LADG Lecture Notes

Linear Algebra, Analytic and Dierential
Geometry
November 14, 2014
Contents
1 Geometric (Spatial) Vectors
1.1 Denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Addition and scalar multiplication .
1.3 Cartesian coordinates . . . . . . . .
1.4 Dot (scalar) product of two vectors .
1.5 Cross (vector) product of two vectors
1.6 Box product of three vectors . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
3
3
4
6
7
9
10
2 Equations of Lines and Planes in Space

2.1 Equations of planes . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Equations of a straight line in space . .
2.3 Angles and distances in space . . . . . .
2.3.1 Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2 Distances . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
12
12
14
17
17
17
3 Coordinate Transformations
3.1 Coordinate transformations in
3.1.1 Translations . . . . . .
3.1.2 Changes of bases . . .
3.2 Changes of bases in space . .
3.2.1 Translations . . . . . .
3.2.2 Changes of bases . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
20
20
20
21
24
24
25
plane
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
4 Conic sections
27
4.1 Denition and examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.2 Reduced equation of a conic - an elementary approach . . . . . . 31
5 Quadrics
35
5.1 Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.2 Reduced canonical equations of other quadrics . . . . . . . . . . 37
x2
y2
z2
5.2.1 The ellipsoid 2 + 2 + 2 = 1: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
a
b
c
1
5.2.2
5.2.3
5.2.4
5.2.5
5.2.6
5.2.7
y2
z2
x2
+ 2
=1 . .
2
a
b
c2
2
2
2
x
y
z
The hyperboloid of two sheets 2 + 2
= 1 . . . .
a
b
c2
2
2
x
y
The elliptic paraboloid z = 2 + 2 . . . . . . . . . . . .
a
b
The hyperbolic paraboloid (the "saddle") (PH ) : z =
x2
y2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
a
b2
x2
y2
z2
The elliptic cone 2 + 2
=0 . . . . . . . . . . . .
a
b
c2
Cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The hyperboloid of one sheet (H1 ) :
37
39
39
40
41
41
6 Generated surfaces
43
6.1 Cylindrical surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.2 Conic surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.3 Surfaces of revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
7 Plane curves
7.1 Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 Arc length of a plane curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3 Contact between two intersecting curves . . . . . . .
7.4 Tangent and normal line at a regular point . . . . .
7.5 Osculating circle; curvature and radius of curvature .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
50
50
51
53
55
56
8 Spatial curves
8.1 Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2 Arc length of a space curve . . . . . . . . .
8.3 The TNB Frame (The Frenet-Serret Frame)
8.4 Curvature and torsion . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
61
61
61
62
66
9 Dierential Geometry of Surfaces

9.1 Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2 Curves on a surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3 Tangent plane and normal line at a regular point
9.4 First fundamental form. Applications . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
69
69
70
71
74
10 Vector Spaces
10.1 Denition and examples . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2 Subspaces in a vector space . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3 Subspace spanned by a subset of a vector space
10.4 Linear dependence and independence . . . . . .
10.5 Basis and dimension of a vector space . . . . .
10.6 Changes of bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
76
76
78
80
80
82
84
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Geometric (Spatial) Vectors
1.1
Denition
The notion of vector is one of the most important notions in Physics. Indeed,
force, velocity, acceleration, work, momentum are all related to this notion.
From now on, by "space", we will mean the physical space.
Consider two points A and B in space.
!
A bound vector AB is a segment AB for which we distinguish two orientations: from A to B and from B to A: Usually, we graphically indicate bound
vectors with an arrow. We denote
!
BA =
!
AB;
!
!
the vector BA is called the opposite of AB:
!
For a bound vector AB; the point A is called the origin or the tail of the
vector, while B is called the head (tip, destination) of the vector.
!
!
The zero vector is, by denition, the vector 0 = AA:
!
!
The length (or the norm) AB of the vector AB is dened as the length
of the segment AB :
!
AB = AB:
!
The direction of the bound vector AB is formed by all the straight lines
which are parallel to the straight line AB:
Denition 1 The free vector (or simply, the vector) AB is the set of all
bound vectors which have the same direction, the same orientation and the same
!
length as the bound vector AB:
We usually denote free vectors by a bar: a:
!
!
That is, if AB and CD are two bound vectors with the same direction,
orientation and length, as bound vectors, they are dierent, but as free vectors,
they are equal to each other:
!
!
AB 6= CD;
AB = CD:
In the following, we will denote by E1 the set of free vectors on the line, by
E2 ; the set of free vectors in plane and by E3 ; the set of free vectors in space.
1.2
Addition and scalar multiplication
On the set E3 ; we will dene the following operations:

1. Addition: by the parallelogram rule, or by the triangle rule:
2. Scalar multiplication: the vector a is dened by:- the same direction

as a;
- the length j j a;
- the orientation of a if is positive, and opposite to a; if is negative.
Properties of the addition of free vectors:
0) Addition is an internal operation on the set E3 of free vectors in space:
8a; b 2 E3 : a + b 2 E3 :
1) Associativity:
8a; b; c 2 E3 : (a + b) + c = a + (b + c):
2) Commutativity:
8a; b 2 E3 : a + b = b + a:
3) The zero vector 0 is a neutral (or identity) element:

0 + a = a; 8a 2 E3 :
4) Every element a 2 E3 admits an inverse with respect to addition; this
inverse is the opposite vector a :
8a 2 E3 : a + ( a) = 0:
Consequently, (E3 ; +) is an Abelian group. The addition of free vectors in
plane obeys similar properties.
Properties of scalar multiplication:
0) 8 2 R; 8a 2 E3 : a 2 E3 :
1) 8 ; 2 R; 8a 2 E3 : ( + )a = a + a:
2) 8 2 R; 8a; b 2 E3 : (a + b) = a + b:
3) 8 ; 2 R; 8a 2 E3 : ( a) = ( )a:
4) 1a = a:
Exercise 1 Prove the above stated properties of the addition of vectors in E3 :

Denition 2 1) A set of vectors v1 ; :::; vn (n > 1) is called linearly dependent
if one of the vectors v1 ; :::; vn can be expressed as a linear combination of the
others; for instance,
vn =
1 v1
2 v2
+ ::: +
n 1 vn 1 :
In the contrary case, the vectors v1 ; :::; vn are called linearly independent.
2) A set consisting of a single vector v is called linearly independent if v 6= 0
and linearly dependent if v = 0:
Exercise 2 Prove that v1 ; :::; vn are linearly independent if and only if the vector equation
1 v1 + 2 v2 + ::: + n v = 0
(in the unknowns
::: = n = 0:
1;
2 ; :::;
2 R) only admits the trivial solution
In the following, we will examine in more detail the notions of linear dependence and independence in the cases n = 2; 3; 4:
A) For two vectors a; b; linear dependence means
a = b;
where 2 R; therefore, a and b have the same direction (they are collinear).
Conversely, if a and b are collinear, we can always nd some scalar such
that a = b: We can easily see this as follows:
Case 1) If at least one of the vectors a; b is nonzero (lets say, b 6= 0), then
b
:=
:
kak
Case 2) If a; b = 0; then can be any real numbers.
We have thus proved that
a; b-linearly dependent , a; b
collinear.
B) For three vectors a; b; c; linear dependence means:

c = a + b;
where ;
2 R:
Exercise 3 Prove that:

a; b; c - linearly dependent , a; b; c
coplanar.
C) In the case of four vectors a; b; c; d, linear dependence is characterized

by:
d = a + b + c:
Exercise 4 Prove that, in E3 ; any four vectors a; b; c; d are linearly dependent.
1.3
Cartesian coordinates
Let us make the following remarks.

1) On the line (E1 ), we can always nd one linearly independent vector (take
any v 6= 0), but any two vectors are linearly dependent.
2) In the plane (E2 ); we can always nd two linearly independent (noncollinear) vectors, but any three vectors are linearly dependent.
3) In the geometric space (E3 ); we can always nd three linearly independent
(non-coplanar) vectors, but any four vectors are linearly dependent.
Taking into account the above remarks, it makes sense to introduce the
following notion.
Denition 3 We call a basis of Ei (i = 1; 2; 3), a maximal set of linearly independent vectors in Ei :
In other words, on the line, any nonzero vector forms a basis; in plane, a
basis consists of (any) two non-collinear vectors; in space, a basis means a set
consisting of (any) three non-coplanar vectors.
In the following, we will work in the geometric space E3 :
Denition 4 A Cartesian (orthonormal) frame in E3 consists of a point
O, called the origin, together with an orthonormal basis f{; j; kg; that is, a
basis whose vectors are mutually perpendicular and have the length equal to 1.
Traditionally, the vectors f{; j; kg are chosen in such a way that they form a
right oriented frame, meaning that the orientation of k is obtained from the
orientations of { and j by the right hand rule: if the index nger of your right
hand points as { and your middle nger points as j; your thumb will indicate
the orientation of k:
In the following, unless elsewhere specied, by R =
always mean a right oriented, orthonormal frame.
O; {; j; k ; we will
According to the third remark above, for any geometric vector a 2 E3 ; the set
{; j; k; a is linearly dependent, that is, one can nd some scalars a1 ; a2 ; a3 2 R
such that:
a = a1 { + a2 j + a3 k:
We will denote
a(a1 ; a2 ; a3 );
and we will call the triple (a1 ; a2 ; a3 ) 2 R3 ; the Cartesian coordinates of the
(free) vector a 2 E3 :
!
If a represents the bound vector OA,
a(a1 ; a2 ; a3 ) = OA;
then we say that the point A has the Cartesian coordinates (a1 ; a2 ; a3 ) :
A(a1 ; a2 ; a3 ) $ OA(a1 ; a2 ; a3 ):
!
The vector OA is called the position vector of the point A:
Remark. Any other bound vector ~a which has the same direction, ori!
entation, and length as OA (that is, as free vectors, a = OA), has the same
coordinates (a1 ; a2 ; a3 ):
Proposition 5 If A(xA ; yA ; zA ); B(xB ; yB ; zB ); then
AB(xB
xA ; yB
yA ; z B
zA ):
Example: If A(2; 3; 4); B(0; 1; 2); then:

OA(2; 3; 4) , OA = 2{ + 3j + 4k;
OB(0; 1; 2) , OB = j + 2k;
AB(xB xA ; yB yA ; zB zA ) ) AB( 2; 4; ; 2):
1.4
Dot (scalar) product of two vectors
Denition 6 Consider a; b 2 E3 : The dot (inner, scalar) product a b is the

number
a b = kak b cos ;
where
is the smallest angle between the directions of a and b ()
2 (0; 180o )):
Note: The scalar (dot) product of two vectors is not to be confused with
scalar multiplication (which refers to a number and a vector)!
Properties of the dot product:
7
1. the dot product is commutative: a b = b a:

2. it is distributive with respect to addition: a (b + c) = a b + a c:
3. a ( b) = ( a) b = a b:
4. if a and b are non-zero, then a b = 0 if and only is a is perpendicular to
b : a ? b:
The expression in coordinates of the scalar product: If a(a1 ; a2 ; a3 )
and b(b1 ; b2 ; b3 ); then
a b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 :
Applications:
1. The length (norm) of the vector a is
q
p
kak = a a = a21 + a22 + a23 :
2. The angle between a and b is computed as
cos
a b
:
kak b
3. The unit vector having the same direction and orientation as a is

vers(a) =
a
:
kak
4. the length of the projection of a onto b is given by prb a =

kak cos ; that is,
a b
projb a =
:
b
Exercise 5 Take A(1; 2; 3); B(2; 4; 5); C(3; 0; 4): Determine:

a) the coordinates of vectors AB; AC; BC:
b) the scalar products AB AC; AB BC; AC BC;
c) the lengths of the sides of the ABC:
d) the angles of triangle ABC:
Exercise 6 Prove that the vectors a( 2; 2; 1) and b(2; 1; 2) are perpendicular.
Exercise 7 Consider the points A(1; 2; 0); B(1; 2; 1); C(3; 0; 1): Calculate AB
\
AC; AB ; AC cos(AB
AC); proj AB and the unit vector of AC:
AC
1.5
Cross (vector) product of two vectors
Denition 7 The cross product of a and b is a vector, denoted a

acterized by:
b, char-
direction: perpendicular to both a and b;

orientation: given by the right-hand rule;
length: a b = kak b sin ; where
directions of a and b:
is the smallest angle between the
the vector product
Properties:
1. the dot product is anticommutative: a
2. it is distributive w.r.t. addition: a
3. a
( b) = ( a)
b= a
b=
(b + c) = a
a:
b+a
c:
b:
4. if a and b are non-zero, then a b = 0 , a is collinear to b:

Expression in coordinates:
a
b=
{
a1
b1
j
a2
b2
k
a3
b3
Application: The length of a b can be interpreted as the area of the

parallelogram having a and b as sides.
Consequently, the area of a triangle having a and b as sides is half of the
area of the parallelogram, that is:
A =
1
a
2
9
b :
Example: Take A(1; 2; 0); B(1; 2; 1); C(3; 0; 1): Calculate the area of the
triangle ABC:
Solution: AB(0; 0; 1); AC(2; 2; 1) and
AB
The norm AB
AC =
{
0
2
AC is then AB
A
ABC
j k
0 1
2 1
AC =
1
AB
2
= 2{ + 2j:
p
p
22 + 22 = 2 2; which leads to
AC =
2:
Exercise 8 Consider a(2; 1; 2); b(3; 1; 4); c(2; 2; 5): a) Calculate the cross products a b; a c; b c: b) Determine the areas of the parallelograms built on a; b
and a; c respectively. c) Find a perpendicular vector to both a and b; which has
the length equal to 2 units.
Exercise 9 Calculate by means of the cross product the area of the triangle
ABC; where A(1; 0; 0); B(1; 0; 1); C(2; 3; 1) and the altitude from A:
Exercise 10 Find the area of the parallelogram built on the vectors m = 2a+3b;
[
n = a b; where kak = 1; b = 2; (a;
b) = : (Hint: calculate m n and take
6
into account that a a = 0; b b = 0; b a = a b).
1.6
Box product of three vectors
The mixed triple product (also called the box product) is dened as:
(a; b; c) = a (b
c):
Applications:
1. The absolute value of the box product is the volume of the parallelepiped built on the three vectors:
Vparall = (a; b; c) :
The volume of the tetrahedron built on a; b; c (as non-coplanar edges)
is
1
Vparall =
(a; b; c) :
6
2. The box product zero if and only if the three vectors are linearly dependent
(coplanar).
3. The box product is positive if and only if the system consisting of the
three vectors a; b; c is right oriented.
10
Exercise 11 Determine the mixed triple product of a(1; 2; 3); b(2; 3; 4) and
c(3; 3; 5):
Exercise 12 Find
are coplanar.
2 R such that the vectors a(1; 2; 3); b(2; 0; 2) and c(4; 4; )
Exercise 13 Determine the volume of the tetrahedron ABCD; where A(1; 2; 3);
B(1; 2; 4); C(2; 2; 4); D(2; 3; 4); and the altitude from A of the tetrahedron.
! ! !
(AB; AC; AD)
Hint: VABCD =
1
:
6
11
Equations of Lines and Planes in Space
2.1
Equations of planes
Let fO; {; j; kg denote a Cartesian frame in space.

