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TheEmergenceofTranscendentalism
TheemergenceoftheTranscendentalistsasanidentifiablemovementtookplaceduringthelate1820s
and1830s,buttherootsoftheirreligiousphilosophyextendedmuchfartherbackintoAmerican
religioushistory.TranscendentalismandevangelicalProtestantismfollowedseparateevolutionary
branchesfromAmericanPuritanism,takingastheircommonancestortheCalvinismofthe
seventeenthandeighteenthcenturies.InexploringtheirrespectivedeparturesfromCalvinismwecan
begintomapoutthecommongroundthetwomovementsshared.
TranscendentalismcannotbeproperlyunderstoodoutsidethecontextofUnitarianism,thedominant
religioninBostonduringtheearlynineteenthcentury.Unitarianismhaddevelopedduringthelate
eighteenthcenturyasabranchoftheliberalwingofChristianity,whichhadseparatedfromOrthodox
ChristianityduringtheFirstGreatAwakeningofthe1740s.ThatAwakening,alongwithits
successor,revolvedaroundthequestionsofdivineelectionandoriginalsin,andsawabriefperiodof
revivalism.TheLiberalstendedtorejectboththepersisentOrthodoxbeliefininherentdepravityand
theemotionalismoftherevivalistsononesidestooddogma,ontheotherstoodpernicious
"enthusiasm."TheLiberals,inakindofamalgamationofEnlightenmentprincipleswithAmerican
Christianity,begantostressthevalueofintellectualreasonasthepathtodivinewisdom.The
UnitariansdescendedastheBostoncontingentofthistradition,whilemakingtheirownunique
theologicalcontributioninrejectingthedoctrineofdivinetrinity.
Unitariansplacedapremiumonstability,harmony,rationalthought,progressivemorality,classical
learning,andotherhallmarksofEnlightenmentChristianity.InsteadofthedogmaofCalvinism
intendedtocompelobedience,theUnitariansofferedaphilosophystressingtheimportanceof
voluntaryethicalconductandtheabilityoftheintellecttodiscernwhatconstitutedethicalconduct.
Theirswasa"naturaltheology"inwhichtheindividualcould,throughempiricalinvestigationorthe
exerciseofreason,discovertheorderedandbenevolentnatureoftheuniverseandofGod'slaws.
Divine"revelation,"whichtookitshighestformintheBible,wasanexternaleventorprocessthat
wouldconfirmthefindingsofreason.WilliamElleryChanning,inhislandmarksermon"Unitarian
Christianity"(1819)soundedthecharacteristicthemeofoptimisticrationality:
OurleadingprincipleininterpretingScriptureisthis,thattheBibleisabookwrittenfor
men,inthelanguageofmen,andthatitsmeaningistobesoughtinthesamemanneras
thatofotherbooks....WiththeseviewsoftheBible,wefeelitourboundendutyto
exerciseourreasonuponitperpetually,tocompare,toinfer,tolookbeyondtheletterto
thespirit,toseekinthenatureofthesubject,andtheaimofthewriter,histruemeaning
and,ingeneral,tomakeuseofwhatisknown,forexplainingwhatisdifficult,andfor
discoveringnewtruths.22
TheintellectualmarrowofUnitarianismhaditscounterbalanceinastrainofsentimentalism:while
therationalmindcouldlighttheway,theemotionsprovidedthedrivetotranslateethicalknowledge
intoethicalconduct.Still,theUnitariansdeploredthekindofexcessiveemotionalismthattookplace
atrevivals,regardingitasatemporaryburstofreligiousfeelingthatwouldsoondissipate.Sincethey
conceivedofrevelationasanexternalfavorgrantedbyGodtoassurethemindofitsspiritual
progress,theydoubtedthatinner"revelation"withoutpriorconsciouseffortreallyrepresenteda
spiritualtransformation.
Nonetheless,eveninNewEnglandEvangelicalProtestantsweremakingmanyconvertsthroughtheir
revivalistactivities,especiallyinthe1820sand1830s.TheacceleratingdiversificationofBoston
increasedthenumberofdenominationsthatcouldcompetefortheloyaltiesofthepopulation,evenas
urbanizationandindustrializationpushedmanyBostoniansinaseculardirection.Inaneffortto
becomemorerelevant,andtoinstilltheirvaluesofsobrietyandorderinamodernizingcity,the
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Unitariansthemselvesadoptedcertainevangelicaltechniques.Throughfoundingandparticipatingin
missionaryandbenevolentsocieties,theysoughtbothtospreadtheUnitarianmessageandtobind
peopletogetherinanincreasinglyfragmentedsocialclimate.EzraStilesGannett,forexample,a
ministerattheFederalStreetChurch,supplementedhisregularpastoraldutieswithmembershipin
theColonization,PeaceandTemperancesocieties,whileHenryWareJr.helpedfoundtheBoston
PhilanthropicSociety.Simultaneously,Unitarianstriedtoappealmoretotheheartintheirsermons,a
trendreflectedinthenewHarvardprofessorshipofPastoralTheologyandPulpitEloquence.Such
UnitarianpreachersasJosephStevensBuckminsterandEdwardEverett"setthemodelforaminister
whocouldbeliterateratherthanpedantic,whocouldquotepoetryratherthaneschatology,whocould
beastylistandscorncontroversy."23Buttheycamenowhereneartheemotionalismoftherural
EvangelicalProtestants.Unitarianismwasareligionforupright,respectable,wealthyBostoncitizens,
notfortheroughjostleofthestreetsorthebackwoods.TheliberalismUnitariansdisplayedintheir
embraceofEnlightenmentphilosophywasstabilizedbyasolidconservatismtheyretainedinmatters
ofsocialconductandstatus.
