Chapter 5

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Chapter 5: Using Projects and Practicals
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Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:
Describe the characteristics of project work

Justify the use of the project as an assessment tool
Explain the procedure in using the project as an assessment technique
Explain the purpose of practical tests for particular subject areas
Describe how practicals should be assessed.
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
5.1 What is a Project?

5.2 What is Assessed Using
Projects?
5.3 Designing Effective Projects
5.4 Possible Problems with Projects
5.5 Group Work in Projects
5.6 Assessing Project Work
5.7 Assessment of Practical Work
5.8 Assessment of Science Practical
Work
Summary
Key Terms
References
Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: What to Assess
Chapter 3: Using Objective Tests
Chapter 4: Using Essay Tests
Chapter 6: Using Observations, Oral Tests,
and Portfolios
Chapter 7: Reliability and Validity of
Assessment Methods
Chapter 8: Item Analysis
Chapter 9: Analysis of Test Scores and
Reporting
Besides objective and essay tests, other methods of assessing students have been used. In
this chapter, we will focus on two types of such assessment methods, namely; the project
and practicals. The project is used in many subject areas while the practical test is
adopted for subjects that involve hands-on experience such as the sciences, technical and
vocational subjects, the hospitality industry and so forth. For, subjects such as
geography, geology and environmental education, the project may involve fieldwork.
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5.1 WHAT IS A PROJECT?
Most of us have done some form of project work in school or university and
know what is project. However, when asked to define, one will see varying
interpretations of the project and its purpose. A project is an activity in which time
constraints has been largely removed (compared to an examination) and can be
undertaken individually or by a group,
and usually involves a significant Most projects have certain common
element of work being done at home defining features (Katz & Chard, 1989)
or out of school (Firth and
Student centred
Mackintosh, 1987). Project work has
A definite beginning, middle, and
its roots in the constructivist approach
end
which evolved from the work of
Content meaningful to students;
psychologists and educators such as
directly observable in their
Lev Vygotsky, Jerome Bruner, Jean
environment
Piaget
and
John
Dewey.
Real-world problems
Constructivism views learning the
Firsthand investigation
result of mental construction wherein
Sensitivity to local culture and
students learn by constructing new
culturally appropriate
ideas or concepts based on their
Specific goals related to curriculum
current and previous knowledge.
A tangible product that can be shared
In project work, the whole
with the intended audience
work process is as important as the
Connections among school, life, and
final result or product. Work process
work skills
refers to students choosing a
Opportunity for reflective thinking
knowledge area, delimiting it,
and student self-assessment
formulating a problem or putting
Authentic assessments (portfolios,
forward questions. It also involves
journals, etc.)
students investigating and describing
what is required to solve a given
problem, or answer a specific question through further work, collection of materials
and knowledge. Project work is planned so it can be carried out within the time
available. Preferably, the task should is drawn from knowledge areas in the current
curriculum. Project work is an integrated learning experience that encourages students
to break away from the compartmentalisation of knowledge and instead involves
drawing upon different aspects of knowledge. For example, making an object not only
requires handicraft skills, but also knowledge of materials, working methods and uses
of the object. Similarly, writing the project report requires writing skills learned in the
language classroom and applying it when analysing and drawing conclusions for a
science project. Generally, there are TWO types of projects: Research-based and
Product-based.
The Research-Based Project is more theoretical in nature and may consist of

putting a question, formulating a problem or setting up some hypotheses. In
order to answer the question, solve the problem or confirm the assumptions,
information must be found, evaluated and used. This information can either be
a result of their own investigations, or be obtained from public sources without
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being a pure reproduction. Such project work is usually presented as a

research report.
The Product-Based Project would be the production of a concrete object, a
service, a dance performance, a film, an exhibition, play, a computer
programme and so forth.
Figure 5.1 Making of models

can be fun and challenging
Project work provides an opportunity for students

to explore different approaches in solving
problems. In project work a teacher follows,
discusses and assesses the work in all its different
phases. This teacher is the student's supervisor. If
the work takes place in a group, the input of
different pupils should take place from within their
respective programme goals. Most importantly,
students should find projects fun, motivating, and
challenging because they play an active role in the
entire process (see Figure 5.1). The selection of a
project may be determined by the teacher or the
choice may be left to the students, probably with
the approval of the teacher (Katz, 1994).. What is
significant is that students take ownership of their
PROJECT IDEAS
There are many types of effective projects. The following are just some ideas for
projects:
Survey of historical buildings in the students community.
Study of the economic activities of people in the local community
Study of the transportation system in the district
Recreate an historical event.
Develop a newsletter or Web site on a specific issue relevant to the school or
community (school safety, recycling, how businesses can save energy and
reduce waste, etc).
Compile oral histories of the local area by interviewing community elders.
Produce a Web site as a "virtual tour" of the history of the community.
Create a wildlife or botanical guide for a local wildlife area.
Create an exhibition on local products, local history, local personalities using
audiotapes, videotapes, and photographs.
Investigating pollution of local rivers, lakes and ponds.
The possibilities for projects are endless. The key ingredient for any project
idea is that it is student driven, challenging, and meaningful. It is important to realise
that project-based instruction complements the structured curriculum. Project-based
instruction builds on and enhances what children learn through systematic instruction.
Teachers do not let students become the sole decision makers about what project to
do, nor do teachers sit back and wait for the student to figure out how to go about the
process, which may be very challenging (Bryson, 1994). This is where the teachers
ability to facilitate and act as coach plays an important part in the success of a project.
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The teacher will have brainstormed ideas with the student to come up with project
possibilities, discuss possibilities and options, help the student form a guiding
question, and be ready to help the student throughout the implementation process such
as setting guidelines, due dates, resource selection and so forth (Bryson, 1994;
Rankin, 1993).
SELF-CHECK 5.1
a) What is a project?
b) What is the difference between a research-based project and
a product-based project. Give examples of projects in your
subject area.
5.2 WHAT IS ASSESSED USING PROJECTS?
Project oriented work is becoming