In the following, we will write the equation of a plane (lets say, ( )), assuming that we know:
- a point M (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ) in the plane ( ) and
- a perpendicular vector N (A; B; C) to the plane ( ).
For any point P (x; y; z) in the plane, the vector N is perpendicular to M P ;
which is equivalent to the fact that the dot product N M P is 0. In coordinates,
that is written as:
A(x
x0 ) + B(y
y0 ) + C(z
z0 ) = 0:
(1)
The above equation is called the equation of the plane through

M (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ); with normal direction N (A; B; C):
Computing the brackets in equation (1), we always get a relation of the form:
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0;
where A; B; C; D 2 R (more precisely, D = Ax0
is called the general equation of the plane.
(2)
By0
Cz0 ). This relation
Remark 8 Relation (2) is, actually, the most general equation of degree 1 in
x; y; z: Conversely, any equation of degree 1 in x; y; z geometrically means a
plane in three dimensional Euclidean space.
Remark 9 The coe cients of x; y and z in the general equation of a plane
represent the coordinates of the normal vector of the plane. For instance, the
plane x + 3y z + 5 = 0 has as normal vector N (1; 3; 1).
Example: the coordinate planes xOy; yOz; xOz:
12
The plane xOy contains the point O(0; 0; 0) and has as normal vector
k(0; 0; 1): Hence, its equation is: (xOy) : 0(x 0) + 0(y 0) + 1(z 0) = 0;
which is,
(xOy) : z = 0:
In a similar manner, we get
(yOz) : x = 0;
(xOz) : y = 0:
Remark 10 Since two parallel planes have the same normal direction, the equation of any plane which is parallel to the plane ( ) : Ax + By + Cz + D = 0
di ers from that of ( ) only by its free term: Ax + By + Cz + D = ; for some
2 R:
Exercise 14 Write the equation of the plane:

1. through A(1; 2; 1) and having as normal vector N (2; 3; 4):
2. through A(2; 3; 5) and parallel to the plane (M1 M2 M3 ); where M1 (1; 0; 0);
M2 (0; 1; 0); M3 (0; 0; 1).
3. through A(x0 ; y0 ; z0 ) and parallel to the plane: a) xOy; b) yOz; c)xOz:
Another very common situation is when we know, for a plane ( ):
- a point M (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ) in the plane;
- two vectors v1 (l1 ; m1 ; n1 ) and v2 (l2 ; m2 ; n2 ) parallel to ( ) (or contained in
( )).
In this case, a perpendicular vector to the plane is the cross product:
N := v1
v2 :
Remark 11 Suppose that M; v1 and v2 are known. If P (x; y; z) is an arbitrary

(moving) point in this plane, then the vectors
M P (x
x0 ; y
y0 ; z
z0 ); v1 (l1 ; m1 ; n1 ); v2 (l2 ; m2 ; n2 )
are coplanar. This is equivalent to the fact that

M P = v1 + v2 ;
2 R:
In Cartesian coordinates, this is equivalent to the relations:

8
< x = x0 + l1 + l2
y = y0 + m1 + m2
:
z = z0 + n 1 + n 2
(called the parametric equations of the plane ( )).
13
Exercise 15 Write the equation of the plane:

1. containing M (1; 1; 0) and the vectors v1 (1; 2; 3); v2 (0; 1; 2);
2. through the points M1 (1; 0; 1); M2 (2; 0; 1); M3 (2; 1; 2):
3. containing the z-axis and the point M (1; 3; 2):
2.2
Equations of a straight line in space
Basically, a straight line (also called simply, a line) is uniquely dened by the
intersection of two non-parallel and distinct planes. This is, it can be described
by a linear system as follows:
A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 = 0
:
A2 x + B2 y + C2 z + D2 = 0
(d) :
(3)
This points out that, actually, in space, a line is described by two (!) equations. Still, the system (3) does not oer (at least, not immediately) too much
information about the line, so we will generally prefer a dierent form of the
equations of a line. We will present this form in the following.
Assume that, for the line (d) whose equation is to be determined, we know:
- a point M (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ) on the line;
- a vector v(l; m; n) which is parallel to the line (or contained in it), called a
directing vector.
In this case, for any point P (x; y; z); the vector M P (x x0 ; y y0 ; z z0 )
is collinear to v(l; m; n); which is equivalent to the fact that the components of
the two vectors are proportional:
x
x0
l
y0
z z0
=
m
n
(4)
(the canonical equations of a line in space).
Remark 12 The canonical equations provide useful information about the line:
namely, the denominators l; m; n are exactly the components of the directing vector v of the line, while the quantities subtracted from x; y and z in the numerators
give the coordinates of some point on the line. For instance, the line
x
1
1
3
2
z+1
4
has the directing vector v(1; 2; 4) and a point on the line is M (1; 3; 1)
14
If, in (4), we denote the common value of the ratios by t we get

8
< x = x0 + lt
y = y0 + mt
:
z = z0 + nt
(5)
(the parametric equations of a line).

Parametric equations are very useful in mechanics (in this case, the parameter t usually denotes time).
Examples:
1. The equations of the coordinate axes Ox; Oy; Oz : For instance, on (Ox)
we know the point O(0; 0; 0) and the vector {(1; 0; 0); hence, the canonical
equations are:
y 0
z 0
x 0
=
=
=t
(Ox) :
1
0
0
It is admitted to formally write 0 in the denominators(!). This does not
mean that we perform any division by 0, it is just a simpler way of writing
the fact that the numerators and the denominators are proportional. The
meaning of this can be more clearly seen from the parametric equations:
x
y
z
0
0
0
=
=
=
1 t=t
0 t=0
0 t = 0:
Actually, 0 in a denominator means that also the corresponding numerator

is 0.
(Ox) can be also given as the intersection of the planes (xOy) and (xOz) :
(Ox) :
y=0
:
z=0
The equations of the axes Oy and Oz can be obtained in a similar manner.

2. Consider the intersection line of two planes:
(d) :
x y=0
:
x + 2z = 1
Let us determine the canonical equations of this line.

First of all, we notice that the two planes ( 1 ) : x y = 0 and ( 2 ) :
x + 2z = 1 indeed determine a line: since their normal vectors N1 (1; 1; 0)
and N2 (1; 0; 2) are non-collinear, the planes can neither be parallel, nor
coincide, hence their intersection is a line.
The vector of this line is contained both in ( 1 ) and ( 2 ); consequently,
it is perpendicular to N1 and N2 : This means, it is collinear to the cross
15
product N1 N2 : Since we are interested only in its direction, we can take

as directing vector of the line
v = N1
{
1
1
N2 =
j k
1 0
0 2
2{
2j + k:
A point on the line can be obtained from any particular solution of the
linear system which describes (d): This can be done by giving particular
values to one of the unknowns. Let us take, for instance, x = 1: We obtain
y = 1; z = 0; that is, M (1; 1; 0):
The canonical equations of the line are, consequently:
x
1
2
1
z
= :
2
1
Another useful notion is that of sheaf of planes. If a line (d) is described

as the intersection of two planes (P ) and (Q) :
(d) :
P
Q
A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 = 0
;
A2 x + B2 y + C2 z + D2 = 0
then the sheaf of planes through (d) (or determined by (P ) and (Q)) is
the set of all planes which contain (d): Its equation is
P + Q = 0;
Equivalently, with
2 R:
; this can be written simply as

P + Q = 0;
2 R:
(the last form is simpler, still, it requires some attention: there we have eliminated the case = 0; that is, the plane Q: This is, in any discussion involving
the planes of the sheaf, we should take separately the case when the plane is
Q).
Exercise 16 Write the canonical and the parametric equations of:
- the line through A(1; 3; 4); having the directing vector v(2; 0; 1);
- the line AB; where A(2; 1; 2); B(0; 3; 1);
x 1
y
z+1
- the parallel line to (d) :
=
=
, through A(4; 3; 2):
1
1
4
Exercise 17 Prove that the intersection of the planes (P ) : x + y = 3; (Q) :
x y + z = 0 is a line and nd the canonical and the parametric equations of
this line.
16
2.3
2.3.1
Angles and distances in space

Angles
1. the angle between two lines (d1 ) and (d2 ) is the angle between their
directing vectors v1 and v2 ; and its cosine can be obtained by means of
the dot product v1 v2 :
cos
v1 v2
:
kv1 k kv2 k
2. the angle between a line and a plane is equal to 90o minus the angle
between the directing vector v of the line and the normal vector N of the
plane:
v N
:
cos(90o
) = sin =
kvk N
3. the angle between two planes is the same as the angle between their
normal vectors N1 and N2 :
cos
2.3.2
N1 N2
:
N2
N1
Distances
1. the distance between two points A and B is, by denition, the norm
!
of the vector AB :
p
!
dist(A; B) = AB = (xB xA )2 + (yB yA )2 + (zB zA )2 :
x x1
2. the distance between a point M (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ) and a line (d) :
=
l
y y1
z z1
=
is expressed as the altitude in the parallelogram built on
m
n
the vectors M M 1 and v(l; m; n) (where M1 (x1 ; y1 ; z1 ) denotes a point on
the line):
MM1 v
dist(M; d) =
:
kvk
17
3. the distance between a point M (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ) and a plane ( ) : Ax +

By + Cz + D = 0 is given by
dist(M; ( )) =
jAx0 + By0 + Cz0 + D0 j

p
:
A2 + B 2 = C 2
4. the minimum distance between two skew (=non-coplanar) lines

in space is expressed as the altitude from M1 in the parallelepiped built
on the vectors M1 M 2 ; v1 and v2 ; where Mi and vi denote a point and the
directing vector of the straight line (di ); i = 1; 2 :
dist((d1 ); (d2 )) =
(M1 M 2 ; v1 ; v2 )
:
kv1 v2 k
minimum distance between skew lines
Exercise 18 Take A(2; 1; 3); B(1; 2; 3); (d) :

1 = 0: Find:
x
y
z
= =
and ( ) : 4x + 3z
1
2
2
1. the distances dist(A; B); dist(A; (d)); dist(A; ( ));

2. the angle between the line AB and, (d), respectively, ( ):
3. the angle between (d) and ( );
4. the minimum distance between the lines AB and (d):
5. the intersection point between (d) and ( ):
Exercise 19 Write the equation of a plane:
1. passing through the point O(0; 0; 0) and perpendicular to both (
y + z = 3 and ( 2 ) : 3x z = 2;
18
1)
: x+
2. passing through the point O(0; 0; 0); perpendicular to (

x 1
y
z+2
and parallel to the line (d) :
= =
:
2
3
4
3. perpendicular to (
y
z+2
=
:
3
4
1)
1)
: x+y+z = 3
: x + y + z = 3 and containing the line (d) :
Exercise 20 Find the parameters
and
such that the line
x
1
1
2
z
1
is contained in the plane x + y + z = 3:

x
y
z
= = : Find the projection of
1
1
1
M onto (d) and the reection of M in the line (d):
Exercise 21 Consider M (2; 3; 5) and (d) :
y
x
Exercise 22 Determine the reection of the Ox axis in the line (d) : = =
1
1
z
(Hint: nd the reections of two conveniently chosen points on Ox in the line
1
(d)).
Exercise 23 (*) Find the line which is perpendicular to both the lines Oz and
y+1
z
x 2
=
= ; and intersects them (the common perpendicular of the
(d) :
1
3
4
lines Oz and (d)).
19
Coordinate Transformations
3.1
Coordinate transformations in plane
Let fO; {; jg and fO0 ; {0 ; j 0 g denote two Cartesian frames in space. Any transition
from the rst frame to the latter can be regarded as the composition of two
motions:
1. Change the origin O ! O0 , and leave the basis unchanged:
fO; {; jg ! fO0 ; {; jg:
This is called a translation.
2. Leave the origin unchanged, and perform a change of bases:
fO0 ; {; jg ! fO0 ; {0 ; j 0 g:
Let us study separately these two types of transformations.
3.1.1
Translations
Consider the transformation R =fO; {; jg ! R0 = fO0 ; {; jg; where O0 has, with

respect to the "old" frame R; the coordinates x0 ; y0 : That is, its position vector
can be written as:
0
OO = x0 { + y0 j:
Now, take an arbitrary point A in plane. Then, A has some coordinates,
lets say (x; y) in the "old" frame R and some other coordinates (which we will
denote by (x0 ; y 0 )) in the "new" frame R0 ; or, in other words:
!
OA = x{ + y j;
!
O0 A = x0 { + y 0 j:
! !
0
The vectors OA; O0 A and OO are related by:
!
!
!
OA = OO0 + O0 A;
see the picture below:
20
In coordinates, this leads to:

x = x0 + x0
:
y = y 0 + y0
(6)
!
Relations (6) are the equations of the translation of vector OO0 (x0 ; y0 ).
Example: Take the point A(2; 3) (coordinates are considered with respect
to the frame fO; {; jg); as the result of a translation of the frame to O0 (1; 0); we
will obtain for A the coordinates
x0 = x
x0 = 2
y0 = y
1 = 1;
y0 = 3
0=3
in the new frame fO0 ; {; jg:

Exercise 24 Find the equation of the line: x + 2y + 2 = 0 in the xOy plane
after a translation of the frame to O0 ( 2; 0):
Exercise 25 Consider, in the xOy plane, the line: ax + by + c = 0: Find
the equation of this line after a translation of the frame to an arbitrary point
O0 (x0 ; y0 ) on the line.
3.1.2
Changes of bases
A. General remarks.
We will analyze in the following changes of frames which keep the origin
xed (hence, only the directions of the axes are changed): R = fO; {; jg !
R0 = fO; {0 ; j 0 g:
Take, again, some point A in the plane, given by:
A(x; y) in the "old" frame fO; {; jg; that is, OA = x{ + y j;
A(x0 ; y 0 ) in the "new" frame fO; {0 ; j 0 g; that is, OA = x0 {0 + y 0 j 0 :
In order to nd the relations between the two pairs of coordinates of A; we
decompose the "new" basis vectors {0 ; j 0 in terms of { and j; thus nding:
{0 = c11 { + c21 j
:
j 0 = c12 { + c22 j
(7)
Multiplying the rst line by x0 and the second line by y 0 and adding the
obtained equalities, we get:
OA = x0 {0 + y 0 j 0 = (c11 x0 + c12 y 0 ){ + (c21 x0 + c22 y 0 )j:
But, on the other hand, we have: OA = x{ + y j: Identifying the expressions of {
and j, we are led to the general form of the equations of a change of bases
in plane:
x = c11 x0 + c12 y 0 ; y = c21 x0 + c22 y 0 :
21
These can be written in matrix form as:

X = CX 0 ;
where:
x
y
X=
; X0 =
x0
y0
are column matrices containing the "old" and the "new" coordinates of A and
c11
c21
C=
c12
c22
is called the matrix of change of bases.