Duringthefirstdecadeofthenineteenthcentury,UnitarianseffectivelycapturedHarvardwiththe
electionofRev.HenryWareSr.asHollisProfessorofDivinityin1805andofRev.JohnThorton
KirklandasPresidentin1810.ItwasatHarvardthatmostoftheyoungergenerationof
Transcendentalistsreceivedtheireducation,anditwasherethattheirrebellionagainstUnitarianism
began.Itwouldbemisleading,however,tosaythatTranscendentalismentailedarejectionof
Unitarianismrather,itevolvedalmostasanorganicconsequenceofitsparentreligion.Byopening
thedoorwidetotheexerciseoftheintellectandfreeconscience,andencouragingtheindividualinhis
questfordivinemeaning,UnitarianshadunwittinglysowedtheseedsoftheTranscendentalist
"revolt."
TheTranscendentalistsfeltthatsomethingwaslackinginUnitarianism.Sobriety,mildnessandcalm
rationalismfailedtosatisfythatsideoftheTranscendentalistswhichyearnedforamoreintense
spiritualexperience.ThesourceofthediscontentthatpromptedEmersontorenouncethe"corpsecold
UnitarianismofBrattleStreetandHarvardCollege"issuggestedbytheblandjobdescriptionthat
HarvardissuedforthenewProfessorofNaturalReligion,MoralPhilosophyandCivilPolity.The
professor'sdutieswereto
...demonstratetheexistenceofaDeityorfirstcause,toproveandillustratehisessential
attributes,bothnaturalandmoraltoevinceandexplainhisprovidenceandgovernment,
togetherwiththedoctrineofafuturestateofrewardsandpunishmentsalsotodeduce
andenforcetheobligationswhichmanisundertohisMaker....togetherwiththemost
importantdutiesofsociallife,resultingfromtheseveralrelationswhichmenmutually
beartoeachother....interspersingthewholewithremarks,shewingthecoincidence
betweenthedoctrinesofrevelationandthedictatesofreasonintheseimportantpoints
andlastly,notwithstandingthiscoincidence,tostatetheabsolutenecessityandvastutility
ofadivinerevelation.24
PerryMillerhasarguedpersuasivelythattheTranscendentalistsstillretainedintheircharacters
certainvestigesofNewEnglandPuritanism,andthatintheirreactionagainstthe"palenegations"of
Unitarianism,theytappedintothegrittierpietisticsideofCalvinisminwhichNewEnglandculture
hadbeensteeped.TheCalvinists,afterall,conceivedoftheirreligioninpartasman'squestto
discoverhisplaceinthedivineschemeandthepossibilityofspiritualregeneration,andthoughtheir
viewofhumanitywaspessimistictoahighdegree,theirpietismcouldgiverisetosuchearly,
hereticalexpressionsofinnerspiritualityasthoseoftheQuakersandAnneHutchinson.Millersaw
thattheUnitariansactedascrucialintermediariesbetweentheCalvinistsandtheTranscendentalists
byabandoningthenotionoforiginalsinandhumanimperfectability:
TheecstasyandthevisionwhichCalvinistsknewonlyinthemomentofvocation,the
passingofwhichleftthemagonizinglyawareofdepravityandsin,couldbecomethe
permanentjoyofthosewhohadputasidetheconceptionofdepravity,andthemoments
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betweencouldbefillednolongerwithselfaccusationbutwithpraiseandwonder.25
FortheTranscendentalists,then,thecriticalrealization,orconviction,wasthatfindingGoddepended
onneitherorthodoxcreedalismnortheUnitarians'sensibleexerciseofvirtue,butonone'sinner
strivingtowardspiritualcommunionwiththedivinespirit.Fromthiswellspringofbeliefwouldflow
alltherestoftheirreligiousphilosophy.