increasingly common in working life. Project
competence, the ability to work together with
others, and also to take personal initiatives and
entrepreneurship are skills often required by
employers. These competences can be
developed during project work and thus
prepare pupils for working life. Project work
makes schooling more like the real world. In
real life, we selfdom spend several hours
listening to authorities who know more than we
do and tell us exactly what to do and how to do Figure 5.2 Young children are
it. We ask questions of the person we are eager to share their experiences
learning from. We try to link what the person is with something related in a story
telling us with what we already know. We bring
our experiences and what we already know that is relevant to the issue or task and say
something about it.
You can see this with a class of young learners. When the teacher tells a story,
little kindergarten children raise their hands eagerly to share their experiences with
something related to the story (see Figure 5.2). They want to be able to apply their
natural tendencies to the learning process. This is how life is much of the time! By
giving project work, we open up areas in schooling where students can speak about
what they already know.
Project work is a learning experience which enables the development of
certain knowledge, skills and attitudes which prepares students for lifelong learning
and the challenges ahead (see Table 5.1). These objectives may not be achieved by
current instructional strategies.
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Domains
Knowledge application
[Apply creative and critical
thinking skills]
Communication
[Improve communication
skills; both oral and written]
Collaboration
[Foster collaborative learning
skills]
Independent Learning
[Develop self-directed inquiry
and life-long learning skills]
Learning Outcomes
Students will be able to make connections across
different areas of knowledge and to generate,
develop and evaluate ideas and information so as to
apply these skills to the project task.
be able to choose a knowledge area and
within this delimit a task or a problem,
be able to choose relevant material,
methods as well as relevant tools,
be held to draw up a project plan and where
needed revise it
Students will acquire the skills to communicate
effectively and to present ideas clearly and
coherently to specific audience in both the written
and oral forms
be able to discuss with their supervising
teacher how their work is developing,
be able to provide a written report of the
project describing the progress of the work
from initial idea to final product
be able to produce a final product which
means an independent solution to the task
or problem chosen
Students will acquire collaborative skills through
working in a team to achieve common goals.
Students will be able to learn on their own, reflect
on their learning and take appropriate actions to
improve it.
be able to use a logbook documenting the
progress of their work and regularly report
the process
be able to assess either in writing or
verbally their work process and results.
Table 5.1 The Knowledge, Skills and Attitudes Achieved with Projects
[source: Harwell, S., & Blank, W. (1997). Connecting high school with the real
world. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED407586]
PROJECTS aim at:
developing the skill of planning, structuring and taking responsibility for a larger
piece of work and providing experience of working in project form (like they do
in the real world!).
encouraging students to study in-depth knowledge within a subject or between
subjects.
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providing students with opportunities to explore the inter-relationships and interconnectedness of topics within a subject and between subjects.
encouraging students to synthesise knowledge from various areas of learning, and
critically and creatively applying it to real life situations.
Hence, it is important that students be assigned to carry our authentic projects in

which they plan, implement, and report on projects that have real-world applications
beyond the classroom (Blank and Harwell, 1997).
5.1 ACTIVITY
a) What are the knowledge, skills and attitudes assessed

using a project?
b) To what extent has project work been used as an
assessment strategy in institution?
5.3 DESIGNING EFFECTIVE PROJECTS
There are many types of projects

and there is no one correct way to design
and implement a project, but there are
some questions and things to consider
when designing effective projects. It is
very important for everyone involved to
be clear about the goals of the project.
You will be surprised that many teachers
are not sure why they use projects to
assess their students. The teacher should
develop an outline that explains the
projects
essential
elements
and
expectations. Although the outline can
take various forms, it should contain the
following elements (Bottoms & Webb,
1998):
Figure 5.3 Fieldwork is a common type of

project used in subjects such as geography
biology and environmental studies.
Situation or problem: A sentence or two describing the issue or problem that

the project is trying to address. For example, study of the rainforest (see
Figure 5.1), the pollution levels in rivers, transportation problems in urban
centres, price of essential items are increasing, crime rate in squatter areas,
youths loitering in shopping complexes, students in internet cafes during
school hours and so forth.
Project description and purpose: A concise explanation of the projects
ultimate purpose and how it addresses the situation or problem. For example;
students will research, conduct surveys, and make recommendations on how
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students help reduce pollution of rivers. Results will be presented in a

newsletter, information brochure, exhibition or Web site.
Performance specifications: A list of criteria or quality standards the project
must meet.
Rules: Guidelines for carrying out the project. Include timeline and short-term
goals, such as: have interviews completed by a certain date, have research
completed by a certain date.
List of project participants with roles assigned: Roles of team members and if
members of the community are involved, identify their roles.
Assessment: How the students performance will be evaluated. In project
work, the learning process is being evaluated as well as the final product.
BEFORE DESIGNING THE PROJECT:

Identify Learning Goals and Objectives. What specific skills or concepts students will
learn? Herman, Aschbacher, and Winters (1992) have identified five questions to
consider when determining learning goals:
1. What important cognitive skills do I want my students to develop? (e.g., to use
algebra to solve everyday problems, to write persuasively).
2. What social and affective skills do I want my students to develop? (e.g., develop
teamwork skills).
3. What metacognitive skills do I want my students to develop? (e.g., reflect on the
research process they use, evaluate its effectiveness, and determine methods of
improvement).
4. What types of problems do I want my students to be able to solve? (e.g., know
how to do research, apply the scientific method).
5. What concepts and principles do I want my students to be able to apply? (e.g.,
apply basic principles of biology and geography in their lives, understand
cause-and-effect relationships)
Steinberg (1998) provides a checklist for the design of effective project (see Table
5.2). The checklist can be used throughout the process to help both teacher and
student plan and develop a project, as well to assess whether the project was
successful in meeting instructional goals.
ALSO IMPORTANT TO ENSURE THE FOLLOWING:
Do the students have easy access to the resources they need? This is especially
important if a student is using specific technology or subject-matter expertise from
the community.
Do the students know how to use the resources? Students who have minimal
experience with computers, for example, may need extra assistance in utilising
them.
Do the students have mentors or coaches to support them in their work? This
can be in-school or out-of-school mentors.
Are students clear on the roles and responsibilities of each person in the group?
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Authenticity
Does the project stem from a problem or question that is meaningful to the
student?
Is the project similar to one undertaken by an adult in the community or
workplace?
Does the project give the student the opportunity to produce something that has
value or meaning to the student beyond the school setting?
Academic Rigor
Does the project enable the student to acquire and apply knowledge central to one
or more discipline areas?
Does the project challenge the student to use methods of inquiry from one or more
disciplines (e.g., to think like a scientist)?
Does the student develop higher order thinking skills (e.g., searching for evidence,
using different perspectives)?
Applied Learning
Does the student solve a problem that is grounded in real life and/or work (e.g.,
design a project, organise an event)
Does the student need to acquire and use skills expected in high-performance
work environments (e.g., teamwork, problem solving, communication, or
technology)?
Does the project require the student to develop organizational and selfmanagement skills?
Active Exploration
Does the student spend significant amounts of time doing work in the field,
outside school?
Does the project require the student to engage in real investigative work, using a
variety of methods, media, and sources?
Is the student expected to explain what he/she learned through a presentation or
performance?
Adult Relationships
Does the student meet and observe adults with relevant experience and expertise?
Is the student able to work closely with at least one adult?
Do adults and the student collaborate on the design and assessment of the project?
Assessment Practices
Does the student reflect regularly on his or her learning, using clear project criteria
that he or she has helped to set?
Do adults from outside the community help the student develop a sense of the real
world standards from this type of work?
Is the students work regularly assessed through a variety of methods, including
portfolios and exhibitions?
Table 5.2 The Six As Projects Checklist

[source: adaptation of A. Steinberg (1998). Real learning, real work: School-towork as high school reform. New York, NY: Routledge]
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5.2 ACTIVITY
include
a) What are some of the factors you should consider when

designing project work for students in your subject area?
b) Give examples of projects you have included or can
the teaching and evaluation of your subject area.
5.4 POSSIBLE PROBLEMS WITH PROJECT WORK
Teachers intending to use projects

both as an instructional and assessment tool Be as specific as possible in
should be aware of certain problem areas. determining outcomes so that both
Thomas (1998) identified the following the student and the teacher
problem areas when undertaking project- understand exactly what is to be
learned.
based instruction:
Aligning project
goals
with
curriculum goals can be difficult. To make matters worse, parents are not
always supportive of projects when they cannot see how it relates to the
overall assessment of learning.
Projects can often take longer than expected and teachers need a lot of time to
prepare good authentic projects.
Students are not clear as to what is required. There is need for adequate
structure, guidelines and guidance on how to carry out projects.
Intensive staff development is required; teachers are not traditionally prepared
to integrate content into real-world activities.
The resources needed for project work may not be readily available and there
might be a lack of administrative support.
Some teachers may not be familiar on how to assess projects.
5.5 GROUP WORK IN PROJECTS
Working in groups has become an accepted part of learning as a consequence of

widely recognised benefits of collaborative group work for student learning. When
groups work well, students learn more and produce higher quality learning outcomes.
What are some BENEFITS OF GROUP WORK IN PROJECTS?
Peer learning can improve the overall quality of student learning. Group work
enhances student understanding. Students learn from each other and benefit
from activities that require them to articulate and test their knowledge. Group
work provides an opportunity for students to clarify and refine their
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understanding of concepts through discussion and rehearsal with peers. Many,
but not all, students recognise the value to their personal development of
group work and of being assessed as a member of a group. Working with a
group and for the benefit of the group also motivates some students. Group
assessment helps some students develop a sense of responsibility: 'I felt that
because one is working in a group, it is not possible to slack off or to put
things off. I have to keep working otherwise I would be letting other people
down'.
Group work can help develop specific generic skills sought by employers. As
a direct response to the objective of preparing graduates with the capacity to
function successfully as team members in the workplace there has been a trend
in recent years to incorporate generic skills alongside traditional subjectspecific knowledge in the expected learning outcomes in higher education.
Group work can facilitate the development of skills, which include:
o teamwork skills (skills in working within team dynamics; leadership
skills);
o analytical and cognitive skills (analysing task requirements;
questioning; critically interpreting material; evaluating the work of
others);
o collaborative skills (conflict management and resolution; accepting
intellectual criticism; flexibility; negotiation and compromise); and
o organisational and time management skills: 'Having to do group work
has changed the way I worked. I could not do it all the night before. I
had to be more organised and efficient'
Group work may reduce the workload involved in assessing, grading and
providing feedback to students. Group work, and group assessment in
particular, is sometimes implemented in the hope of streamlining assessment
and grading tasks. In simple terms, if students submit group assignments then
the number of pieces of work to be assessed can be vastly reduced. This
prospect might be particularly attractive for staff teaching large classes.
SELF-CHECK 5.2
c) What are some of the problems in using projects in teaching

and suggest ways of solving them?
d) Discuss the benefits of group work in projects.
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5.6 ASSESSING PROJECT WORK
Assessing student performance on project work is quite different from an