Remarks.
1) The matrix of change of bases C contains on its rst column the coordinates
of {0 in the old basis and on its second line, the coordinates of j 0 :
2) The fact that the bases f{; jg and f{0 ; j 0 g are orthonormal played no role
in the above considerations. Actually, all the above said also holds true for
general, oblique bases (also, the lengths of the basis vectors is unessential).
In the following, we will particularize these results for several special changes
of bases.
B. Rotations in plane
Let fO0 ; {0 ; j 0 g be a frame obtained from fO; {; jg after a rotation of angle
2 [0o ; 180o ]: Then, we have
{0 = cos { + sin j
j = sin { + cos j:
0
We obtain this way the matrix of change of bases:

C=
cos
sin
sin
cos
22
(8)
The relation between the "old" coordinates (x; y) and the "new" ones (x0 ; y 0 ) of
some point A is given by X = CX 0 :
x
y
cos
sin
x0
y0
sin
cos
(9)
Example: Find the equation of the line y = x + 5 in the plane xOy; after
a rotation of angle = 45o :
We have
0 1
1 1
p
p
x0
x
B
2 C
;
= @ 12
A
1
y0
y
p
p
2
2
which is equivalent to
8
1
>
< x = p (x0 y 0 )
2
:
1
>
: y = p (x0 + y 0 )
2
Substituting these values of x and y into the equation of the line y = x + 5; we

get
p
p
5 2
0
0
0
0
0
x +y =x
y +5 2 )y =
:
2
C. Reections
Also, an important class of changes of bases in plane are reections:
reection in the Ox-axis ("vertical ip"): f{; jg ! f{; jg; that is,
C=
1
0
0
1
x = x0
:
y = y0
reection in the Oy-axis ("horizontal ip"): f{; jg ! f {; jg; the

matrix of change of bases is:
C=
1
0
0
1
x = x0
:
y = y0
reection across O : f{; jg ! f {; jg; which gives the matrix

C=
1
0
0
1
x=
y=
x0
:
y0
Exercise 26 Find the equation of the parabola y = x2 + 1 after: a reection

in the Ox-axis; a reection in the Oy-axis; a reection across O; a rotation of
angle = 90o :
23
p
Exercise 27 Determine the equation of the line (d) : y = x 3 after rotating
with = 60o the coordinate axes.
Exercise 28 Find the equation of an arbitrary curve y = f (x) after a rotation
of 90o of the coordinate axes.
3.2
Changes of bases in space
Similarly, the transition from a Cartesian frame R = fO; {; j; kg to another

Cartesian frame R0 = fO0 ; {0 ; j 0 ; k 0 g can be regarded as a composition of two
types of transformations:
- a translation fO; {; j; kg ! fO0 ; {; j; kg (shift the origin, keep the free vectors f{; j; kg unchanged);
- a change of bases fO0 ; {; j; kg ! fO0 ; {0 ; j 0 ; k 0 g (keep the origin xed, change
the directions of the axes).
Let us examine in detail these two types of transformations.
3.2.1
Translations
Assume that we have to pass from the frame R =fO; {; j; kg to the frame R0 =
fO0 ; {; j; k 0 g. Denote by (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ) the coordinates of the new origin O0 in the
"old" frame R:
OO0 = x0 { + y0 j + z0 k:
Now, take an arbitrary point A in space, having the coordinates (x; y; z)
and, accordingly, (x0 ; y 0 ; z 0 ), in the two frames. This is written as:
OA = x{ + y j + z k;
O0 A = x0 { + y 0 j + z 0 k:
We have, again,
OA = OO0 + O0 A;
which leads to the equations of the translation in space:
8
< x = x0 + x0
y = y 0 + y0 :
:
z = z 0 + z0
Exercise 29 Find the equation of the plane ( ) : x
translation of the frame to O0 (2; 1; 0):
y + 2z
3 = 0 after a
!
Exercise 30 Prove that, as a result of a translation of vector OO0 (a; b; c) (where
a; b; c 2 R are arbitrary), the equation of a plane is transformed into the equation
of a plane and the equations of a line are transformed into the equations of a
line.
24
3.2.2
Changes of bases
In the following, we will study changes of frames which keep the origin O xed,
but shift the basis:
R =fO; {; j; kg ! R0 = fO0 ; {0 ; j 0 ; k 0 g:
Consider a point A given by:
A(x; y; z) with respect to the old frame R; that is: OA = x{ + y j + z k;
A(x0 ; y 0 ; z 0 ) with respect to the new frame R; that is: OA = x0 {0 + y 0 j 0 +
z 0 k0 :
We decompose the vectors of R0 in terms of the old basis:
8 0
< { = s11 { + s21 j + s31 k
j 0 = s12 { + s22 j + s32 k :
: 0
k = s13 { + s23 j + s33 k
(10)
After a similar calculation to the one we did for the plane, we nd the
equations of a change of bases in space:
8
< x = c11 x0 + c12 y 0 + c13 z 0
y = c21 x0 + c22 y 0 + c23 z 0 ;
:
z = c31 x0 + c32 y 0 + c33 z 0
these can be written in the matrix form as:
X = CX 0 ;
(11)
where
0
1
0 0 1
x
x
X = @ y A ; X 0 = @ y0 A ;
z
z0
c11
C = @ c21
c31
c12
c22
c32
1
c13
c23 A :
c33
Remark 13 In the above, it is not compulsory that the bases f{; j; kg; f{0 ; j 0 ; k 0 g
be orthonormal. Relation (11) correctly describes changes of arbitrary bases
(orthonormal or not, right oriented or not). In the particular case when the bases
are orthonormal, the matrix of change of bases obeys the property: C C t = I3 ;
which leads to:
det C = 1:
A change of bases with det C = 1 is called a rotation. Just as a remark,
in order to describe an arbitrary rotation in space, one needs to know 3 angles
(Eulers angles or Tait-Bryan angles).
25
2 2 1
2 1 2
1 2 2
Exercise 31 a) Prove that {0 ( ; ; ); j 0 (
; ; ); k 0 ( ;
; ) form an or3 3 3
3 3 3
3 3 3
thonormal basis in space. b) Find the equation of the plane ( ) : x + y + z = 0
in the basis f{0 ; j 0 ; k 0 g:
Exercise 32 Determine the equations of the following rotations in space:
a) a rotation of angle in the xOy plane (the vectors {; j are rotated by the
angle ; k stays xed);
b) a rotation of angle in the xOz plane (the vectors k; { are rotated by the
angle ; j stays xed).
26
Conic sections
4.1
Denition and examples
Conic sections (or, simply, conics) are plane curves described by equations
of degree 2 in x and y :
ax2 + bxy + cy 2 + dx + ey + f = 0;
(*)
where a; b; c; d; e; f 2 R and at least one of the coe cients a; b; c of the terms of

degree 2 is nonzero. Let us present in the following several examples.
I. Ellipse
y2
x2
+ 2
2
a
b
1=0:
3
2
1
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
-1
-2
-3
the ellipse
x2
9
y2
=0
4
The numbers a and b are called the semi-axes of the ellipse. The greater
of the two numbers is called the major semi-axis and the other, the minor
semi-axis.
x2
y2
The ellipse 2 + 2
1 = 0 has two special points F and F 0 , called the
a
b
p
foci (singular: focus), located on the major axis, at the distance c = ja2 b2 j
from the origin:
- if a > b; then: F (c; 0); F 0 ( c; 0);
- if a < b; then: F (0; c); F 0 (0; c):
The ellipse possesses several interesting properties, used in practical applications. We will mention here just two of them:
a) The sum of the distances from any point M on the ellipse to the two foci
is constant:
0
M F + M F = 2a:
27
b) (Optical property of the ellipse): Any ray starting from one of the foci is
reected by the ellipse through the other focus.
Particular case: For a = b = R; we obtain the circle with center O(0; 0)
and radius R :
x2 + y 2 = R2 :
II. Hyperbola
y2
y2
x2
x2
1
=
0
(or
:
1 = 0)
a2
b2
b2
a2
A hyperbola consists of two branches, situated along the axis corresponding
to the variable appearing with a plus sign in the equation:
-6
-4
y
4
-2
-2
-6
-2
-2
-4
-4
the hyperbola
-4
x2
9
y2
4
1=0
the hyperbola
y2
x2
+
9
4
1=0
The numbers a and b are called the semi-axes of the hyperbola.

x2 y 2
The hyperbola 2
1 = 0 described above has two asymptotes, namely,
a
b2
b
b
the lines y = x and y =
x (the green lines in the above pictures). Also,
a
a0
it admits two foci F and F , situated on the axis corresponding to the plus
sign p
in the equation (one focus "inside" each of the branches), at a distance of
c = a2 + b2 from the origin:
x2
y2
- For the "east-west" hyperbola 2
1 = 0: F (c; 0); F 0 ( c; 0);
a
b2
y2
x2
- For the "north-south" hyperbola
+
1 = 0: F (0; c); F 0 (0; c):
a2
b2
A remarkable property of the hyperbola, used, for instance, in the GPS
navigation system, is the following:
The modulus of the dierence of the distances from any point M on the
hyperbola to the two foci is a constant:
MF
MF
28
= 2a:
III. Parabola
y 2 = 2px
(or : x2 = 2py);
p 6= 0 :
parabola y 2 = 2px ( p := 1=2)
parabola x2 = 2py ( p := 1=2)
Parabola admits only one focus F , situated on its symmetry axis (that is,
to the axis corresponding to the non-squared variable in the equation), at a
p
distance of units from the vertex:
2
p
- for the parabola y 2 = 2px; the focus is F ( ; 0);
2
p
- for the parabola x2 = 2py; the focus has the coordinates F (0; ):
2
A remarkable property of the parabola, which is frequently used in practice
(e.g., dish antennas, vehicle headlamps) is the so-called optical property of the
parabola:
Any ray coming parallel to the symmetry axis of the parabola is reected
through its focus.
parabola - optical property
29
Other examples:
x2
y2
IV. 2 + 2 + 1 = 0
a
b
This conic section is often called an imaginary ellipse. Actually, as a set of
points, it is the empty set ?: We can convince ourselves of this fact by noticing
that equation (IV) has no real solutions (x; y):
V.
VI.
y2
x2
+
= 0 a point (O(0; 0)).
a2
b2
x2
a2
y2
= 0 - the union of two intersecting lines, more precisely:
b2
x y
x y
(d1 ) : + = 0; (d2 ) :
= 0:
a
b
a
b
x2
y2
Justication: The equation
=
0 is
a2
b2
x y
x y
+
= 0: In its turn, the latter equality means
a
b
a
b
x y
+ =0
a
b
or
x
a
equivalent
y
= 0:
b
to:
(12)
x y
Therefore, any point P (x; y) on the conic (VI) belongs to the line (d1 ) : + =
a b
x y
0 or to the line (d2 ) :
= 0; that is, P belongs to the union of the two lines.
a b
Conversely, the coordinates of any point P belonging to the union (d1 ) [ (d2 )
obey the equation of (d1 ) or the equation of (d2 ); that is, they obey (12). But
(12) is actually equivalent to the equation of the conic section (VI).
VII. y 2 = 1 - union of two parallel lines (y = 1 and y =
or x2 = 1 (union of the lines x = 1 and x = 1);
VIII. y 2 = 0 - the line y = 0 or
x2 = 0 ) the line x = 0;
IX. y 2 =
1 or x2 =
1 - the empty set.
30
1)
4.2
Reduced equation of a conic - an elementary approach
One can prove the following result:

Theorem 14 Given any conic section (*), there exists a transformation of
Cartesian frame, consisting of a rotation and a translation, which brings the
equation of the conic section into one of the equations (I)-(IX).
Equations (I)-(IX) are called the reduced equations of conics.
The proof of the above theorem is a constructive one, i.e., it provides the
concrete way of nding the required coordinate transformation.
Let us notice, for the beginning, the distinctive features of equations (I) (IX):
1) None of these equations contains any xy term.
2) With the exception of equation (III) (representing the parabola), none of
the reduced equations contains any term of degree 1.
Consequently, in order to determine the reduced equation of the general
conic:
ax2 + bxy + cy 2 + dx + ey + f = 0;
(*)
we have to do two things:
1) Get rid of the xy term (if any).
2) When no more xy terms are left, get rid (as far as possible) of the terms
of degree 1.
We will divide the discussion into two cases.
Case 1. Let us rst investigate the case when b = 0; that is, the equation
of the conic does not have any xy term:
( ) : ax2 + cy 2 + dx + ey + f = 0;
(13)
where at least one of the numbers a; c is nonzero. In this case, the equation can
be brought to its reduced form just by a translation:
x = x0 +
y = y0 +
()
x0 = x
y0 = y
The technique to be followed is thus to try to emphasize in the equation of

( ) binomials of the form (x
); (y
) - and then denote them by x0 and y 0 ;
respectively.
We have two possibilities:
Case 1a) If a; c 6= 0; we rewrite the equation of ( ) as:
e
d
( ) : a(x2 + x) + c(y 2 + y) + f = 0;
a
c
i.e., we group the terms containing x on one hand and the terms containing y
on the other hand and take the coe cients of the squares as common factors.
Then, we complete the brackets up to some squares of binomials:
( ) : a(x2 + 2
d
d2
x + 2)
2a
4a
d2
e
e2
+ c(y 2 + 2 y + 2 )
4a
2c
4c
31
e2
+ f = 0;
4c2
that is,
d 2
e 2
( ) : a(x + ) + c(y + ) + f 0 = 0;
| {z2a }
| {z2c }
x0
y0
e2
d2
:
4a 4c2
We denote by x0 and y 0 the obtained binomials:
8
8
< x0 := x + d
< x = x0
2a
)
e
: y 0 := y +
: y = y0
2c
where f 0 := f
d
2a
e :
2c
(14)
Equations (14) represent a translation of the frame to the point

O0 (
d
;
2a
e
):
2c
In the new coordinates, the equation of the conic will have the form:
2
( ) : a(x0 )2 + c (y 0 ) + f 0 = 0:
(15)
Depending on the signs of a; c and f 0 ; equation (15) coincides with one of

the equations (I), (II), (IV), (V) or (VI). In other words, the conic section
is an ellipse, a hyperbola, an imaginary ellipse (?), a point or the union of two
intersecting lines.
Case 1b) If a = 0; c 6= 0; i.e., the initial equation of ( ) is:
( ) : cy 2 + dx + ey + f = 0;
(16)
we distinguish two subcases:

Case 1b.(i) d 6= 0: In this case, we group the y-terms, take c as a common
factor and complete them up to a squared binomial of the form (y + )2 ; with
the remaining terms, we will form a binomial (x + ):
( )
e
e2
e2
c(y 2 + y + 2 ) + dx + (f
)=0
c
4c
| {z4c }
f0
e
f
) ( ) : c(y + )2 + d(x + ) = 0;
| {z2c}
| {z d}
y0
where f 0 := f
e
):
2c
x0
e2
: We have obtained this way a translation to O0 (x =
4c
8
0
< x0 := x + f
d
: y 0 := y + e
2c
8
< x = x0
)
: y = y0
32
f0
ed ;
2c
f0
;y =
d
(17)
as a result, the equation of the conic section becomes:

d 0
x;
c
( ) : (y 0 ) =
which is the equation of a parabola.
Case 1b.(ii) d = 0:In this case, x is completely missing from the equation
of ( ):
( ) : cy 2 + ey + f = 0:
In order to nd the reduced equation of ( ); we group the existing terms in y;
take c as a common factor and complete the bracket up to a squared binomial
of the form (y + )2 :
( )
e2
e2
e
)=0
c(y 2 + y + 2 ) + (f
c
4c
| {z4c }
f0
f
:
c
e
) ( ) : (y + )2 =
2c
| {z }
y0
f0
f0
; we can have: two parallel lines ( < 0 )
c
c
f0
f0
0), a line ( = 0) or the empty set ( > 0):
c
c
The case a 6= 0; c = 0 is treated similarly.
Depending on the sign of
f0
>
c
Case 2: b 6= 0. In this case, the equation of ( ) contains a nonzero term in

xy :
( ) : ax2 + bxy + cy 2 + dx + ey + f = 0:
(18)
In this case, we will eliminate the xy term by a rotation of angle
x
y
in other words, we will choose

equation of ( ) is of the form:
2
cos
sin
x0
y0
sin
cos
(19)
such that, in the new coordinates (x0 ; y 0 ); the

