minimum possible value.
AnimportantdifferenceinthelowspeedR/Cperformance
canbeseenbetweenapropellerdrivenandajetA/C.Dueto
theP_A characteristicsofapistonenginepropeller
combination,largeexcesspowersareavailableatlowvalues
ofV_ justabovethestall.Incontrasttheexcesspower
availabletojetA/CatlowV_ issmall,witha
correspondinglyreducedR/Ccapability.
Both the required and available power change with altitude. That means as an aircraft
climbs its rate of climb decreases with altitude. You can compute the rate of climb at a
number of altitudes and when you plot them you can obtain R/C versus altitude curves.
As you can see in the figure above, the maximum altitude an aircraft can climb to depends
on the flight speed. There is a certain speed at which the the aircraft's highest climbing
altitude becomes maximum, that maximum climb altitude is defined as the absolute ceiling.
In the sample R/C versus altitude plot given above, the situation at 6.5 km is as follows:
An aircraft cruising (performing a steady level flight) at a certain altitude and speed may need
to change its altitude due to air traffic regulations. In this case the aircraft will perform
unaccelerated climb as we studied previously.
An aircraft taking off from an airport needs to perform accelerated climb to reach its cruising
altitude and speed.
The pilot can choose how to split excess power between climbing and acceleration by
adjusting the elevator deflection appropriately.
We can also study the accelerated climb using the energy method.
Energy height is a measure of the total mechanical energy of an aircraft, which is composed of
potential and kinetic energies. Energy height is the sum of the actual height (altitude) and V^
2/2/g which is the contribution of the kinetic energy to the total energy.
At this point
the total
energy
height is 10
km and it is
composed
of potential
energy only
with kinetic
energy
equal to
zero.
At this point
the total
energy height
is 10 km as
well and this
time it is
composed of
kinetic energy
only with
potential
energy equal
to zero.
The blue curves you see in this plot are constant energy height contours. That means
anywhere on a curve the total energy height is constant. Different points on a contour
corresponds to different points where the sharing of the total energy between potential
energy and kinetic energy are different.
When it reaches
the cruising
condition, the
B747 flies on the
14186 m contour
at this point (h=
11000 m, V=250
m/s)
Notes_2014.05.02.pdf page 1 of 8
There are infinitely many different ways to perform this climb. Two special
cases are shown below. In the red path the aircraft performs an unaccelerated
climb at the initial speed of 80 m/s and then accelerates when it reaches 11 km
altitude. In the green one it first accelerates to cruising speed at sea level, and
then climbs to 11 km. These two are extreme scenarios and in general no pilot
will perform either one of these climbs and instead will follow a path like the
blue
one where the speed and
altitude increase at the
same time.
Suppose that an aircraft is flying at sea level at a speed of 100 m/s. The pilot
increases power available and the aircraft gets an excess power of 100 000
Watts. The aircraft weight is 10000 N. What will be the rate of climb if the pilot
performs unnaccelerated climb?
Notes_2014.05.02.pdf page 2 of 8
What will be the acceleration of the aircraft if the entire excess power is used
for acceleration at constant altitude?
As the last case let's assume that the pilot starts climbing at a rate of 5 m/s and the rest
of the excess power is used for acceleration. What will be the acceleration?
This is for unaccelerated climb where the aircraft climbs at a constant speed.
If an aircraft could maintain the same rate of climb at every altitude, we could
compute the time to climb very easily. For example in a given condition if
R/C for an A/C is 5 m/s, we could directly say that it can climb 5000 m in
1000 seconds. But it is not the case, as we saw before rate of climb changes
with altitude. In this case the time to climb can be computed by integration
as follows:
Notes_2014.05.02.pdf page 3 of 8
Notes_2014.05.02.pdf page 4 of 8
Notes_2014.05.02.pdf page 5 of 8
Notes_2014.05.02.pdf page 6 of 8
The max L/D condition is obtained when C_Di=C_D0, which is the point
where T_R becomes minimum. For maximum gliding range an aircraft
has to fly at the min T_R point.
Page 190 of 225
Notes_2014.05.02.pdf page 7 of 8
For best gliding range an aircraft needs to fly at the maximum L/D
condition, which happens to be the same condition for T_R minimum.
Flying at any other speed will result in an L/D value that is smaller than
(L/D)_max and this will reduce the gliding range.
Notes_2014.05.02.pdf page 8 of 8
According to a Google search the best CL:CD ratio for this aircraft is approximately
18.