examination using objective tests and essay questions. It is testing groups of students
working on projects. This makes the task of assessing student progress even more
complex compared to a paper and pencil test where everyone is evaluated using one
marking scheme.
PRODUCT, PROCESS OR BOTH?
According, to Bonthron & Gordon, (1999), from the onset, you should be clear:
Whether you are going to assess the PRODUCT of the group work or both
product and PROCESS.
If you intend to assess process, what proportion are you going to allocate for
process and what criteria and how are you going to use to assess process.
What criteria are you planning to use to assess project work and how will the
marks be distributed.
Some educators believe there is a need
to assess the processes within groups as well as
the products or outcomes. What exactly does
'process' mean? Both teachers and students
must be clear what does process mean? For
example, if you want to assess 'the level of
interaction' among students in the group, they
should know what does high or low
interaction mean.
Should the teacher involve himself or
herself in the workings of each group or rely on
self- or peer assessment? Obviously, for the
teacher to be involved in so many groups would
be physically impossible. What proportion of
assessment should focus on product and what
proportion should focus on process? There are
growing interest in assessing both the process
and product of project work.
The criteria for the evaluation of group
work can be determined by teachers alone or
both by teachers and students through
consultation between the two. Group members can be consulted on what should be
assessed in a project through consultation with the teacher. Obviously, you have to be
clear about the intended learning outcomes of the project in your subject area. It is a
useful starting point for determining criteria for assessment of the project. Once these
broader learning outcomes are understood, you can establish the criteria for marking
the project (See Table 5.3) which shows a general marking criteria for projects).
Generally, it is easier to establish criteria for measuring the product of project work
and much more difficult to measure the processes involved in project work.
'I don't care what you do in your
groups. All I'm interested in is
the final product and how you
arrive at your results is your
business.
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However, it is suggested that evaluation of product and process be done separately
rather than attempt to do both at once. [We will discuss how process in project work
may be evaluated later].
General Marking Criteria for Projects

100 -90%
Exceptional and distinguished work of a professional standard.

Outstanding technical and expressive skills. Work demonstrating
exceptional creativity and imagination. Work displaying great flair and
originality.
89-80%
Excellent and highly developed work of a professional standard.

Extremely good technical and expressive skills. Work demonstrating a
high level of creativity and imagination. Work displaying flair and
originality.
79-70%
Very good work which approaches professional standard. Very good

technical and expressive skills. Work demonstrating good creativity and
imagination. Work displaying originality.
69-60%
A good standard of work. Good technical and expressive skills. Work

displaying creativity and imagination. Work displaying some
originality.
59-50%
A reasonable standard of work. Adequate technical and expressive

skills. Work displaying competence in the criteria assessed, but which
may be lacking some creativity or originality.
49-40%
A limited, but adequate standard of work. Limited technical and ex

expressive skills. Work displaying some weaknesses in the criteria
assessed and lacking creativity or originality.
39-30%
Limited work which fails to meet the required standard. Weak

technical and expressive skills. Work displaying significant
weaknesses in the criteria assessed.
29-20%
Poor work. Unsatisfactory technical or expressive skills. Work

displaying significant or fundamental weaknesses in the criteria
assessed.
19-10%
Very poor work or work where very little attempt has been made. A
lack of technical or expressive skills. Work displaying fundamental
weaknesses in the criteria assessed.
9-1%
Extremely poor work or work where no serious attempt has been made.
Table 5.3 General Marking Scheme for Projects

[source: Chard, S. C. (1992). The Project Approach: A Practical Guide for Teachers.
Edmonton, Alberta: University of Alberta Printing Services]
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5.3 ACTIVITY
Refer to the marking scheme for projects above proposed by

S.C. Chard.
To what extent can you use the marking scheme for a
assessing student projects in your subject area?
Discuss the modifications you would make?
WHO GETS THE MARKS INDIVIDUALS OR THE GROUP?

Most projects involve more than one student and
the benefits of group work has been discussed earlier. A
major problem of evaluating projects involving group
work is how to allocate marks fairly among group
members. As exclaimed by a student, I would like my
teacher to tell me what amount of work and effort will
get what mark. Do all students get the same mark
even though not all students put in the same effort?
Are marks be given for the individual contribution of
team members?
These are questions that bother teachers,
especially when it is common to find freeloaders or
sleeping partners in group projects. The following are
some suggestions how group work may be assessed as
suggested by Winchester-Seeto, T. (2002) which is not
an exhaustive list but are some of the most commonly
used options and intended as a set of prompts for
consideration when designing group assessment.
Joe did not contribute

much to be project.
Does he get the same
mark or grade as the
rest of us?
Method 1: Shared Group Mark
All group members receive the same mark for the work submitted regardless of
individual contribution. It is a straightforward method that encourages group work
where group members sink or swim together. However, it may be perceived as
unfair by better students who may complain that they are unfairly disadvantaged
by weaker students and the likelihood of sleeping partners is very high
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Method 2: Share-Out Marks
The students in the group decide how the total number of marks should be shared
between them. For example, a score of 40 is given by the teacher for the project
submitted. There are 5 members in the group and so the total score possible is 5 x
40 = 200. The students then share the 200 marks based on the contribution of each
of the 4 students; which may be 35, 45, 42, 38 and 40. This is an effective method
if group members are fair, honest and do not have ill-feelings towards each other.
However, there is the likelihood for the marks to be equally distributed to avoid illfeelings among group members.
Method 3: Individual Mark
Each student in the group submits an individual report based on the task allocated
or on the whole project.
a) Allocated task : From the beginning, the project is divided into different parts or
tasks and each student in the group completes his or her allocated task that
contributes to the final group product and gets the marks for that task. This method
is a relatively objective way of ensuring individual participation and may motivate
students to work hard on their task or part. The problem is breaking up the project
into tasks that are exactly equal in size or complexity. Also, the method may not
encourage group collaboration and some members may slow down progress.
b) Individual report: Each student writes and submits an individual report based on
the whole project. The method ensures individual effort and may be perceived as
fair by students. However, it is difficult to determine how the individual reports
should differ and students may unintentionally plagiarise.
Method 4: Individual Mark (Examination)
Examination questions specifically target the group projects, and can only be
answered by students who have been thoroughly involved in the project. This
method may motivate students more to learn from the group project including
learning from the other members of the group. However, it may not be effective
because students may be able to answer the questions by reading the group reports.
In the Malaysian context, national examinations may not be able to include such
questions as it involves hundreds of thousands of students.
Method 5: Combination of Group Average and Individual Mark