2
( ) : a0 (x0 ) + c0 (y 0 ) + d0 x0 + e0 y 0 + f 0 = 0:
The rotation angle
2 [0o ; 90o ]:
(20)
is obtained from the relation:

tg(2 ) =
b
a
Once the equation of ( ) is brought to the form (20), the problem is reduced
to Case 1 - hence, further on, we can nd the reduced equation of ( ) by a
translation.
33
Exercise 33 Consider the conic section ( ) : ax2 +bxy +cy 2 +dx+ey +f = 0:

Prove that, rotating the axes of the frame fO; {; jg with the angle
given by
b
tg(2 ) =
; the equation of ( ) is transformed into an equation of the form
a c
(20) (with no xy term).
Exercise 34 Find the reduced equations, recognize and draw the following conic
sections:
a) x2 + y 2 + 2x 6y + 9 = 0;
b) x2 + 4y 2 + 4x 4y + 1 = 0;
c) 4x2 y 2 + 8x + 2y 1 = 0:
sections:
d) 4x2 y 2 + 8x + 2y + 3 = 0;
e) y = x2 2x + 2;
f ) y 2 + x + 4y = 0:
sections:
p
2
g) x2 + 2xy
x 2 = 0;
p +y
h) xy + 2(x y) = 0;
i) x2 + 2xy + y 2 2x 2y 3 = 0:
Exercise 37 Prove that the equation x2 + y 2 R2 = 0 of the circle of center O
and radius R > 0 is invariant to any rotation of the frame.
Exercise 38 Find the equation of the ellipse with center O0 (x = 1; y = 2) and
semi-axes a = 3; b = 1:
Remark. Conic sections (except the pair of parallel lines y 2 = 1) coincide
with the curves obtained by intersecting a right circular cone with planes:
conic sections (source: internet)
34
Quadrics
A quadric is a set of points in space whose coordinates (x; y; z) are related by

a second degree equation:
a11 x2 +a22 y 2 +a33 z 2 +2a12 xy+2a13 xz+2a23 yz+2a14 x+2a24 y+2a34 z+a44 = 0:
5.1
Sphere
The sphere is dened as the set of points in space situated at the same distance
R > 0 (called the radius) from a xed point !(a; b; c); called the center.
Let P (x; y; z) denote an arbitrary point of the sphere.
The fact that the distance !P is always R is written, after eliminating
the square root:
(x a)2 + (y b)2 + (z c)2 = R2
(21)
(the equation of the sphere with center !(a; b; c) and radius R). Hence,
the sphere is a quadric.
If we perform the computations in the above equation, we obtain a relation

of type:
x2 + y 2 + z 2 + mx + ny + pz + q = 0;
(22)
(where m = 2a; n = 2b; p = 2c; q = a2 + b2 + c2 R2 ), which is called the
general equation of a sphere.
That is, any equation of a sphere looks like above. The converse is not true,
that is, not any equation of type (22) is the equation of a sphere. This can be
checked by bringing the equation (22) to the form (21).
Examples:
1. The equation x2 + y 2 + z 2
(x2
2x + 1)
2x + 4y
4 = 0 can be written as:
1 + (y 2 + 4y + 4)
4 + z2
4 = 0;
that is
(x
1)2 + (y + 2)2 + z 2 = 9:
Hence, it represents the sphere of center !(1; 2; 0) and radius R = 3:

35
2. The equation: x2 + y 2 + z 2 2x + 4y + 6 = 0 becomes, after grouping the

squares
(x 1)2 + (y + 2)2 + z 2 = 1;
that is, it cannot represent a sphere, since the equation R2 =
real solutions.
1 has no
The tangent plane to the sphere

(S) : x2 + y 2 + z 2 + mx + ny + pz + q = 0;
(23)
at one of its points P (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ) 2 (S); has the equation:

xx0 + yy0 + zz0 + m
y + y0
z + z0
x + x0
+n
+p
+ q = 0:
2
2
2
Exercise 39 Find out if the following equations represent spheres. If so, indicate the center and the radius:
1. x2 + y 2 + z 2
2x + 4y + 4 = 0;
2. x2 + y 2 + z 2
2x + 4y + 6 = 0;
3. x2 + y 2 + 4x + 2y + 1 = 0:
Exercise 40 Determine the sphere which passes through the points A(1; 0; 0);
B(0; 2; 0); C(0; 0; 3) and O(0; 0; 0):
Exercise 41 Consider the sphere (S) : (x
plane (P ) : x + y + z = ; 2 R:
3)2 + (y
1)2 + z 2 = 25 and the
1. For = 0; prove that the intersection between the sphere (S) and P0 is a
circle, and determine the center and the radius of this circle.
2. Find
2 R such that the plane (P ) is tangent to the sphere.
Exercise 42 Determine the equation of the sphere with center on the x-axis,
x 1
y+3
z
passing through A(1; 2; 3) and tangent to the line:
=
=
:
2
4
1
36
5.2
5.2.1
Reduced canonical equations of other quadrics

The ellipsoid
y2
z2
x2
+ 2 + 2 = 1:
2
a
b
c
I
The numbers a; b; c > 0 are called the semi-axes of the ellipsoid.
Intersections with parallel planes to the planes of coordinates are ellipses,
points or the empty set. In order prove this fact, let us take, for instance, planes
2
x2 y 2
; which is:
which are parallel to (xOy); that is, z = : we get 2 + 2 = 1
a
b
c2
an ellipse, if 2 ( c; c); a point, if = c and the empty set if 2 R n [ c; c]:
If the ellipsoid has two equal semi-axes, then it is called a spheroid; if all
its semi-axes are equal, then it is a sphere.
5.2.2
The hyperboloid of one sheet (H1 ) :
hyperboloid of one sheet
37
x2
y2
+ 2
2
a
b
z2
=1
c2
rulings of H1 (source:
internet)
Its intersections with horizontal planes z = are ellipses, while the intersections with planes y = const: and x = const: are hyperbolas.
The one-sheeted hyperboloid has an interesting property: it is a doubly
ruled surface, that is, such a shape can be built only from rectilinear beams,
and this can be done in two ways (that is why we say it is "doubly" ruled). These
beams are called the rulings (rectilinear generatrices) of the hyperboloid.
In order to obtain the equations of its rulings, we write the equation of the
hyperboloid as:
z2
y2
x2
=1
;
2
2
a
c
b2
and factor the dierences of squares:
x z
+
a
c
z
c
x
a
= 1+
y
b
y
:
b
This can be written as a proportionality relation:

x z
+
1
a
c
y = x
1+
b
a
y
b =: :
z
c
Equating each of the ratios with ; we get:

8 x z
<
+ =
1+
a xc z
(G ) :
:
=1
a
c
y
by :
b
For each value of , (G ) represents a family of straight lines which is entirely

contained in the hyperboloid - hence, each (G ) is a ruling for this surface. We
call the set f(G )g; a 1-parameter family of rulings.
y
x z
Note. The case 1 + = 0;
= 0 can be formally included in the above,
b
a c
if we set := 1: That is, we speak about 2 R [ f1g:
We can also group the terms
8 x z
<
+
a xc
(G ) :
:
a
with opposite signs:

=
z
c
y
by ;
=1+
b
1
2 R [ f1g
which leads to another 1-parameter family of rulings of the one-sheeted hyperx z

y
boloid. The case = 1 corresponds to the situation
= 0; 1
= 0:
a
c
b
We should mention here several properties of the lines (G ) and (G ) :
Through each point M (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ) of the hyperboloid there is exactly one
generatrix (G ) and one generatrix (G ):
38
Rulings (G ) obtained for dierent values of do not intersect each other

(they are non-coplanar lines). The same holds true about rulings (G ):
A notable use of one-sheeted hyperboloids is in cooling towers of power
stations. Such a shape is resistant and relatively easy to build.
5.2.3
The hyperboloid of two sheets
y2
x2
+
a2
b2
z2
=
c2
Sections with planes parallel to (xOy); that is, with z = = const:; are
ellipses, for j j > c; a point for = c and the empty set for j j < c: Sections
with planes y = const: and x = const: are hyperbolas.
5.2.4
The elliptic paraboloid z =
x2
y2
+
a2
b2
Sections with planes z = const: are ellipses, while sections with y = const:
and x = const: are parabolas.
39
5.2.5
The hyperbolic paraboloid (the "saddle") (PH ) : z =
hyperbolic paraboloid
y2
b2
x2
a2
rulings of (PH ) (source: internet)
Sections with z = (const.) are hyperbolas, with the exception of the plane
xOy; where the section consists of two intersecting lines (prove this!). Sections
with x = const: and y = const: provide parabolas.
The hyperbolic paraboloid is also a doubly ruled surface. Its rulings are obtained by factoring the right hand side of the equation: z =
x y
x y
+
and then grouping terms of degree 1:
a
b
a
b
8 x y
8 x y
<
<
+ = z
= z
ax b y
ax b y
(G ) :
; (G ) :
;
:
:
+
=1
=1
a
b
a
b
x
= 1 corresponds to the line z = 0;
a
x y
while = 1 gives the line z = 0; + = 0:
a
b
Properties:
where ;
2 R[f1g: The case
y
= 0;
b
Through any point of the hyperbolic paraboloid there passes exactly one
ruling (G ) and exactly one ruling (G ):
Dierent rulings belonging to the same family do not intersect each other
(they are non-coplanar lines).
40
5.2.6
The elliptic cone
y2
x2
+ 2
2
a
b
z2
=0
c2
Sections with horizontal planes z =

circular cone.
5.2.7
6= 0 are ellipses. For a = b; one gets a
Cylinders
A. the elliptic cylinder
y2
x2
+ 2 =1:
2
a
b
B. the hyperbolic cylinder
x2
a2
y2
=1:
b2
41
C. The parabolic cylinder y 2 = 2px :
x2
+ y2
4
A(2; 0; 0): Determine the angle between these rulings.
Exercise 43 Find the rulings of the hyperboloid
x2
Exercise 44 Find the rulings of the hyperbolic paraboloid
4
are parallel to the plane x + y + z = 3:
42
z2
= 1 through
9
y 2 = z; which
Generated surfaces
A generated surface is a surface that can be swept out by moving a given

curve. The dierent positions of the moving curve are called the generatrices
of the surface.
If the moving curve is a line, then the generated surface is called a ruled
surface. In this case, the (rectilinear) generatrices are called the rulings of the
surface.
Another important class of generated surfaces is that of revolution surfaces, obtained by rotating a given curve around a straight line (in this case,
we can regard the surface as generated by circles).
In the following, let us expose some generalities on curves and surfaces in
3-dimensional Euclidean space.
A surface in E3 is generally dened by a single equation in x; y; z:
(S) : F (x; y; z) = 0:
(Remember that a plane was characterized by a single equation!).
A curve in 3-dimensional space can be dened as the intersection of two
surfaces, that is, it is described by a system of equations:
(C) :
F (x; y; z) = 0
:
G(x; y; z) = 0
(In particular, a straight line is described by two equations in x; y; z).
6.1
Cylindrical surfaces
A cylindrical surface is a surface swept out by a moving line having a xed

direction, and which intersects a given curve (C); called the directrix of the
surface.
In order to deduce the equation of a cylindrical surface, we consider as known:
P A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 = 0
- the "initial position" of the
Q A2 x + B2 y + C2 z + D2 = 0
moving lines. Any ruling (rectilinear generatrix) of the surface will be a
line which is parallel to (d):
(d) :
(C) :
F (x; y; z) = 0
- the directrix of the surface.
G(x; y; z) = 0
Let us now deduce the equation of the cylindrical surface.

Step 1: Write the equations of all straight lines which have the same direction as (d) (that is, all lines which are parallel to (d)). Since (d) is given as the
intersection of two planes (P ) and (Q); this can be done by intersecting a plane
which is parallel to (P ) with a plane which is parallel to (Q) :
(G
):
P =
Q=
43
2 R:
Step 2: The rulings of the surface are exactly those lines (G

intersect the curve (C): In other words, the system
8
P =
>
>
( )
< (G ) :
Q=
F (x; y; z) = 0
>
>
: (C) :
G(x; y; z) = 0
) which
(24)
has to be consistent. The system (24) is a (generally, nonlinear) system with

3 unknowns x; y; z and 4 equations. Basically, in order to solve the system,
one needs 3 of the 4 equations (24). The solution (x; y; z) will depend on the
parameters and :
x = x( ; ); y = y( ; ); z = z( ; ):
Then, substituting the obtained expressions of x; y and z into the fourth (unused) equation, we nd a condition of consistency of the form:
( ; ) = 0;
(25)
which relates the parameters and :

The equation of the surface can now be obtained by simply substituting into
the condition of consistency the expressions ( ) of and in terms of x; y; z :
= P;
= Q;
that is, the equation of the cylindrical surface is

(P; Q) = 0:
The reason for the above said is the following: writing the equation of the
surface means to nd a relation between the coordinates x; y; z of an arbitrary
point of the surface. Or, points of the surface are precisely the points of those
lines (G ) which intersect (C); that is, of those (G ) for which and are
related by ( ; ) = 0: But, once and obey this relation, the coordinates
x; y; z are necessarily related by (P; Q) = 0:
Example: Write the equation of the cylindrical surface generated by lines
y
z
x
=
= ; and which intersect the curve (C) : y = sin x;
parallel to (d) :
1
2
1
z = 0:
First, let us write the equations of (d) in the form P = 0; Q = 0: We get
(d) :
P
Q
2x y = 0
:
x z=0
Then, any line which is parallel to (d) has the equations

(G
):
2x y =
x z=
44
: ( )
The intersection between (G ) and the directrix (C) is given by

8
2x y =
>
>
:
< (G ) :
x z=
:
y sin x = 0
>
>
: (C) :
z=0
We eliminate x; y; z; in order to obtain the condition of consistency. Using the

second and the last equation, we get x = : From the rst equation, we have
now y = 2
: The third equation then leads to
( ; )
sin
= 0:
The coordinates of the points of the surface are related to

and
by ( ):
Substituting into the expressions ( ); we obtain the equation of the surface:
2x
2z
2x + y
(S) : y
2z
sin(x
z) = 0;
that is,
sin(x
z) = 0:
Exercise 45 Find the equation of the cylindrical surface generated by lines

x+y =0
which are parallel to (d) :
and intersect the ellipse (C) :
x
z 1=0
8
< 2 y2
x +
=1 :
4
:
z = 0:
Exercise 46 Determine the equation of the cylindrical surface
8 with rulings par< 2 y2
x
=1 :
allel to v(1; 2; 2); and having as directrix the hyperbola (C) :
9
:
z = 0:
45
Exercise 47 Determine the equation of the cylindrical

surface with rulings par8
< 2 y2
x +
= 1 : Recognize and
allel to Oz; having as directrix the curve (C) :
9
:
z = 0:
draw the curve.
Exercise 48 Determine the equation of the cylindrical surface with rulings parx2 y 2 = 1
: Recognize and
z = 0:
draw the curve.
Exercise 49 Determine the equation of the cylindrical surface with rulings pary 2 = 2x
: Recognize and draw
z = 0:
the curve.
Exercise 50 Determine the equation of the tangent cylinder to the sphere (S) :
y+4
z
x
=
:
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 4; having the rulings parallel to (d) : =
1
2
1
6.2
Conic surfaces
A conic surface is swept out by straight lines which pass through a xed point
(called vertex or apex) and intersect a given curve, called the directrix.
Assume that the vertex V has the coordinates (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ) and the directrix
(C) is again described as the intersection of two surfaces:
(C) :
F (x; y; z) = 0
G(x; y; z) = 0:
Step 1: Write the equations of all lines passing through V :