The sum of W_f and W_fb gives the weight of the full tank of fuel. At the
beginning of the flight W_fb is zero and at the end of the flight when the aircraft
runs out of fuel W_f becomes zero.
Page 192 of 225
Notes_2014.05.06.pdf page 1 of 8
Above definitions of c and c_t assume that fuel consumption rate linearly
depends on engine power for piston engines and engine thrust for jet engines.
For piston engines W_fb_dot
versus Power graph is a line with
slope equal to c.
For jet engines W_fb_dot versus
Thrust graph is a line with slope
equal to c_t.
For propeller aircraft driven
by piston (reciprocating)
engines
Page 193 of 225
Notes_2014.05.06.pdf page 2 of 8
as long as
engine produces
power (or thrust)
Notes_2014.05.06.pdf page 3 of 8
In the above integration the right hand side integral is taken from the initial full
weight (W_0) to empty weight (W_1). In this case the left hand side gives the
total time spent while the full tank of fuel is consumed, which is defined as the
endurance.
The above equation gives the endurance for any flight condition. We didn't
make any assumptions to get to this equation. Starting from takeoff, during
climb, different steady flight phases, descend, etc. power of the engine will be
changing. If you insert the varying P in to above equation you can compute the
endurance.
Let's consider an aircraft taking off, cruising for a certain amount of time and
then lands. Assume that the aircraft burns all its fuel during this flight.
Notes_2014.05.06.pdf page 4 of 8
To compute the endurance you need to plot 1/cP as a function of weight and
then calculate the area under that curve between W_1 and W_0.
Notes_2014.05.06.pdf page 5 of 8
Again the above equation for range is valid for any flight condition. Note that
during a flight speed may be changing, therefore in general V_infinity in the
above equation is a variable.
Notes_2014.05.06.pdf page 6 of 8
Notes_2014.05.06.pdf page 7 of 8
Notes_2014.05.06.pdf page 8 of 8
To quickly conclude what maximizes range and endurance for propeller and jet aircraft we can consider the SFC
definitions.
For maximum endurance, fuel consumption per unit time has to be minimum.
For maximum range, fuel consumption per unit distance has to be minimum.
Notes_2014.05.13.pdf page 1 of 10
One way to change the direction of an aircraft is to turn it like a car. That
means the wings of the aircraft stay parallel to the ground and the aircraft
turns with pure yawing with roll angle equal to zero.
This turn maneuver is called "skid-to-turn" maneuver and most missiles turn
this way. But for aircraft this turn maneuver is not preferred because the
people on board feel a lateral force due to centrifugal acceleration.
Cars have to follow the road surface and drivers cannot change the roll angle
during a turn. This is not the case for aircraft. Pilots can control the roll angle.
By adjusting the roll angle appropriately the pilot can assure that
Page 204 of 225
Notes_2014.05.13.pdf page 2 of 10
Notes_2014.05.13.pdf page 3 of 10
Notes_2014.05.13.pdf page 4 of 10
When we sit straight we only feel the gravitational acceleration, which gives
our weight. But while turning we feel a larger acceleration, which is the vector
of gravitational acceleration and centrifugal acceleration, given by:
Let's take a look at the total acceleration felt by the pilot during a
coordinated turn maneuver:
During a sustained level turn maneuver with a load factor n, people on board
experience a net acceleration that is n times the gravitational acceleration g.
Notes_2014.05.13.pdf page 5 of 10
During a sustained level turn maneuver load factor is determined by the bank
angle only. If the bank angle is large that means load factor is large as well.
Notes_2014.05.13.pdf page 6 of 10
Turning performance of an aircraft depends on the flight speed and load factor.
An aircraft that can make faster and tighter turns is said to be highly
maneuverable. So for better maneuverability you need a large load factor.
Page 209 of 225
Notes_2014.05.13.pdf page 7 of 10
For a high load factor aircraft, the aircraft should be capable of creating very
large lift forces. For a 9 g turn, lift should be equal to 9 times the weight. This
puts a constraint on aerodynamics.
Notes_2014.05.13.pdf page 8 of 10
But we know that C_L cannot be greater than C_Lmax, otherwise the
aircraft stalls. For a given C_Lmax the maximum load factor an aircraft
can have is given by:
Let's see what is the maximum load factor an aircraft can have. There are different
limiting factors. Let's consider the aerodynamics first.