The group mark is awarded to each member with a mechanism for adjusting for
individual contributions. This method may be perceived to be fairer than shared
group mark. But, it means additional work for teachers trying to establish
individual contribution.
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5.4 ACTIVITY
a) Which of the FIVE methods of assigning marks for

student projects have you used in your subject area?
b) Give reasons for your choice
c) Suggest other methods of assigning marks for project
work.
EVALUATING PROCESS IN A PROJECT

But the assessment of a group 'product' is rarely the only assessment taking place in
group activities. As discussed earlier, the process of group work is increasingly
recognised as an important element in the assessment of group work. Where group
work is marked solely on the basis of product, some may argue that it is unfair
because individual effort of group members may not be recognised. The following are
some techniques of assessing process skills in project work (Sutherland, 2003):
Peer / Self Evaluation of Roles - Students rate themselves as well as other

group members on specific criteria, such as responsibility, contributing ideas,
finishing tasks, etc. This can be done through various grading forms (see Table
5.4) or having students write a brief essay on the group/members strengths and
weaknesses.
I hear process is
Individual Journals - Students keep a journal of
going to be evaluated
events that occur in each group meeting. These
in our project. What is
include: who attended, what was discussed and
that? Will it be fair?
plans for future meetings. These can be collected
and periodically read by the instructor, who
comments on progress. The instructor can
provide guidance for the group without directing
them.
Minutes of Group Meetings - Similar to
journals are minutes for each group meeting,
which are periodically read by the instructor.
These include who attended, tasks completed,
task planned, and contributors to various task.
This provides the instructor with a way of
monitor individual contributions to the group.
Group and Individual Contribution Grades Instructors can divide the project grade into
percentage of individual and group contribution.
This is especially beneficial if peer and self
evaluations are used.
Logs can potentially provide plenty of information to form the basis of assessment
while keeping minutes helps members to focus on the process which is a learning
experience in itself. These techniques may be perceived as a fair way to deal with
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'shirkers' and outstanding contributions. However, reviewing logs can be time
consuming for teachers and students may need a lot of training and experience in
keeping records. Also, emphasis on second hand evidence may not be reliable.
Peer Evaluation Checklist

Group Members
1 .
2 .
3 .
4 .
Group Member Completing This Evaluation

_____________________________
Please answer all of the following questions honestly, completely and true to what your
experiences were in your group.
Your evaluation of your peers may impact and be considered up to 20% of the final grade
for this project.
This form is to filled out in a confidential manner and is not to be discussed; this is
private and is only between you and your teacher.
1. Were you absent on any of the days that your group was working on this project?
2. Were any of your group members absent while working on this project? WHO and
how many days?
3. If any of the group members were absent, did this absence affect the amount of
work that you were able to complete that day? HOW?
4. Do you feel like the work load was distributed evenly between ALL group members?
5. Please give an estimate, using 100% as the total group and divide up the amount of
work that you feel each group member contributed, please write down each group
members name and then put the appropriate percent next to it.
Group Members
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Percent (%)
[continued on the next page]
17
6. What areas do you feel you contributed the most to on this project? Write down
the details.
Group Members:
1 ..
2 ..
3 ..
4 ..
Work Contributed
7. What areas do you feel others in your group contributed the most to on this
project? Write down each name with the details next to it.
Group Members
1 .
2 .
3 .
4 .
Grade
Comments/Explanation
.
.
.
.
8. Do you feel that your group worked well together on this project?
WHY? Or WHY NOT?
9. If you were given another project of this magnitude what qualities would you look
for in future group members?
10. Based on your answers above please grade each of your group members,
including yourself on the scale below:
A He/she worked great together, work was evenly distributed, he/she
pulled their fair share of the work with no absences.
B He/she worked okay with the group, work was almost evenly
distributed, he/she mostly pulled their fair share, an absence was made
but it had minimal impact on the project.
C He/she had difficulties working with the group, the work was not evenly
distributed, he/she did less than their fair share, any absences made an
impact on the project progress.
D He/she did not work well with the group, did little work, less than their
fair share, and any absences did hinder the project progress.
Table 5.4 Checklist for Evaluating Processes Involved in Project Work

[source: Developed by Maggie Sutherland for the Biotechnology Academy at Andrew
P. Hill High School 2003 East Side Union High School District, San Jose,
California]
18
SELF ASSESSMENT IN PROJECT WORK
Self-assessment is a process by which students learn about themselves; for
example, what they have learned about the project, how they have learned and how
they reacted in certain situations when carrying out the project. Involving students in
the assessment process is an essential part of balanced assessment. When students
become partners in the learning process, they gain a better sense of themselves as
readers, writers and thinkers. Some teachers may be uncomfortable with selfassessment because traditionally teachers are responsible for all forms of assessment
in the classroom, and here we are asking
students to assess themselves. Self-assessment
can take many forms:
Discussion involving the whole class or
small groups
Reflection logs
Self-assessment checklist or inventories
Teacher-student interviews
These types of self-assessment share a common
theme; they ask students to review their work
to determine what they have learned and areas
of confusion still exist. Although each method
may differ slightly, they all include enough
time for students to consider thoughtfully and
evaluate their progress.
Because project learning is student driven, assessment should be student
driven as well. Students can keep journals and logs to continually assess their
progress. A final reflective essay or log can allow students and teachers to understand
thinking processes, reasoning behind decisions, ability to arrive at conclusions and
communicate what they have learned. According to Edwards (2000), the following
are some questions the a student can ask himself or herself while self-assessing:
What were the projects successes?
What might I do to improve the project?
How well did I meet my learning goals? What was most difficult about
meeting the goals?
What surprised me most about working on the project?
What was my groups best team effort? Worst team effort?
How do I think other people involved with the project felt it went?
What were the skills I used during this project? How can I practice these skills
in the future?
5.5 ACTIVITY
a) Explain how process can be assessed in group project

work
b) What do you foresee are some problems with assessing
project work in your subject area? Suggest ways how
they may be overcomed?
19
5.7 ASSESSMENT OF PRACTICAL WORK
N NONE of us would want to be treated by a dentist or surgeon or