8
x x0
>
< =
y y0
z z0
x x0
z z0
(G ) :
=
=
)
y y0 :
>
1
: =
z z0
(Actually, in this writing, lines parallel to the plane xOy are missing; if needed,
we can consider them separately).
Step 2: The lines (G ) have to intersect (C); that is, the corresponding
system of equations has to be consistent:
8
x x0 = (z z0 )
>
>
< (G ) :
y y0 = (z z0 )
:
F (x; y; z) = 0
>
>
: (C) :
G(x; y; z) = 0:
We get the condition of consistency: ( ; ) = 0; and, by replacing into this
y y0
x x0
condition the expressions =
; =
; we get the equation of the
z z0
z z0
46
surface:
(
x
z
x0 y
;
z0 z
y0
) = 0:
z0
Example: write the equation of the cone having as vertex V (0; 0; 0) and as
directrix curve, the parabola: (C) : y 2 = 2x; z = 1:
Lines passing through V are given by
(G
):
z
)
1
x= y
x = z:
Intersection with (C) leads to the system

8
x= y
>
>
< (G ) :
x = z:
y 2 = 2x
>
>
:
: (C) :
z=1
( )
By the second and the last equation, we get x = ; from the rst, y =
from the third equation, we get
: Now,
( ; )
But, from ( ); we get
x
;
y
y
z
2 = 0:
x
: Hence, the equation of the surface is
z
x
= 0 ) y 2 = 2xz:
z
Exercise 51 Find the equation of the surface generated by lines passing through
O(0; 0; 0) and which intersect the circle (C) : x2 + y 2 = 1; z = 5:
47
Exercise 52 Determine the equation of the8conic surface with vertex A(1; 4; 5)

< 2 y2
x
=1 :
and having as directrix the hyperbola (C) :
9
:
z = 0:
Exercise 53 Determine the equation of the cone of vertex V (3; 4; 5); tangent
to the sphere (S) : x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 4:
6.3
Surfaces of revolution
A surface of revolution is obtained by rotating a plane curve (C) (called the

directrix) around a straight line, called the axis of rotation.
Let (C) : F (x; y; z) = 0; G(x; y; z) = 0 denote the directrix, and
(d) :
x0
l
y0
z z0
=
m
n
be the axis of rotation. Then, the surface can be regarded as swept out by
circles having their centers oh the axis of rotation, and situated in planes which
are perpendicular to the axis. These can be obtained by intersecting of spheres
of arbitrary radius 2 R+ ; and centers at an arbitrary xed point on (d) (for
instance, at (x0 ; y0 ; z0 )), with planes perpendicular to (d): This is, the generating
circles can be described as:
(G
):
(x
x0 )2 + (y y0 )2 + (z
lx + my + nz =
z0 )2 =
Intersecting them with (C); the resulting system

8
(x x0 )2 + (y y0 )2 + (z z0 )2 =
>
> (G ) :
<
lx + my + nz =
F
(x;
y; z) = 0
>
>
:
: (C) :
G(x; y; z) = 0
( )
(3 unknowns x; y; z, 4 equations) requires a condition of consistency ( 2 ; ) =

0: Substituting the values of 2 and
from ( ); we get the equation of the
surface:
(x
x0 )2 + (y
y0 )2 + (z
z0 )2 ; lx + my + nz = 0:
Example: Find the equation of the surface obtained by rotating the circle
(C) : (x 4)2 + y 2 = 1; z = 0 in the plane xOy; around Oy.
x
y
z
We have (d) = (Oy) : = = ; that is, the generating circles are
0
1
0
(G
):
x2 + y 2 + z 2 =
y=
48
Intersection with (C) is given by the system:

8
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 2
>
>
<
y=
:
2
(x
4)
+ y2 = 1
>
>
:
z=0
We get x2 = 2
above system is:
)x=
( ; )
Since
= x2 + y 2 + z 2 ;
2.
The condition of consistency of the

2
1 = 0:
= y; we have:
p
x2 + z 2
+ y2
1 = 0:
The "donut" shape we obtained is called a torus:
Exercise 54 Find the equations of the surfaces obtained by rotating the parabola
(C) : y = x2 ; z = 0 around Oy: Recognize and draw the obtained surface.
Exercise 55 Find the equation of the surface obtained by rotating the curve
(C) : x2 4y 2 = 1; z = 0 around: a) Ox and b) Oy. Recognize and draw the
obtained surfaces.
Exercise 56 Find the equation of the surface obtained by rotating the curve
(C) : y = sin x; z = 0 around Ox.
49
Plane curves
7.1
Representations
A plane curve is described by:

1. y = f (x) (explicit representation) or
2. F (x; y) = 0 (implicit representation) or
3.
x = x(t)
; t 2 [a; b] 2 R (parametric representation).
y = y(t)
The parametric representation 3) is also used in its vector variant

OM
r(t) = x(t){ + y(t)j:
A point M (x0 ; y0 ) of a curve (C) is called regular if the involved functions

f; F; x(t); y(t) are dierentiable (and continuous) in M and:
1. in the implicit representation, the partial derivatives of F do not simultaneously vanish at M (x0 ; y0 ) :
2
(Fx0 (x0 ; y0 )) + Fy0 (x0 ; y0 )
> 0;
dx
dy
2. in the parametric representation 3), the derivatives
(t0 ) and
(t0 )
dt
dt
do not simultaneously vanish, where t0 is the value of the parameter t
corresponding to M (x0 ; y0 ):
An arc of a curve which consists only of regular points is called a regular
arc.
In the neighborhood of a regular point one can always pass between the
representations 1),2) and 3).
If at some point M; the functions which describe the curve are dierentiable
of a certain class p 1; we say that the curve is of class p at that point.
A point of the curve which is not regular is called a singular point. Intuitively, singular points M can be points where the functions which appear
are not continuous (the curve "breaks" at M ), or points where the curve has
an "angle" (which usually corresponds to the situation when the involved functions are continuous, but not dierentiable, or x0 (t) = y 0 (t) = 0), or "multiple
points", through which the curve passes more than once).
50
A curve with singular points
7.2
Arc length of a plane curve

_
Let (C) be given in explicit representation (C) : y = f (x) and AB a regular arc
of (C):
_
The length of the arc AB is dened as the limiting case of the length of a
_
polygonal line with n sides inscribed in AB; joining A and B.
g. 1.2
This polygonal line is chosen such that the length of its greatest side tends to
0, when n tends to innity. The length Ln of such a polygonal line is computed
_
by Pythagorastheorem. If AB is a regular arc, then it can be shown that this

limit always exists.
Theorem 15
1. If (C) is given in explicit representation

y = f (x) ; x 2 [xA ; xB ]
51
(a; b) ;
(26)
then the length of the regular arc AB is

L
AB
x
ZB q
1 + (f 0 (x)) dx:
(27)
xA
Assume now that (C) is given in the parametric representation x = x(t); y =

y(t): Then, the dependence of y on t is given by
y(t) = f (x(t)) )
dy
df dx
dx
=
= f 0 (x) :
dt
dx dt
dt
Usually, derivatives with respect to the parameter t are denoted by dots:

y_ =
dy
dx
; x_ =
:
dt
dt
With these notations, we get

y_
:
x_
Substituting the value of the derivative f 0 (x) into the formula of the arc length
(27), we get
f 0 (x) =
Theorem 16 If the arc AB of (C) is parametrically represented by

x = x (t)
y = y (t)
then its length is
L_ =
AB
t 2 [tA ; tB ]
(t1 ; t2 ) ;
tB q
Z
2
2
x (t) + y (t)dt;
(28)
(29)
tA
where
x =
dx
dy
; y_ =
:
dt
dt
An alternative expression is obtained in terms of dierentials. If we take

into account that
dx = xdt;
_
dy = ydt;
_
then the formula of the arc length can be also written as
L_ =
AB
tB
Z
p
dx2 + dy 2 :
tA
The integrand
ds =
x (t) + y (t)dt =
52
p
dx2 + dy 2
or, in explicit representation,

ds =
p
1 + (f 0 (x))2 dx
is called the element of arc length of the curve (C): With this notation, the
_
length of the arc AB is expressed as:

L
AB
ds:
AB
Rt
The function s = ds (which measures the length of the curve between some
t0
starting point t0 and the current point t) can be used as a parameter on the
curve, called the natural parameter.
p
Intuitively, the element of arc length ds = dx2 + dy 2 measures the length
of a small (innitesimal) arc of the curve, which can be approximated by the
length of a line segment.
the element of arc length

p
Exercise 57 Compute the element of arc length ds = x_ 2 + y_ 2 dt for the cycloid:
x = a(t sin t); y = a(1 cos t); t 2 R
and the length of its arc between the points corresponding to t = 0 and t = 2 :
7.3
Contact between two intersecting curves
Given two curves that intersect at some point P; the notion of contact gives
information about how close to each other the two curves pass in a neighborhood
of the intersection point.
We assume that the functions which dene the curves are of class n+1; n
0:
53
Denition 17 Let (C) and (C 0 ) be two curves which intersect at some point
P: We say that (C) and (C 0 ) have an (n + 1)-point contact (or, equivalently,
a contact of order n), if they have at P (n + 1) coinciding common points.
In order to establish the order of the contact, the algorithm is the following:
we write the system of equations which gives the intersection of (C) and (C 0 ):
Eliminating all the unknowns except one, we will nd some relation (x) = 0;
(y) = 0 or (t) = 0. If the value of the unknown corresponding to the common
point P is a multiple root of order (n + 1) of ; then at the point P we have an
(n + 1)-point contact.
Consider, for instance, the case when the two curves are given in explicit
representation:
(C) : y = f1 (x); (C 0 ) : y = f2 (x)
and let P (x0 ; y0 ) denote a common point.
The intersection of (C) and (C 0 ) is given by:
y = f1 (x)
:
y = f2 (x)
Subtracting the two equations, y is eliminated and we get:
(x)
f1 (x)
f2 (x) = 0:
At the point P we have an (n + 1)-point contact, or an n-th order contact, if

and only if x0 is a multiple root of order (n + 1) of ; that is, if and only if:
(x0 )
(x0 )
(n+1)
= 00 (x0 ):::: =
(x0 ) 6= 0:
(n)
(x0 ) = 0;
Actually, when we say "n-th order contact", n refers to the last derivative
of which vanishes at x0 ; while the expression "n + 1-point contact" refers to
the number of common coinciding points at P:
Also, if we have
(C) : F (x; y) = 0; (C 0 ) : x = x(t); y = y(t);
and the common point P (x0 ; y0 ) corresponds to the value t0 of the parameter
on (C 0 ); then, the system which characterizes the intersection between the two
curves is
F (x; y) = 0
:
x = x(t); y = y(t)
We get
(t)
F (x(t); y(t)) = 0:
Then, an (n + 1)-point contact at P means

0
(t0 ) =
(t0 ) =
(n+1)
(t0 ) 6= 0:
54
00
(t0 ):::: =
(n)
(t0 ) = 0;
Exercise 58 Find the order of the contact at the point P (0; 1); between the
curves (C) : y = ex and:
(C 0 ) : y = 1 + x;
7.4
(C 0 ) : y = 1 + x +
x2
;
2
(C 0 ) : y = 1 + x +
x2
x3
xn
+
+ ::: +
;n
2
6
n!
3:
Tangent and normal line at a regular point
The tangent line to a curve (C) at a point P 2 (C) is dened as the limiting
position of a secant line P P 0 ; when P 0 tends to P: In other words, the tangent
line is the straight line which has at least a 2-point contact with the curve at a
given point.
In order to write down the equation of a line in plane, one needs a point
M (x0 ; y0 ) on the line and its slope m: Then, the equation of the line is
y
y0 = m(x
x0 ):
This is, once we know a regular point M (x0 ; y0 ) of a curve (C); we only need
the slopes of the tangent and of the normal line.
1. If (C) : y = f (x) is given in explicit representation, then, the slope of
the tangent line at M is
mtg = f 0 (x0 ):
The normal line is dened as the perpendicular at M to the tangent line,
therefore, its slope is
mN =
1
) mN =
mtg
1
f
0 (x )
0
2. If (C) : F (x; y) = 0 is given in implicit representation, then (according

to Math Analysis), in a neighborhood of the regular point M; y = f (x) is
Fx0
dened and its derivative at x0 is f 0 (x0 ) =
j(x ;y ) : Hence,
Fy0 0 0
mtg =
Fx0
j(x ;y ) ;
Fy0 0 0
mN =
Fy0
j(x ;y ) :
Fx0 0 0
Since at a regular point, Fx0 and Fy0 do not simultaneously vanish, these two
lines are always well determined (the situation with vanishing denominator
corresponds to a vertical line, formally, m = 1).
55
3. In parametric representation, (C) : x = x(t); y = y(t) : as shown

dy
above, passing to the explicit representation y(t) = f (x(t)); we get
=
dt
y(t)
_
dx
: Then, at the point P corresponding to
f 0 (x) ; that is, f 0 (x) =
dt
x(t)
_
the value t0 of the parameter, we have
mtg =
y(t
_ 0)
) mN =
x(t
_ 0)
x(t
_ 0)
:
y(t
_ 0)
Proposition 18 Two curves (C) and (C 0 ) have at least a 2-point contact (a

contact of order at least 1) at a common point P if and only if they have the
same tangent line at P:
Exercise 59 Write the equations of the tangent and of the normal lines of the
following curves:
1. (C) : y = ex at P (x0 = 0);
2. (C) : x2=3 + y 2=3
1
1
1 = 0 (the astroid), at P ( p ; p ):
2 2 2 2
the astroid
3. the ellipse (C) : x = 2 cos t; y = sin t; at A(t0 = 0) and at B(0; 1):
Exercise 60 Prove Proposition (18) for the curves (C) : y = f1 (x) and (C 0 ) :
y = f2 (x); at the common point P (x0 ; y0 ):
7.5
Osculating circle; curvature and radius of curvature
Let
(C) : x = x(t); y = y(t)
denote a parametrized curve of class at least 2, and P (x0 ; y0 ) 2 (C) a regular
point, corresponding to some value t0 of the parameter.
56
We are looking for a circle that has a maximal order contact with (C) at
the point P . In order to uniquely dene a circle, on needs three non-collinear
points. So, we might expect that (C) should have at P (at least) a 3-point
contact with a given circle ( ):
Denition 19 The osculating circle (or the circle of curvature) of the
curve (C) at the point P 2 (C) (if it exists) is the circle which has at least a
3-point contact with (C) at the point P:
osculating circles of a plane curve
In order to deduce the equation of a circle, one needs the coordinates of its
center !(a; b) and its radius Rc ; once we know these, its equation is:
( ) : (x
a)2 + (y
b)2
Rc2 = 0:
At the point P (x0 ; y0 ) $ t0 , (C) and ( ) have at least a 3-point contact if

and only if the function
(t)
a)2 + (y
(x
b)2
Rc2
has the property:

(t0 ) =
(t0 ) =
00
(t0 ) = 0:
Performing all the computations (we will skip them here), one can prove that
the coordinates a; b of the center and the radius Rc are given by
a = x0
Rc
y(
_ x_ 2 + y_ 2 )
x_ y xy_
2
(x_ + y_ 2 )3=2
jt0 :
x_ y xy_
jt0 ; b = y0 +
x(
_ x_ 2 + y_ 2 )
x_ y
xy_
jt0
where the notation jt0 means that all the involved derivatives are calculated at
t = t0 :
57
Remark 20 At the points P where the denominator x_ y xy_ vanishes, the curve
has no osculating circle. Such points are called inection points of the curve.
Intuitively, the bigger the radius Rc ; the less the curve is "bent" at P and
conversely: the smaller Rc ; the more is (C) bent at P: This "bending" of a curve
is seized in the mathematical notion of curvature.
Denition 21 The number
K=
x_ y xy_
jt
(x_ 2 + y_ 2 )3=2 0
is called the curvature of (C) at the point P (t = t0 ); and the number

R=
1
(x_ 2 + y_ 2 )3=2
=
jt0
K
x_ y xy_
is called the radius of curvature of (C) at P:
Remark 22 The radius of curvature R is actually the radius of the osculating

circle, taken with a plus or a minus sign:
jRj = Rc :
This sign tells "on which side" of the curve the osculating circle is located.
A change of the sign of R (equivalently, of the curvature K) means that the
osculating circle passes on the other side of the curve. The points at which the
curvature vanishes are precisely the inection points of the curve.
Remark 23 The centers of all osculating circles of the curve (C) describe a
curve called the evolute of (C):
Remark 24 If two curves have at a common point at least a 3-point contact,
then at that point, they have the same osculating circle and the same curvature.
Example: Find the osculating circle and the curvature of the parabola
(C) : y = x2 at the point A(0; 0):
The osculating circle ( ) : (x a)2 + (y b)2 Rc2 = 0 has at least a 3-point
contact with (C) at A:
Intersecting (C) with ( ), we get
(x)
(x
a)2 + (x2
58
b)2
Rc2 ;
the conditions of 3-point contact at A(x = 0) are

detail:
00
(0) =
00
(0) = 0; in
a2 + b2 Rc2 = 0
2(x a) + 2(x2 b) 2x jx=0 = 0
2 + 12x2 4bjx=0 = 0;
(0)
0
(0) =
(x)jx=0
(x)jx=0
that is,
8 2
< a + b2 Rc2 = 0
2a = 0
:
2 4b = 0;
1
1
which leads to a = 0; b = ; Rc = : Obviously, then, the curvature must be 2
2
2
or -2.
In order to compute the curvature, we need a parametric representation of
the curve. The simplest choice is by setting t as one of the coordinates x or y;
for instance:
x = t
y = t2 :
The point A(x = 0; y = 0) is obtained for t0 = 0: Then, x_ = 1; x
= 0;
y_ = 2tjt0 =0 = 0; y = 2; and we get, at the point A
x_ y
xy_ = 2; x_ 2 + y_ 2 = 1:
K=
x_ y xy_
2
= = 2;
1
(x_ 2 + y_ 2 )3=2
Then, the curvature is
and the radius of curvature is R =
1
1
= :
K
2
1
of the circle (C) : x =
K
r cos t; y = r sin t; t 2 [0; 2 ] at an arbitrary point A(t = t0 ) coincides with
its radius r: Equivalently: the curvature of a circle is a constant, namely, the
1
inverse of its radius, K = :
r
Exercise 61 Prove that the radius of curvature R =
Exercise 62 Prove that the curvature of the straight line (d) : y = mx + n at

any of its points is 0 (all points of a line are inection points).
Exercise 63 Determine the osculating circle, the curvature and the radius of
curvature of the ellipse
x = 2 cos t; y = sin t
at the point A(0; 1):
59
Exercise 64 For a curve (C) given in explicit representation y = f (x); show

that:
1. inection points A(x = x0 ) are characterized by f 00 (x0 ) = 0:
2. the curvature K at an arbitrary point P (x; y) is given by
K=
f 00 (x)
:
[1 + (f 0 (x))2 )]3=2
3. There holds the equivalence: f is convex at P (that is, f 00 (x) 0) if and

only if the curvature of (C) at P is positive; f is concave at P if and only
if its graph (C) has negative curvature at P:
(Hint: choose t = x as a parameter).
60
Spatial curves
8.1
Representations
A spatial curve is described by:

F (x; y; z) = 0
(as the intersection of two surfaces) or
G(x; y; z) = 0
1.
8
< x = x(t)
y = y(t) ; t 2 [a; b] 2 R (parametric representation), which is also
2.
:
z = z(t)
used in its vector variant:
OM
r(t) = x(t){ + y(t)j + z(t)k:;
where OM is the position vector of the arbitrary point M of the curve.

A point M (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ) of a curve (C) is called regular if the involved functions F; G; x(t); y(t); z(t) are dierentiable (and continuous) in M and
1. in implicit representation, the Jacobian of F and G does not vanish at
M (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ) :
Fx0
G0x
Fy0
G0y
Fz0
G0z
6= 0 at (x0 ; y0 ; z0 );
dx
dy
2. in the parametric representation 3), the derivatives
(t0 ), (t0 ) and
dt
dt
dz
(t0 ) do not simultaneously vanish, where t0 is the value of the parameter
dt
t corresponding to M (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ):
An arc of a curve which consists only of regular points is called a regular
arc. If at a point M; the functions which describe the curve are dierentiable
of a certain class p 1; we say that the curve is of class p at that point.
In the neighborhood of a regular point one can always pass between the
representations 1) and 2).
8.2
Arc length of a space curve
Suppose that (C) is given in parametric representation:

r(t) = x(t){ + y(t)j + z(t)k
_
and AB denotes a regular arc of (C); corresponding to t 2 [tA ; tB ]:

_
The length of the arc AB is dened in the same way as for plane curves, that
is, as the limiting case of the length of a polygonal line with n sides inscribed
_
in AB, chosen such that the length of its greatest side tends to 0, when n tends
_
to innity. If AB is a regular arc, then it can be proven that its arc length is
well dened (=it uniquely exists).
61
Theorem 25 if the arc AB of (C) is parametrically represented by

8
< x = x (t)
y = y (t) t 2 [tA ; tB ] ;
:
z = z(t)
(30)
then its length is
AB
tB
Z
p
x_ 2 (t) + y_ 2 (t) + z_ 2 (t)dt;
=
(31)
tA
where the dots denote derivatives w.r.t. t :

x_ =
dx
dy
dz
; y_ =
; z_ =
:
dt
dt
dt
In terms of dierentials, we have dx = xdt;

_
dy = ydt;
_
dz = zdt;
_
hence, the
formula of the arc length can be also written as
L_
AB
tB
Z
p
=
dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 :
tA
The integrand
ds =
p
p
x_ 2 (t) + y_ 2 (t) + z_ 2 (t)dt = dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2
is called the element of arc length of the curve (C): With this notation, the
_
length of the arc AB is expressed as:

L_ =
AB
ds:
AB
Rt
The function s = ds (which measures the length of the curve between some
t0
starting point t0 and the current point t) can be used as a parameter on the
curve, called the natural parameter.
p
The element of arc length ds = dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 measures the length of a
small (innitesimal) arc of the curve.
8.3
The TNB Frame (The Frenet-Serret Frame)
The TNB-frame (also known as the Frenet-Serret frame) is an orthonormal

frame, moving along the curve. The initials "TNB" come from the vectors which
constitute the frame, namely: the unit tangent vector ; the unit normal
vector (or, more rigorously, the unit principal normal vector) ; and the unit
binormal vector :
62
Let us describe in the following, the faces and the edges of this frame. To
this aim, let us recall some basic things about lines and planes in space:
- a line can be uniquely dened by a point M (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ) and a direction
v(l; m; n); this way:
(line) :
x0
l
y0
z z0
=
:
m
n
- the plane which passes through the point M (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ) and has as normal
direction N = v(l; m; n); has the equation:
(plane) : l(x
x0 ) + m(y
y0 ) + n(z
z0 ) = 0:
Consider a curve (C) of class at least 2, given in parametric representation:

r(t) = x(t){ + y(t)j + z(t)k;
and let M (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ) denote a regular point of the curve, corresponding to the
value t0 of the parameter.
The tangent line (tg) and the normal plane (
N)
The tangent line at M (t = t0 ) has as directing vector, the tangent vector

(velocity vector, derivative vector), having as Cartesian coordinates,
the derivatives at t0 of the "trajectory" coordinates x; y; z :
r(t0 ) = x(t
_ 0 ){ + y(t
_ 0 )j + z(t
_ 0 )k:
(32)
Shortly, if we omit the argument t0 , we can write: r(x;

_ y;
_ z):
_ Since M is
a regular point, the tangent vector at M exists and does not vanish. The
equations of the tangent line are:
(tg) :
y y0
z z0
x x0
=
=
x(t
_ 0)
y(t
_ 0)
z(t
_ 0)
The normal plane ( N ) is dened as the plane through M; which is

perpendicular to the tangent line. Hence, its equation is:
(
N)
: x(t
_ 0 )(x
x0 ) + y(t
_ 0 ) (y
y0 ) + z(t
_ 0 ) (z
The binormal line (b) and the osculating plane (
z0 ) = 0:
Osc ):
Suppose that at the point M; there exists the second derivative

r(t0 ) = x
(t0 ){ + y(t0 )j + z(t0 )k;
(the acceleration vector) and the cross product r(t0 )
r(t0 ) does not
vanish, that is, the velocity vector r(t0 ) and the acceleration vector r(t0 )
63
are nonvanishing and non-collinear. Then, the two vectors, together with
the point M; dene a plane, called the osculating plane of (C) at M:
The vector
b(t0 ) = r(t0 )
r(t0 );
(33)
which is actually, the normal vector of the osculating plane, is called the
binormal vector of (C) at M: Let us suppose that, after computing
the cross product, we get for b(t0 ) the coordinates b(l; m; n): Then, the
binormal line has the equations:
(b) :
x0
y0
z z0
=
:
m
n
The osculating plane is dened by:

(
Osc )
: l(x
x0 ) + m(y
y0 ) + n(z
z0 ) = 0:
The (principal) normal line (np ) and the rectifying plane (
R)
The normal line (or the principal normal line) of the curve is dened
as the intersection between the normal plane ( N ) and the osculating
plane ( Osc) . The normal line is perpendicular to both the tangent vector
and to the binormal one. Consequently, its directing vector np can be
obtained as the cross product of the two vectors:
np = b(t0 )
r(t0 );
(34)
that is,
np = r(t0 )
This choice of the order b(t0 )
r(t0 )
r(t0 ):
(35)
r(t0 ) (instead of r(t0 )
b(t0 )) insures
that the vectors r, np and b constitute a right-oriented system at M (the

orientation of b can be obtained by the right hand rule from those of r
and np ).
Consequently, if, by performing computations, we are led to
np (A; B; C);
then, the equations of the principal normal line are
(np ) :
x0
A
y0
B
z0
C
while the rectifying plane (which is dened as the plane perpendicular

to np at M ) is given by:
(
R)
: A(x
x0 ) + B(y
64
y0 ) + C(z
z0 ) = 0:
TNB frame
By (32), (33) and (34)-(35), we get
Theorem 26 The unit vectors of the TNB frame at the point M (t = t0 ) are:
the unit tangent vector
r(t0 )
r(t0 )
the unit (principal) normal vector
the unit binormal vector
r(t0 )
r(t0 )
r(t0 )
r(t0 )
r(t0 )
r(t0 )
r(t0 )
r(t0 )
r(t0 )
r(t0 )
Example: Find the unit vectors of the TNB (Frenet) frame of the curve
(C) : r(t) = et { + e t j + t2 k at the point M (1; 1; 0):
The point M has the Cartesian coordinates x = 1; y = 1; z = 0; hence
x0
y0
z0
= 1 = et0
= 1 = e t0
= 0 = t20 :
From all the three relations above, we obtain for M the value t0 = 0:
65
The derivatives of the position vector r at M are:

r(t0 )
(et {
e t j + 2tk)jt0 =0 = {
r(t0 )
(et { + e t j + 2k)jt0 =0 = { + j + 2k;
that is, r(1; 1; 0); r(1; 1; 2): The unit tangent vector is
r(t0 )
r(t0 )
1
1
( p ; p ; 0):
2
2
In order to calculate the unit binormal vector, we need
b = r(t0 )
Then,
r(t0 ) =
1
b
) ( p ;
b
3
{
1
1
j k
1 0
1 2
Its unit vector is
{
2
1
2{
2j + 2k:
1
1
p ; p ):
3
3
The principal normal vector is np = b

np =
j k
2 2
1 0
r; in coordinates:
= 2{ + 2j + 4k:
np
1
2
1
) ( p ; p ; p ):
knp k
6
6
6
Exercise 65 Determine the equations of the axes and of the faces of the Frenet
frame for the following curves:
1. r(t) = cos t { + sin t j + tk at A(t0 =
):
2. r(t) = t{ + t2 j + ln tk at M (1; 1; 0):
8.4
Curvature and torsion
Consider a curve (C) : r(t) = x(t){ + y(t)j + z(t)k of class at least 3, and take
a regular point M (t = t0 ) on (C); with r r 6= 0; the latter condition insures
that the TNB frame exists at M .
The curvature of (C) at the point M (t = t0 ) is a number which measures
the "deviation" of the curve from its tangent line in a neighborhood of M: It is
given by:
r r
K(t0 ) =
3 jt0 :
r
66
A point at which the curvature vanishes (that is, r r = 0) is called an

inection point of the curve. At inection points, there is no TNB frame.
(!) Do not mistake this formula for the one of the curvature of a plane
curve! The curvature of a space curve, as dened above, is always nonnegative.
On the contrary, for plane curves, the curvature can have a minus sign.
Proposition 27 For straight lines, the curvature is 0 at each point.(a straight
line consists only of inection points). Conversely, if the curvature of a curve
is 0 at each point, then the curve is a straight line.
This is easy to see, if we take into account that a straight line is described
parametrically by:
x = x0 + lt; y = y0 + mt; z = z0 + nt;
where x0 ; y0 ; z0 ; l; m; n are constants. Then, we get r(l; m; n); r = 0; which
leads to K = 0:
The torsion of the space curve (C) at a regular point M (t = t0 ) is a
number which indicates how much the curves deviates from a plane (namely,
from the osculating plane at M ) in a neighborhood of M: It is given by the
formula:
r ;r ;r
(t0 ) =
2 jt0 :
r r
Proposition 28 For plane curves, the torsion is identically 0. Conversely, if
the torsion identically vanishes, then the curve is contained in a plane.
A space curve which is contained in no plane is called a skew curve.
The sign of the torsion provides information about the side of the osculating
plane in which the curve "bends" around M: Namely:
if > 0 at M; then, in a neighborhood of M; the curve "bends" on the
side indicated by the binormal vector b;
if < 0 at M; then, in a neighborhood of M; the curve "bends" on the
opposite side of b;
if changes the sign at M; then the curve "pierces" the osculating plane
at M:
Exercise 66 Calculate the curvature and the torsion of the curve (C) : r(t) =
et { + e t j + t2 k at point M (1; 1; 0):
67
Exercise 67 Find the curvature and the torsion of the curve (C) : r(t) =
a cos t{ + a sin tj + btk (where a; b 2 R are constants) at an arbitrary point.
Exercise 68 Prove that for plane curves (C) : r(t) = x(t){ + y(t)j + 0k (in the
r
jt0
r
gives the absolute value of the curvature of (C) computed by the "plane" formula
x
_y x
y_
Kplane =
:
3=2
2
2
jx_ + y_ j
plane xOy), the formula of the curvature of a space curve Kspace =
68
Dierential Geometry of Surfaces
9.1
Representations
A surface (in a general sense) is a set ( ) of points in Euclidean space whose

position vectors obey an equation of type:
( ) : r(u; v) = x(u; v){ + y(u; v)j + z(u; v)k; (u; v) 2 A
R2 ;
that is, r = r(u; v); or, equivalently,