Notes_2014.05.13.pdf page 9 of 10
Notes_2014.05.13.pdf page 10 of 10
Let's study the turning performance of the C-130 aircraft. Data used are taken
from the a953109.pdf file and the internet. We have
W0 = 5.5315e+005
S = 162.1;
rho = 1.225;
At any speed the maximum lift force is achieved with the maximum lift coefficient.
Assume that a fully loaded (W=W0) C-130 is flying with a clean wing (no flaps) at a
speed of 100 m/s. What is highest load factor the aircraft can achieve?
Maximum speed of the aircraft at sea level with W=W0 can be found from the power
curve.
Page 213 of 225
Notes_2014.05.16.pdf page 1 of 8
Above plot shows us that the C-130 aircraft is capable of achieving a load factor
of up to 13 with flaps fully extended aerodynamically.
Notes_2014.05.16.pdf page 2 of 8
Obviously the aircraft cannot sustain a turn under these conditions because it doesn't
have enough power to maintain the speed. Then the question is what is the
maximum load factor it can sustain??? For the maximum sustainable maneuver at
V=156 m/s, required power should be equal to the maximum available power. For
that the drag coefficient must be less than 0.23. What should CD be?
Notes_2014.05.16.pdf page 3 of 8
But aerodynamic limit is not the only limiting factor. At such hight lift forces there
will be very large drag forces as well. If you need to sustain the maneuver your
engines should give you enough thrust force. Let's calculate the thrust required
(or power required) at the maximum load factor:
Therefore even though C-130 can aerodynamically generate a load factor 7, its
engines are far from giving the necessary power to sustain a level turn at that
speed and load factor. In this case propulsive limit is much lower than the
aerodynamic limit.
So the next question is what is the maximum load factor then engines will allow for
a sustained maneuver? Consider the V=156 m/s speed again. The maximum
power is
From the drag polar, the CL value corresponding to CD=0.0291 is 0.44. The lift force at
that speed and CL value is
Notes_2014.05.16.pdf page 4 of 8
You can calculate the maximum load factor limited by the engine as follows:
Choose a flight speed
Running at full throttle find the maximum thrust at that speed.
Using T=D, find the maximum C_D
Find the C_L value corresponding to the C_D you found above. If you are using
the drag polar equation you can solve it from there. If you are using the drag
polar curve you read the C_L value from the curve.
Find the lift force corresponding to the C_L value you found above.
Find n_max_limited by the engines from L/W. For C-130 you get the following
curves:
In addition to aerodynamic and propulsive limit, you also need to consider the
structural limit. For C-130 maximum load factor with maximum weight is given as
2. That means even if aerodynamic and porpulsive limitations let you have a
large load factor, you need to take structural limit into account as well, otherwise
the wings will be damaged or even they will be broken as we saw in the videos.
Notes_2014.05.16.pdf page 5 of 8
According to this
graph the maximum
load factor for C-130
limited by the
aerodynamics is less
than 6 with no flaps.
If the flaps are
extended fully n_max
increases to about 9.
This plot shows the aerodynamic limit for load factor. There are other factors that limit n_max. In other words you
cannot make a highly maneuverable aircraft by just making C_Lmax large. At large C_L values C_D becomes
large as well. So to sustain a maneuver the engines should be powerful enough to overcome aerodynamic drag.
So the maximum power the engines can provide is another limiting factor.
Notes_2014.05.16.pdf page 6 of 8
The red curve for propulsion limit starts at high speed values. For every point on the red curve there are
corresponding C_L and C_D values. If you want to extend the red curve to lower speed values, C_L values required
for those points will be outside the drag polar curve. That's why the red curve does not extend to low speed values.
Notes_2014.05.16.pdf page 7 of 8
So far we saw that to make C-130 a 9g aircraft we need to extend the flaps fully
and make the engines 10 times more powerful. Is this enough? Can a C-130
make 9g maneuvers by just having more powerful engines? The answer is no.
That's because during a 9g maneuver the lift force will be 9 times the weight of
the aircraft. But the wings are designed for the originial n_max of ~2.25 g. That
means to make C-130 a 9g aircraft you need to make the wings approximately 4
times stronger. But this will change the overall weight and you need to start from
the beginning again.
Typical V-n diagram, showing the maximum load factor an aircraft can get at different speeds, also called the
flight envelope.
margin of safety
Notes_2014.05.16.pdf page 8 of 8
Notes_2014.05.20.pdf page 1 of 5
Notes_2014.05.20.pdf page 2 of 5
Notes_2014.05.20.pdf page 3 of 5
Notes_2014.05.20.pdf page 4 of 5
Notes_2014.05.20.pdf page 5 of 5