taught by a teacher who has the best theoretical knowledge
available, but whose practical work is slipshod!
? ?
This may explain why the training and education of professionals such as
doctors, dentists, engineers and teachers involves engagement in a substantial amount
of practical work that is regularly assessed. In schools, students engage in practical
work in subjects such as biology, chemistry, physics, geography, living skills and
even religious education. Should involvement in practical work in primary and
secondary school be assessed? If yes, how do we go about assessing practical work
or conducting practical tests. Many areas of study involve practical work, but it is
often much more difficult to assess such work. Assessing reports such as laboratory
reports or the objects produced in practical work may only be measuring the quality of
the end-product of the practical work, and not the work itself.
Macintosh and Hale (1976) see practical assessment as being essentially
concerned with presentation of problems and with the provision of opportunities for
students to suggest and to justify solutions to these problems. It is thus necessary for
them to demonstrate mastery of relevant skills. It involves the teacher setting pieces
practical exercises and continuously assessing the skills involved in completing these
exercises.
WHY EVALUATE PRACTICALS?
Practical work may be really important. For example, none of us wants to
be treated by a surgeon who has the best theoretical knowledge available, but
whose practical work is slipshod!
20
Employers may need to know how good students' practical work is (and
not just how good their reports are.) It is therefore useful to reserve part of
our overall assessment for practical skills in such cases.
Practical work is learning-by-doing. Increasing the significance of practical

work by attaching assessment to it helps students approach such work more
earnestly and critically.
PROBLEMS WITH EVALUATING PRACTICALS

It is often difficult to assess practical work in its own right. Just like projects,
it is usually much easier to assess the end-point of practical work, rather than
the processes and skills involved in their own right.
It can be difficult to agree on assessment criteria for practical skills. There

may be several ways of performing a task well, requiring a range of alternative
assessment criteria.
Students may be inhibited when someone is observing their performance.

When doing laboratory work, for example, it can be very distracting to be
watched!
TIPS FOR ASSESSING PRACTICAL WORK

Reserve some marks for the processes. Help students to see that practical
work is not just reaching a defined end point, but is about the processes and
skills involved in doing so successfully.
Get students to self-assess how well they undertook tasks. This at least
helps students to reflect on their performance in practical work, and since the
overall contribution to their final grades of the process side of their work will
probably be small, the risk of any error due to over-confidence or underconfidence is well worth the benefits accruing from reflection.
Ask students to include in their reports "Ways I would do the experiment

better next time". This encourages students to become more self-aware of
how well (or otherwise) they are approaching practical tasks.
Design the right end products. Sometimes it is possible to design final

outcomes which can only be reached when the practical work itself is of high
quality. For example, in chemistry, the skills demonstrated in the preparation
and refinement of a compound can often be reflected in the purity and amount
of the final product.
21
GENERAL SCHEME FOR EVALUATING PRACTICALS

In schools, practicals are used in many subjects such as biology, chemistry,
physics, technical and engineering studies (such as electronics, electrical, engineering
drawing subjects), home economics, carpentry, art and craft and so forth. The
following is a general criteria for assessing practicals.
1) PLANNING
Students should be able to:
identify and define the question or problem using available information and
knowledge
choose effective and safe procedures,
select appropriate tools, apparatus and materials to produce the desired results
consider the environmental and safety aspects of the proposed procedures and
tools used (if relevant).
2) IMPLEMENTATION
use tools, apparatus and materials in an appropriate and safe way
carry out work in a methodical and organised way with due regard for safety
and with appropriate consideration for the well-being of the environment
make measurements to an appropriate degree of precision based on
instruments used
record detailed observations accurately in a suitable manner (if relevant)
deal appropriately with unexpected results
3) ANALYSING
communicate information and ideas using correct terminology such as graphs,
tables, annotated drawings and diagrams (if relevant).
recognise and comment on the data obtained or the product produced or the
procedure used
draw valid conclusions by applying knowledge and understanding
4) EVALUATING
assess the reliability and accuracy of experimental data and draw conclusions
from it (in the case of science experiments)
identify the main sources of error and limitations in the practical sessions
suggest how these errors, limitations and procedures used could be improved
where appropriate
22
To test each of the FOUR abilities (Planning, Implementation, Analysing and

Evaluating), the following scale may be applied:
Suggested Marking Scale:

5 marks has reached independence in effectively demonstrating competence
4 marks can carry out most of the listed procedures effectively and with minimal
assistance from the teacher
3 marks can successfully carry out a number of procedures, but only with
considerable assistance from the teacher
2 marks finds difficulty in achieving any significant success, even though an attempt
is made with considerable assistance from the teacher
1 mark makes little attempt to undertake practical work or to follow through a series
of activities
0 marks No acceptable work produced
5.6 ACTIVITY
a) To what extent is the marking scheme for assessing

practical work presented above appropriate for practical
work in your subject area?
b) Suggest modifications to the marking scheme to meet
The requirements of your subject area.
5.8 ASSESSMENT OF SCIENCE PRACTICAL WORK
WHY ASSESS SCIENCE PRACTICAL WORK?