8
< x = x(u; v);
y = y(u; v);
( ):
:
z = z(u; v):
(36)
This is called the parametric representation of ( ); while u and v are called

the parameters (or the curvilinear coordinates) of the representation.
We will denote the partial derivatives of r(u; v) by indices, as follows:
r1 =
@r
@2r
@2r
@r
; r2 =
; r11 =
; r12 =
etc.
2
@u
@u
@u
@u@v
A point of M the surface is called regular, if, at M; r1 and r2 exist and

their cross product is nonzero:
r1
r2 6= 0
(that is, the two vectors are nonzero and non-collinear). A point of the surface
which is not regular is called a singular point.
Other description of a surface is
( ) : z = z(x; y);
(37)
which is called the explicit Cartesian equation. At regular points, z has to

be (continuous and) dierentiable.
Finally, a surface or a fragment of surface can be represented also as:
F (x; y; z) = 0;
(38)
which is called the implicit Cartesian equation. At regular points, F

has to be dierentiable and to obey the condition:
(Fx0 )2 + (Fx0 )2 + (Fx0 )2 > 0;
i.e., at least one of the partial derivatives Fx0 ; Fy0 ; Fz0 has to be nonzero.
69
If the functions which describe the surface are dierentiable of some class
1 at some point, we say that the surface is of class p at that point.
Example: For the elliptic paraboloid z = x2 + y 2 (! explicit representation), we have

the implicit representation: x2 + y 2
z = 0:
a parametric representation is x = u cos v; y = u sin v; z = u2 ; or, in vector

form,
~r(u; v) = u cos v~i + u sin v~j + u2~k:
9.2
Curves on a surface
Let (S) be a surface of class p
1 in the representation
r = r(u; v);
(39)
and P 2 (S) a regular point. A curve (C) on (S) is dened by establishing a

link between the parameters, for instance:
u = u(t); v = v(t); t 2 A
R;
(40)
or, as well,
v = v(u) or u = u(v) or h(u; v) = 0:
(41)
A peculiar importance have the curves u = u0 (constant) and v = v0 (constant), called coordinate curves; they compose a grid, such that through every
point P (u = u0 ; v = v0 ) of (S); there passes exactly one curve of each family,
namely: ( u ) : v = v0 ; (C2 ) : ( v ) : u = u0 :
coordinate curves (
70
u );
v)
In other words, P represents the intersection point of the coordinate curves

v = v0 and u = u0 ; the situation is similar to the one in the plane xOy; where
M (x0 ; y0 ) lies at the intersection of the straight lines x = x0 and y = y0 ; there,
(x0 ,y0 ) were called rectilinear (or Cartesian) coordinates. This similarity is what
gives us the right to call u and v; curvilinear coordinates on (S):
Let now P denote a point of an arbitrary curve (C) (S); represented as
in (40). That is, along (C); the position vector is r = r(u(t); v(t)): Then, the
tangent vector at P to (C) is
r =
@ r du @ r dv
dr
=
+
= r1 u_ + r2 v;
_
dt
@u dt
@v dt
(42)
@r
@r
; r2 =
: This relation points out that
@u
@v
actually, the tangent vector r is coplanar with r1 and r2 :
where we used the notations r1 =
Example: For the coordinate curves to a surface r = r(u; v), we have:

( u ) : (u = t; v = const:) ) u_ = 1; v_ = 0 and ( v ) : (u = const:; v = t) )
u_ = 0; v_ = 1: Therefore, the tangent vectors to the coordinate curves v = const
@r
; similarly, the tangent vectors to the coordinate curves u = const
are r1 =
@u
@r
are r2 =
:
@v
If P 2 (S) is a regular point, then, at P; the two vectors r1 and r2 are nonzero
and non-collinear (since r1 r2 6= 0). Hence, together with the point P , they
uniquely dene a plane P: Moreover, by (42), we conclude that all tangent lines
to curves through P belong to this plane.
Exercise 69 Describe the coordinate curves of the surface: ~r(u; v) = cos u ~i +
sin u ~j + v~k: Also, nd the implicit Cartesian equation of the surface and recognize it.
9.3
Tangent plane and normal line at a regular point
Denition 29 The tangent plane at a regular point P (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ) 2 (S) is the

plane which contains the tangent lines at P of all curves on (S); passing through
P:
71
tangent plane to a surface

Suppose that P corresponds to u = u0 ; v = v0 : As shown above, the tangent
plane is actually the plane which passes through P and contains the directions
r1 and r2 : That is, its equation is:
x x0
@x
(u0 ; v0 )
@u
@x
(u0 ; v0 )
@v
y y0
@y
(u0 ; v0 )
@u
@y
(u0 ; v0 )
@v
z z0
@z
(u0 ; v0 )
@u
@z
(u0 ; v0 )
@v
= 0:
(43)
The normal line at a regular point P 2 (S) to (S) is the perpendicular

through P to the tangent plane of (S) at P: Since the vectors r1 ; r2 belong to
the tangent plane at P to (S), it follows that the normal vector to the surface
at P is
!
N = (r1 r2 ) j(u0 ;v0 ) :
(44)
The unit surface normal at the point P is:
!
N
r1 r2
!
n = ! =
:
kr
r2 k
1
N
(45)
Example: Consider the surface (S) : x = u cos v; y = u sin v; z = hv (the

helicoid ):
72
Determine the tangent plane and the normal line at the point A(1; 0; 0):
The point A corresponds to the values u0 = 1; v0 = 0 of the parameters.
We have: ~r1 = cos v~i + sin v~jjA = ~i; ~r2 = u sin v~i + u cos v~j + h~kjA = ~j + h~k:
Then, the tangent plane is described by the equation:
x
1
0
1 y
0
1
z
0
h
= 0;
or
hy + z = 0: The surface normal vector at A is the normal vector of this

~ (0; h; 1); the unit surface normal is ~n 0; p h ; p 1
plane, hence N
;
1 + h2
1 + h2
and the equations of the normal line are:
x
1
0
y
z
= :
h
1
If (S) is given by in implicit form (38):

F (x; y; z) = 0;
then the equation of the tangent plane to the surface (S) : F (x; y; z) = 0 at a
regular point P (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ) 2 (S) is:
(x
x0 )Fx0 (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ) + (y
y0 )Fy0 (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ) + (z
z0 )Fz0 (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ) = 0: (46)
!
The surface normal N ; which is also denoted by gradF (and called the gradient
of F ), is
!
N gradF (Fx0 ; Fy0 ; Fz0 )j(x0 ;y0 ;z0 )
(47)
Exercise 70 Find the tangent planes and the corresponding normal lines to the
surface:
(S) : ~r(u; v) = u cos v~i + u sin v~j + u~k; at A(u = 1; v = 0):
Find the implicit equation of the surface, recognize and draw it.
Exercise 71 Find the tangent planes and the corresponding normal lines to the
surfaces:
1) (S) : x2 + y 2 + z 2 R2 = 0 (the sphere with centre O and radius R) at a
point A(x0 ; y0 ; z0 ) 2 (S);
2) (S) : z = x2 y 2 (the "saddle"), at A(1; 1; 0):
73
9.4
First fundamental form. Applications

Consider a surface
(S) : ~r = ~r(u; v)
a
of class p 1; (C) : u = u(t); v = v(t); a curve on (S) and a regular arc AB

of the curve (C); corresponding to the values t 2 [a; b] : A(t = a); B(t = b):
a
We intend to calculate the length of the arc AB
(S): Taking into account
that AB is an arc of a spatial curve, its arc length is dened by the integral
Rb
r(t) dt.
a
We have r = ~r1 u_ + ~r2 v,

_ hence:
2
= r r = (r1 r1 )u_ 2 + 2(r1 r2 )u_ u_ 2 + (r2 r2 )v_ 2 :
Denoting
2
E = r1 r1 = kr1 k ; F = r1 r2 ; G = r2 r2 = kr2 k ;
(48)
we get:
2
= E u_ 2 + 2F u_ v_ + Gv_ 2 ;
(49)
This leads to the formula of the arc length of a curve on (S):

L
AB
Zb p
=
E u_ 2 + 2F u_ v_ + Gv_ 2 dt:
(50)
Moreover, from (49), we can see that the arc length element of the curve (C)
is
ds2 = Edu2 + 2F dudv + Gdv 2 :
(51)
Denition 30 The di erential quadratic form ds2 in (51) is called the rst
fundamental form of the surface (S):
Other applications of the rst fundamental form are to the calculus of angles
between curves on the surface and areas of regions of ( ):
1) The angle between two intersecting curves (C) and (C ) on (S);
is, by denition, is the angle between the tangent lines to (C) and (C ) at their
common point.
To this aim, let us consider the curves (C) and (C ) given on (S) by
(C)
(C )
: u = u(t); v = v(t)
: u = u (t ); v = v (t ):
If P 2 (C1 ) \ (C2 ) is a common point, then, there holds

74
Proposition 31 The angle

cos
=p
E u_ 2
between two curves on (S) is given by:
E u_ u_ + F (u_ v_ + u_ v)
_ + Gv_ v_
p
2
2
+ 2F u_ v_ + Gv_ E u_ + 2F u_ v_ + Gv_
(52)
Example: If (C) are (C ) the coordinate curves u = const: and v = const:;

then u_ = 0; v_ = 0; which means that ~r = ~r2 v_ and ~r = ~r1 u_ : It follows that
the angle between the coordinate curves is
cos
~r1 ~r2
F
=p
;
k~r1 k k~r2 k
EG
(53)
2) The area A( ) of a regular fragment ( ) of the surface (S) is

Z Z p
EG F 2 dudv;
(54)
A( ) =
U
where U R2 is the domain of the values (u; v) corresponding to the fragment

( ): The expression
p
d = EG F 2 dudv
(55)
is called the area element of the surface (S); and represents the area of a
small (innitesimal) "curvilinear parallelogram" of the surface ( ); determined
by two pairs of neighboring coordinate curves.
Exercise 72 For the cone ~r(u; v) = u cos v~i + u sin v~j + u~k; v 2 [0; 2 ); u 2 R;
determine:
a) its rst fundamental form;
b) the length of the curve u = 1 between the points corresponding to v0 = 0
and v1 = ;
c) the angle of the curves u = 1 and u + v = 1;
d) the area of the curvilinear parallelogram built on the curves: u = 1; u = 2;
v = 0; v = :
2
75
10
10.1
Vector Spaces
Denition and examples
Informally speaking, a vector space (or a linear space) is a set of objects (generically called vectors) that may be scaled and added according to some rules;
these objects can be numbers, (geometrical) free vectors, matrices, functions
etc. The theory of vector spaces provides a powerful tool for other branches of
mathematics, such as: geometry, analysis, dierential equations, coding theory.
Let V 6= ? denote a non-empty set, and (K; +; ) a commutative eld. Let
us dene two operations:
+:V
V ! V; (u; v) ! u + v;
(internal operation on V ) which will be called vector addition and

K
:K
V ! V; ( ; v) ! v;
(external operation) called further, scalar multiplication.

Denition 32 (V; +;
K)
is called a vector space over K if:
1. (V; +) is an Abelian group, that is:

(a) V is closed under vector addition: 8 u; v 2 V : u + v 2 V ;
(b) vector addition is associative: for all u; v; w 2 V , we have u + (v +

w) = (u + v) + w;
(c) vector addition is commutative: 8v; w 2 V : v + w = w + v;
(d) vector addition has an identity (a neutral) element: 90 2 V; such that

v + 0 = v, 8v 2 V ;
(e) any element v 2 V admits a symmetric (or an additive inverse)
( v) 2 V such that v + ( v) = 0:
2. the scalar multiplication
has the following properties:
(a) V is closed under scalar multiplication: 8 2 K; 8v 2 V : v 2 V ;

(b)
K is distributive w.r.t. vector addition: 8 2 K; 8u; v 2 V :

v) = u + v;
(c)
K is distributive w.r.t. the addition in K: 8 ;

( + )v = v + v;
(u +
2 K; 8v 2 V :
(d) scalar multiplication is compatible with multiplication in K ("associativity"): 8 ; 2 K; 8v 2 V : ( v) = ( )v;

(e) the neutral (identity) element 1 2 K is an identity element for scalar
multiplication: 8v 2 V : 1v = v:
76
The elements u; v; ::: 2 V are called vectors, while the elements ; ; ::: 2 K
are called scalars.
Rules of computation in vector spaces:
1. Scalar multiplication with the zero vector 0 2 V gives the zero vector:
8 2 K : 0 = 0:
2. Scalar multiplication by the scalar 0 2 K gives the zero vector:
8v 2 V : 0v = 0:
3. No other scalar multiplication leads to the zero vector: if
either = 0; or v = 0:
v = 0; then
4. The result of scalar multiplication ( 1) is the additive inverse of the vector:

8v 2 V : ( 1)v =
v:
If the eld of scalars K is R; then the vector space is called a real vector
space; if K = C; then V is called a complex vector space.
Examples of vector spaces:
1. Take K = R; and Rn = fx = (x1 ; x2 ; :::; xn ) j xi 2 R; i = 1; ng; the set
of all ordered n-uples of real numbers, and the operations:
x = (x1 ; x2 ; :::; xn ) 2 Rn
! x + y = (x1 + y1 ; x2 + y2 ; :::; xn + yn )
y = (y1 ; y2 ; :::; yn ) 2 Rn
and
x = (x1 ; x2 ; :::; xn ) 2 Rn ! x = ( x1 ; x2 ; :::; xn ):
Then, (Rn ; +; R ) is a vector space, called the real coordinate space Rn :

This is perhaps the most important example of vector space; especially,
the cases n = 2 and n = 3 are important for Geometry.
2. Let K be a eld and Mm n (K) the space of m n-type matrices with
entries aij 2 K. Then, (Mm n (K); +; K ) is a vector space over K: In
particular, for K = R; (Mm n (R); +; R ) is a real vector space.
3. The set K[X] of all polynomials with coe cients in a eld K is a vector
space over K:
77
4. The set F(I) of all real-valued functions dened over an interval I
R;
F(I) = ff j f : I ! Rg;
with the usual addition and scalar multiplication of functions,
(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x);
( f )(x) =
f (x); 8x 2 I;
2 R;
is a real vector space.