Laboratory work is generally regarded as a necessary and highly significant
component of the science education experience provided for students. The laboratory
is a vital environment in which science is experienced. It may be a specially equipped
room, a self-contained classroom, a field site, or a larger place, such as the community
in which science experiments are conducted (The National Science Teachers
Association of America, 1990). Laboratory experience is so integral to the nature of
science that it must be included in every science programme for every student. Handson science activities can include individual, small, and large group experiences.The
Australian Science Teachers Association (1980) proposed that practicals in science
learning should be concerned with developing skills in:
making observations and measurements, both with unaided senses and
instruments
23
general manual dexterity
the use of specialised equipment
extracting, organising and analysing information from a variety of sources
designing controlled experiments to test hypotheses
thinking critically and creatively about ideas, information and problems
interpreting and using mathematical data and methods in science
communicating ideas related to science using a variety of media and
methods.
Specifically, practicals in science instruction enhance performance in the following
domains (see Figure 5.8):
o process skills: observing, measuring, manipulating physical objects
o analytical skills: reasoning, deduction, critical thinking
o communication skills: organizing information, writing
o conceptualisation of scientific phenomena.
It reflects not only the psychomotor

domain of learning but incorporates the
integrated process-skills located in the
cognitive domain. The laboratory
provides an optimal setting for
motivating
students
while
they
experience what science is. The spirit of
science is assimilated by students who
participate in meaningful laboratory
activities.
Problem-solving abilities are
presented in the context of laboratory
inquiry which seeks to develop a wide
variety of investigative, organisational,
creative, and communicative skills.
Figure 5.8 Practicals enhances performance

in observing, measuring, manipulating
objects and communication
The National Science Teachers Association of America (1990) makes the following
recommendations with regards to practical work in science teaching and learning:
Preschool and Elementary Level
o Preschool/Elementary science classes must include activity-based, hands-on
experiences for all children. Activities should be selected that allow students
to discover and construct science concepts; and, after the concept is labelled
and developed, activities should allow for application of the concept to the real
lives of students. Provisions also need to be included for inquiry activities in
which students manipulate one variable while holding others constant and
establish experimental and control groups.
o Children at all developmental levels benefit from science experiences.
Appropriate hands-on experiences must be provided for children with special
needs who are unable to participate in classroom activities.
24
o A minimum of 60 percent of the science instruction time should be devoted to
hands-on activities, the type of activities where children are manipulating,
observing, exploring, and thinking about science using concrete materials.
Reading about science, computer programs, and teacher demonstrations are
valuable, but should not be substituted for hands-on experiences.
o Evaluation and assessment of student performance must reflect hands-on
experience. The full range of student experience in science should be
measured by the testing program.
Secondary School Level
o All secondary school science courses must offer laboratory experiences for all
students.
o A minimum of 40 percent of the science instruction time should be spent on
laboratory-related activities. This time includes pre-lab instruction in concepts
relevant to the laboratory, hands-on activities by the students, and a post-lab
period involving communication and analysis. Computer simulations and
teacher demonstrations are valuable but should not be substitutions for
laboratory activities.
o Evaluation and assessment of student performance must reflect the laboratory
experience. The full range of student experience in science should be
measured by the testing program.
5.7 ACTIVITY
a) The National Science Teachers Association of America

proposes that 60% of science instruction time primary
school and 40% of science instruction time in secondary
should be devoted to practicals. Do you agree? Why?
b) Is this widely implemented in your institution?
PROPOSED MARKING CRITERIA FOR SCIENCE PRACTICALS

Stannard (1982), having reviewed a number of evaluation techniques across science
subjects proposed that laboratory work should be assessed on FOUR main criteria:
Planning & Design, Experimental Execution, Interpretation & Explanation and
Observation of Changes (Stannard. 1982).
1. Planning and Design
4 Presents a plan for a properly controlled experiment and discusses
it critically.
3 Presents a plan which needs modification. Understands overall
approach to the problem but some omissions in a critical
discussion.
2 Presents a plan which is satisfactory but needs further detail.
Shows little critical insight into the problem.
25
1 Presents a poor plan and shows little evidence of insight into how
to translate the problem into action.
2. Experimental Execution
4 Demonstrates a consistent ability
to carry out the experiment work
and takes account of the precision
of the apparatus.
3 Demonstrates a consistent ability
to carry out the experiment but is
limited in a number of psychomotor skills.
2 Sets up the apparatus consistently but often needs advice to
complete the investigation.
1 Careless in handling apparatus. Often fails to follow instructions.
Consistently needs advice.
3. Observation of Changes
4 Correct observations specified, unexpected results recorded, errors
are identified and explained.
3 Presentation of data consistent with experimental conditions, but
little attention to errors.
2 Observations lacking in fine detail. Some consistency in
presentation of data, but generally consistent with experimental
data. Some measurements outside the range of the instrument
accepted.
1 Poor presentation. Help needed in measuring. Poor discrimination
ability in observing. No concept of error range.
4. Interpretation and Explanation
4 Demonstrates a definite analytical approach, calculates results
accurately, relates investigation to problem stated.
3 Presents an adequate analysis, calculates correctly, but liable to
minor errors.
2 Makes tentative judgments about problems stated and the
investigation. With assistance under data into acceptable results.
1 Demonstrates little understanding of the relevant data and proceeds
with difficulty in carrying out the calculations.
26
5.8 ACTIVITY
a) Do you agree with the marking scheme suggestd by

Stannard (198) for assessing science practical work.
b) Discuss the reliability of assessing science practicals?
c) How would you ensure that your assessment of science
practicals is reliable?
SUMMARY
A project is an activity in which time constraints has been largely removed and
can be undertaken individually or by a group, and usually involves a significant
element of work being done at home or out of school
The Research-Based Project is more theoretical in nature and may consist of

putting a question, formulating a problem or setting up some hypotheses
The Product-Based Project would be the production of a concrete object, a

service, a dance performance, a film, an exhibition, play, a computer programme
and so forth.
Project work is a learning experience which enables the development of certain

knowledge, skills and attitudes which prepares students for lifelong learning and
the challenges ahead: knowledge application, collaboration, communication and
independent learning.
An effective project should contain the following elements: situation or problem,

project description and purpose, performance specifications, rules, roles of
member and assessment.
The Six As of a project: academic rigour, applied learning, authenticity, active

exploration, adult relationships and assessment practices.
Working in groups has become an accepted part of learning as a consequence of

widely recognised benefits of collaborative group work for student learning.
Allocating marks in a project work: shared group marks, shared-out marks,

individual mark, individual mark (examination) and combination of group average
and individual mark.
Self-assessment is a process by which students learn about themselves; for

example, what they have learned about the project, how they have learned and
how they reacted in certain situations when carrying out the project.
27
Practical assessment is essentially concerned with presentation of problems and

with the provision of opportunities for students to suggest and to justify solutions
to these problems.
The abilities and skills assessed in practical involve the student being able to plan,
implement, analyse and evaluate.
The laboratory provides an optimal setting for motivating students while they
experience what science is.
The spirit of science is assimilated by students who participate in meaningful

laboratory activities.
KEY TERMS
Projects
Six As of a project
Product-based project
Group work
Research-based project Marks allocation
Project ideas
- shared group mark
Project design
- shared out marks
Practicals
- planning
- implementation
- analysis
- evaluation
REFERENCES:
Bonthron, S., & Gordon, R. (Eds.). (1999). Service-learning and assessment:

A field guide for teachers. Montpelier, VT: Vermont Department of
Education, National Service-Learning and Assessment Study Group.
Bottoms, G., & Webb, L.D. (1998). Connecting the curriculum to real life.
Breaking Ranks: Making it happen. Reston, VA: National Association of
Secondary School Principals.
Bryson, E. (1994). Will a project approach to learning provide children

opportunities to do purposeful reading and writing, as well as provide
opportunities for authentic learning in other curriculum areas? Unpublished
manuscript. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED392513)
Chard, S. C. (1992). The Project Approach: A Practical Guide for Teachers.

Edmonton, Alberta: University of Alberta Printing Services]
Harwell, S., & Blank, W. (1997). Connecting high school with the real
world. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED407586]
Herman, J., Aschbacher, P., & Winters, L. (1992). A practical guide to

alternative assessment. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and
28
Curriculum Develop-ment. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.
ED352389)
Katz, L. (1994). The project approach [ERIC digest]. Urbana, IL: ERIC
Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education. (ERIC
Document Reproduction Service No. ED368509)
Katz, L.G., & Chard, S.C. (1998). Issues in selecting topics for projects [ERIC
digest]. Champaign, IL: ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early
Childhood Education.
Rankin, B. (1993). Curriculum development in Reggio Emilia: A long-term

curriculum project about dinosaurs. In C.P. Edwards, L. Gandini, & G.E.
Forman (Eds.), Hundred languages of children: The Reggio Emilia approach
to early childhood education (pp. 189211). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Sutherland, M. (2003). Checklist for evaluating processes in project work. East Side
Union High School District, San Jose, California.
Steinberg, A. (1998). Real learning, real work: School-to-work as high school

reform. New York, NY: Routledge.
Stannard, P. (1982). Evaluating Laboratory Performance, The Queensland

Science Teacher, November Issue.
The Australian Science Teachers Association (1980). Bulletin for Science

Teaching. 24. August Issue. Canberra.
The National Science Teachers Association of America, (1990). Standards for

the Teaching of Science. Washington DC.
Thomas, J.W. (1998). Project based learning overview. Novato, CA: Buck
Institute for Education.
Winchester-Seeto, T. (April, 2002). Assessment of collaborative work

collaboration versus assessment. Invited paper presented at the Annual
Uniserve Science Symposium, The University of Sydney

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1

Chapter 5: Using Projects and Practicals

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

Describe the characteristics of project work

5.1 What is a Project?

The Research-Based Project is more theoretical in nature and may consist of

being a pure reproduction. Such project work is usually presented as a

Figure 5.1 Making of models

Project work provides an opportunity for students

5.2 WHAT IS ASSESSED USING PROJECTS?

Project oriented work is becoming

Hence, it is important that students be assigned to carry our authentic projects in

a) What are the knowledge, skills and attitudes assessed

5.3 DESIGNING EFFECTIVE PROJECTS

There are many types of projects

Figure 5.3 Fieldwork is a common type of

Situation or problem: A sentence or two describing the issue or problem that

students help reduce pollution of rivers. Results will be presented in a

BEFORE DESIGNING THE PROJECT:

Table 5.2 The Six As Projects Checklist

a) What are some of the factors you should consider when

5.4 POSSIBLE PROBLEMS WITH PROJECT WORK

Teachers intending to use projects

5.5 GROUP WORK IN PROJECTS

Working in groups has become an accepted part of learning as a consequence of

c) What are some of the problems in using projects in teaching

Assessing student performance on project work is quite different from an

General Marking Criteria for Projects

Exceptional and distinguished work of a professional standard.

Excellent and highly developed work of a professional standard.

Very good work which approaches professional standard. Very good

A good standard of work. Good technical and expressive skills. Work

A reasonable standard of work. Adequate technical and expressive

A limited, but adequate standard of work. Limited technical and ex

Limited work which fails to meet the required standard. Weak

Poor work. Unsatisfactory technical or expressive skills. Work

Table 5.3 General Marking Scheme for Projects

Refer to the marking scheme for projects above proposed by

WHO GETS THE MARKS INDIVIDUALS OR THE GROUP?

Joe did not contribute

Method 1: Shared Group Mark

Method 3: Individual Mark

Method 4: Individual Mark (Examination)

Method 5: Combination of Group Average and Individual Mark

a) Which of the FIVE methods of assigning marks for

EVALUATING PROCESS IN A PROJECT

Peer / Self Evaluation of Roles - Students rate themselves as well as other

Peer Evaluation Checklist

Group Member Completing This Evaluation

[continued on the next page]

Table 5.4 Checklist for Evaluating Processes Involved in Project Work

a) Explain how process can be assessed in group project

5.7 ASSESSMENT OF PRACTICAL WORK

N NONE of us would want to be treated by a dentist or surgeon or

Practical work is learning-by-doing. Increasing the significance of practical

PROBLEMS WITH EVALUATING PRACTICALS

It can be difficult to agree on assessment criteria for practical skills. There

Students may be inhibited when someone is observing their performance.

TIPS FOR ASSESSING PRACTICAL WORK

Ask students to include in their reports "Ways I would do the experiment

Design the right end products. Sometimes it is possible to design final

GENERAL SCHEME FOR EVALUATING PRACTICALS

To test each of the FOUR abilities (Planning, Implementation, Analysing and