5. ("the last, but not the least"), the set E3 of all free vectors a in space,
with the usual addition (e.g., using the parallelogram rule) and scalar
multiplication is a real vector space.
Exercise 73 Consider V = (0; 1) and K = R: We dene the operations:

u; v 2 V ! u v = u v
2 R; v 2 V !
v=v :
Prove that (V; ; ) is a vector space over R:
10.2
Subspaces in a vector space
Let (V; +;
K)
denote a vector space.
Denition 33 A non-empty subset S of V is called a subspace in V if S; together with the operations + and K of the space V; restricted to S, is a vector
space.
In order to check that a subset of a vector space is a subspace, one has the
following criterion:
Criterion 34 A non-empty set S of a vector space (V; +;
and only if:
K)
is a subspace if
1. for any u; v 2 S; the sum u + v belongs to S and

2. for any scalar
2 K and any vector u 2 S; we have:
u 2 S:
The above criterion is equivalent to:

Criterion 35 A non-empty set S of a vector space (V; +;
and only if:
8 ; 2 V; 8u; v 2 S : u + v 2 S:
78
K)
is a subspace if
This is, a subspace is a subset of a vector space which is closed under addition
and scalar multiplication, or, equivalently, under formation of linear combinations.
Exercise 74 Prove Criterion (35).
Examples:
1) For any space (V; +; K ), the sets f0g and V represent subspaces of V:
Let us check the above statement:
For S = f0g; we have: 0 + 0 = 0 2 S and
S = f0g is a subspace.
0 = 0 2 S; 8
2 K: Hence,
For S = V; there holds: 8 u; v 2 V : u + v 2 V; that is, V is closed under

addition. Also, by the denition of a vector space, V is closed under scalar
multiplication: 8 2 K; 8 u 2 V : u 2 V; which proves the statement.
Exercise 75 Prove that the solutions of the system:
x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 0
x1
3x3 = 0
(56)
form a vector subspace of R3 :

Exercise 76 Prove that the solutions of the system
x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 1
x1
3x3 = 2
(57)
do not constitute a vector subspace of R3 : This is, if in the system (56) we

change the free terms, then solution set of the system does no longer represent
a vector subspace.
Exercise 77 Prove that, in the space of polynomials (C[X]; +; C ); the set
Pn = ff 2 C[X] j f = an X n + an
1X
n 1
+ :::: + a1 X + a0 g
of all polynomials of degree at most n, is a vector subspace.

Exercise 78 Consider a vector space (V; +;
Prove that:
K)
and two subspaces U; S
the intersection U \ S is a subspace of V ;

the sum U + S = fu + s j u 2 U; s 2 Sg is a subspace of V ;
the union U [ S is generally not a subspace (nd a counterexample!).
79
V.
10.3
Subspace spanned by a subset of a vector space
Assume that (V; +; K ) is a vector space and U V a non-empty subset. Then,

the set of all nite linear combinations of elements in U; namely
[U ] = f
1 u1
+ ::::
n un
2 K; ui 2 U; i = 1; n; n 2 N g
is a vector subspace of V; called the subspace spanned by U; or simply, the

span of U: U is called a spanning set (a set of generators) for [U ]:
Moreover, it can be proved that [U ] is the "smallest" subspace of V which
contains U
that is, it is contained in any other subspace containing U:
In particular, if U = fu1 ; u2 ; ::::; un g is a nite set, then its span [U ] is simply
the set of all linear combinations of its elements:
[U ] = f
1 u1
+ ::::
Examples:
1) Take U = f(1; 2); (3; 4)g
n un
2 K; i = 1; ng:
R2 : Then,
[U ] = f (1; 2) + (3; 4) j ;
2 Rg = f( + 3 ; 2 + 4 j ;
2 Rg:
2) If U contains only one vector U = fug; then the subspace spanned by U

consists of all multiples of u :
[U ] = f u j
2 Kg:
Exercise 79 Prove that the following subsets of R3 are subspaces and nd a

spanning subset for each of them:
1. S1 = f( ; 2 ; 3 ) j 2 Rg;
2. S2 = f( + ;
;2 ) j
2 Rg;
3. S3 = f(x1 ; x2 ; x3 ) j x1 + x2 = 0; x1
10.4
2x3 = 0g:
Linear dependence and independence
Consider a vector space (V; +;
K)
and a subset U
V.
Denition 36 A set U of vectors in V is called:

linearly dependent if one of the vectors of U can be written as a nite
linear combination of other vectors of U ; for instance
un+1 =
1 u1
+ :::: +
80
n un ;
2 K; ui 2 U ;
linearly independent if none of the vectors of U can be written as a

linear combination of other vectors in U:
For instance, the vectors u = (1; 0); v2 = (0; 1); w = (1; 2) in R2 are linearly
dependent, because w is a linear combination of u and v:
w = u + 2v
Still, in practice it would be hard to guess whether and which of the vectors
of a set U could be written as a linear combination of the others. This is why
we will use the following criterion:
Criterion 37 The vectors u1 ; u2 ; :::un 2 V are linearly independent if and only
if the equation
1 u1 + 2 u2 + :::: + n un = 0;
(with the unknowns
n = 0:
1 ; ::;
2 K) has the unique solution
Remark 38 An innite set U

of U is linearly independent.
= ::: =
V is linearly independent if any nite subset
Exercise 80 Which of the following systems of vectors in R2 are linearly independent:

1. u = (1; 2);
2. u = (1; 2); v = (3; 1);
3. u = (1; 2); v = (3; 1); w = (4; 1)?
Exercise 81 Prove that, in a vector space (V; +;
a system consisting of one vector fvg
v 6= 0;
K)
V is linearly independent ()
two vectors u; v 2 V are linearly dependent if and only if one of them is a

multiple of the other, that is, there exists an 2 K such that v = u:
81
10.5
Basis and dimension of a vector space
Suppose (V; +;
K)
is a vector space.
Denition 39 A subset B =
6 ? of V is called a basis of V if:
1. B is linearly independent;
2. B spans the entire space V : any v 2 V can be written as a nite linear
combination of elements of B :
v=
where e1 ; :::; en 2 B;
1 ; :::;
1 e1
+ ::: +
n en ;
2 K:
Example (the standard basis in Rn ): Take, in Rn ; B = fe1 ; :::; en g;

where:
8
e1 = (1; 0; 0; :::; 0)
>
>
<
e2 = (0; 1; 0; :::; 0)
:
:::
>
>
:
en = (0; 0; 0; :::; 1)
The above dened set B is a basis of Rn ; called the standard or the canonical
basis.
Let us check that B is indeed a basis:
linear independence: the equality
1 (1; 0; :::; 0)
which is, (
1 ; ::::;
n)
1 e1
+ :::: +
+ :::: +
n en
n (0; 0; ::::; 1)
= 0 means:
= 0;
= (0; 0; ::::; 0):
the "spanning property": Let v = (v1 ; v2 ; :::; vn ) 2 Rn be arbitrary. Then,

the equation
v = 1 e1 + ::: + n en
has the solution 1 = v1 ; :::; n = vn ; that is, v can indeed be written as
a linear combination of e1 ; ::::; en 2 B:
Properties:
1. Any non-zero vector space admits at least a basis. From now on, when
referring to vector spaces, we will only mean non-zero ones.
2. Any linearly independent system of vectors can be completed up to a
basis( , can be included in a basis).
3. From any spanning set of a vector space, one can extract a basis.
82
That is, we can summarize the situation in the following way:

linearly independent set
basis
spanning set.
(58)
A vector space which admits a basis B consisting of a nite number of vectors

is called a nite-dimensional vector space.
For nite-dimensional vector spaces, there exists a "shortcut" for proving
that a certain set is a basis. Namely, it relies on the notion of dimension of a
vector space.
Theorem 40 If V is a nite-dimensional vector space, then any two bases of
V have the same number of vectors. This number is called the dimension of
the vector space V :
n = dim V:
Example: The dimension of Rn is n (since the standard basis has n vectors).
From (58) we can now infer:
Theorem 41 If V is a vector space of dimension n; then any set consisting of
precisely n linearly independent vectors of V is a basis of V:
Example: In R2 ; the vectors u = (1; 2) and v = (2; 1) are linearly independent (prove it!); since the dimension of R2 is 2, we get that fu; vg is a basis of
R2 :
Exercise 82 Prove that the vectors u = (1; 0; 0); v = (1; 2; 0) and w = (1; 2; 3)
form a basis of R3 :
Another important property of bases is the following:
Theorem 42 Consider a nite dimensional vector space (V; +; K ) and denote
by B = fe1 ; e2 ; :::; en g a basis of V: Any vector x 2 V admits a unique representation:
x = x1 e1 + x2 e2 + ::: + xn en ;
(59)
with x1 ; :::; xn 2 K (scalars). The scalars x1 ; :::; xn are called the coordinates
of x with respect to the basis B (in the basis B).
Proof. Let x 2 V be arbitrary. The "spanning property" in the denition
of a basis insures the existence of the scalars x1 ; :::; xn 2 K such that x =
x1 e1 + x2 e2 + ::: + xn en :
Let us prove the uniqueness of this representation: if x01 ; ::::; x0n 2 K is
another set of scalars with x = x01 e1 + x02 e2 + ::: + x0n en :
83
Subtracting the above equalities, we are led to:

0 = (x1
x01 )e1 + ::: + (xn
x0n )en :
Since e1 ; :::; en are linearly independent, we get x1 x01 = ::: = xn x0n = 0;

q.e.d.
Once the basis B is xed, the column matrix having as entries the coordinates
of some vector x 2 V in the basis B;
0
1
x1
B x2 C
B
C
X=B . C
@ .. A
xn
is called the coordinate vector of x 2 V:
Example: If B = fe1 ; :::; en g is the standard basis of Rn ; we have shown

above that for any x = (x1 ; x2 ; :::; xn ); we have x = x1 e1 + :::: + xn en ; which
means that, with respect to the standard basis, the coordinates of a vector x 2 Rn
coincide with its components. The coordinate vector X is, in this case, precisely
the transpose matrix xt :
For instance, the vector v = (1; 3) 2 R2 has, with respect to the standard
basis, the coordinates
1
X=
:
3
10.6
Changes of bases
Let (V; +;
K)
denote a nite-dimensional vector space and

B = fe1 ; ::::; en g;
B 0 = fe01 ; :::; e0n g
two bases of V . Then, any vector x 2 V admits a unique decomposition

x = x1 e1 + :::: + xn en
with respect to B; and a unique decomposition
x = x01 e01 + :::: + x0n e0n
with respect to B 0 :
The problem which arises is obviously the following: which is the relation
between the two sets of coordinates of x; namely, between
0
1
0 0 1
x1
x1
B x2 C
B x02 C
B
C
B
C
X = B . C and X 0 = B . C?
@ .. A
@ .. A
xn
x0n
84
In order to answer this question, we decompose, one by one, the vectors of

the "new" basis B 0 in terms of the basis B: We get:
e01
e02
e0n
= s11 e1 + s21 e2 + ::: + sn1 en

= s12 e1 + s22 e2 + ::: + sn2 en
:::
= s1n e1 + s2n e2 + ::: + snn en ;
with sij 2 K; i; j = 1; :::; n:

The matrix S = (sij )i;j=1;n ; having as columns the coordinate vectors of
e01 ; :::; e0n respectively, in the basis B; is called the matrix of change of bases
from B to B 0 : We denote
S
B ! B0 :
Then, we get
x=
n
X
x0j e0j =
j=1
On the other side, x =

xi =
n
P
j=1
n
X
j=1
n
P
x0j
n
X
sij ei
i=1
n
X
i=1
0
@
n
X
j=1
sij x0j A ei :
xi ei ; since this decomposition is unique, we get:
i=1
sij x0j ; or, in terms of matrices, X = SX 0 : We have thus proved:
Proposition 43 If S is the matrix of change of bases from B to B 0 ; then the

corresponding sets of coordinates of a vector x 2 V are related as follows:
X = SX 0 :
The matrix of change S is always invertible, hence we can also write
X0 = S
X:
Exercise 83 Take B1 = fe1 = (1; 1; 1); e2 = (1; 1; 0); e3 = (1; 2; 3)g and B2 =
fe01 = (0; 1; 1); e02 = (1; 0; 0); e03 = (3; 2; 1)g
a) Prove that B1 and B2 are bases of R3 :
b) Find the expression of the vector x = (2; 2; 1) in the bases B1 and B2 :
S
c) Find the matrix of change B1 ! B2 and check, for the vector x above, the
relation X = SX 0 :
d) Find the matrices of change from the standard basis B to B1 and B2 : What
do you notice? Why?
85

LADG Lecture Notes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

LADG Lecture Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Linear Algebra, Analytic and Dierential

2 Equations of Lines and Planes in Space

9 Dierential Geometry of Surfaces

Geometric (Spatial) Vectors

Addition and scalar multiplication

On the set E3 ; we will dene the following operations:

2. Scalar multiplication: the vector a is dened by:- the same direction

3) The zero vector 0 is a neutral (or identity) element:

Exercise 1 Prove the above stated properties of the addition of vectors in E3 :

2 R) only admits the trivial solution

B) For three vectors a; b; c; linear dependence means:

Exercise 3 Prove that:

C) In the case of four vectors a; b; c; d, linear dependence is characterized

Let us make the following remarks.

Example: If A(2; 3; 4); B(0; 1; 2); then:

Dot (scalar) product of two vectors

Denition 6 Consider a; b 2 E3 : The dot (inner, scalar) product a b is the

is the smallest angle between the directions of a and b ()

2 (0; 180o )):

1. the dot product is commutative: a b = b a:

3. The unit vector having the same direction and orientation as a is

4. the length of the projection of a onto b is given by prb a =

Exercise 5 Take A(1; 2; 3); B(2; 4; 5); C(3; 0; 4): Determine:

Cross (vector) product of two vectors

Denition 7 The cross product of a and b is a vector, denoted a

direction: perpendicular to both a and b;

is the smallest angle between the

the vector product

4. if a and b are non-zero, then a b = 0 , a is collinear to b:

Application: The length of a b can be interpreted as the area of the

Box product of three vectors

2 R such that the vectors a(1; 2; 3); b(2; 0; 2) and c(4; 4; )

Equations of Lines and Planes in Space

Let fO; {; j; kg denote a Cartesian frame in space.

The above equation is called the equation of the plane through

Cz0 ). This relation

Exercise 14 Write the equation of the plane:

Remark 11 Suppose that M; v1 and v2 are known. If P (x; y; z) is an arbitrary

are coplanar. This is equivalent to the fact that

In Cartesian coordinates, this is equivalent to the relations:

Exercise 15 Write the equation of the plane:

Equations of a straight line in space

(the canonical equations of a line in space).

If, in (4), we denote the common value of the ratios by t we get

(the parametric equations of a line).

Actually, 0 in a denominator means that also the corresponding numerator

The equations of the axes Oy and Oz can be obtained in a similar manner.

Let us determine the canonical equations of this line.

product N1 N2 : Since we are interested only in its direction, we can take

Another useful notion is that of sheaf of planes. If a line (d) is described

; this can be written simply as

Angles and distances in space

3. the distance between a point M (x0 ; y0 ; z0 ) and a plane ( ) : Ax +

jAx0 + By0 + Cz0 + D0 j

4. the minimum distance between two skew (=non-coplanar) lines

minimum distance between skew lines

Exercise 18 Take A(2; 1; 3); B(1; 2; 3); (d) :

1. the distances dist(A; B); dist(A; (d)); dist(A; ( ));

2. passing through the point O(0; 0; 0); perpendicular to (

: x + y + z = 3 and containing the line (d) :

Exercise 20 Find the parameters

such that the line

is contained in the plane x + y + z = 3:

Coordinate transformations in plane