Transcendentalismwasnotapurelynativemovement,however.TheTranscendentalistsreceived
inspirationfromoverseasintheformofEnglishandGermanromanticism,particularlytheliterature
ofColeridge,WordsworthandGoethe,andinthepostKantianidealismofThomasCarlyleand
VictorCousin.Undertheinfluenceofthesewriters(whichwasnotadeterminativeinfluence,but
ratheranintroductiontothecuttingedgeofContinentalphilosophy),theTranscendentalists
developedtheirideasofhuman"Reason,"orwhatwetodaywouldcallintuition.Forthe
Transcendentalists,asfortheRomantics,subjectiveintuitionwasatleastasreliableasourceoftruth
asempiricalinvestigation,whichunderlaybothdeismandthenaturaltheologyoftheUnitarians.Kant
hadwrittenskepticallyoftheabilityofscientificmethodstodiscoverthetruenatureoftheuniverse
nowtherebelsatHarvardcollege(theveryinstitutionwhichhadexposedthemtosuchmodern
notions!)wouldturntheammuntionagainsttheirelders.Inan1833articleinTheChristianExaminer
entitledsimply"Coleridge,"FredericHenryHedge,onceprofessoroflogicatHarvardandnow
ministerinWestCambridge,explainedanddefendedtheRomantic/Kantianphilosophy,positinga
correspondencebetweeninternalhumanrealityandexternalspiritualreality.Hewrote:
Themethod[ofKantianphilosophy]issynthetical,proceedingfromagivenpoint,the
lowestthatcanbefoundinourconsciousness,anddeducingfromthatpoint'thewhole
worldofintelligences,withthewholesystemoftheirrepresentations'....Thelaststepin
theprocess,thekeystoneofthefabric,isthedeductionoftime,space,andvariety,or,in
otherwords(astime,space,andvarietyincludetheelementsofallempiricknowledge),
theestablishingofacoincidencebetweenthefactsofordinaryexperienceandthose
whichwehavediscoveredwithinourselves....26
Althoughwritteninahighlyintellectualstyle,asmanyoftheTranscendentalisttractswere,Hedge's
argumentwastypicalofthemovement'sphilosophicalemphasisonnonrational,intuitivefeeling.The
roleoftheContinentalRomanticsinthisregardwastoprovidethesortofintellectualvalidationwe
maysupposeafledglingmovementofcomparativeyoungsterswouldwantintheirrebellionagainst
theHarvardestablishment.
ForTranscendentalismwasenteringtheologicalrealmswhichstrucktheeldergenerationof
Unitariansashereticalapostasyor,attheveryleast,asingratitude.Theimmediatecontroversy
surroundedthequestionofmiracles,orwhetherGodcommunicatedhisexistencetohumanitythrough
miraclesasperformedbyJesusChrist.TheTranscendentaliststhought,anddeclared,thatthisposition
alienatedhumanityfromdivinity.EmersonleveledthechargeforcefullyinhisscandalousDivinity
SchoolAddress(1838),assertingthat"thewordMiracle,aspronouncedbyChristianchurches,gives
afalseimpressionitisMonster.Itisnotonewiththeblowingcloverandthefallingrain."27The
sameyear,inaboldcritiqueofHarvardprofessorAndrewsNorton'smagnumopusTheEvidenceof
theGenuinenessoftheFourGospels,OrestesBrownsonidentifiedwhatheregardedastheodious
implicationsoftheUnitarianposition:"thereisnorevelationmadefromGodtothehumansoulwe
canknownothingofreligionbutwhatistaughtusfromabroad,byanindividualraisedupand
speciallyendowedwithwisdomfromonhightobeourinstructor."28ForBrownsonandtheother
Transcendentalists,Goddisplayedhispresenceineveryaspectofthenaturalworld,notjustat
isolatedtimes.Inasharprhetoricalmove,Brownsonproceededtoidentifythespiritualityofthe
Transcendentalistswithlibertyanddemocracy:
...truthlightshertorchintheinnertempleofeveryman'ssoul,whetherpatricianor
plebian,ashepherdoraphilosopher,aCroesusorabeggar.Itisonlyontherealityofthis
innerlight,andonthefact,thatitisuniversal,inallmen,andineveryman,thatyoucan
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foundademocracy,whichshallhaveafirmbasis,andwhichshallbeabletosurvivethe
stormsofhumanpassions.29
ToNorton,sucharejectionoftheexistenceofdivinemiracles,andtheassertionofanintuitive
communionwithGod,amountedtoarejectionofChristianityitself.Inhisreplytothe
Transcendentalists,"ADiscourseontheLatestFormofInfidelity,"Nortonwrotethattheirposition
"strikesatrootoffaithinChristianity,"andhereiteratedthe"orthodox"Unitarianbeliefthatinner
revelationwasinherentlyunreliableandapotentiallureawayfromthetruthsofreligion.
Thereligionofwhichtheyspeak,therefore,existsmerely,ifitexistsatall,inundefined
andunintelligiblefeelings,havingreferenceperhapstocertainimaginations,theresultof
impressionscommunicatedinchildhood,orproducedbythevisiblesignsofreligious
beliefexistingaroundus,orawakenedbythebeautifulandmagnificentspectacleswhich
naturepresents.30
Despiteitsdismissiveintentandtone,Norton'sblastagainstTranscendentalismisanexcellent
recapitulationoftheirreligiousphilosophy.Thecrucialdifferenceconsistedintherespectaccordedto
"undefinedandunintelligiblefeelings."
ThemiraclescontroversyrevealedhowfarremovedtheHarvardrebelshadgrownfromtheir
theologicalupbringing.Itopenedawindowontothefundamentaldisputebetweenthe
TranscendentalistsandtheUnitarians,whichcenteredaroundtherelationshipbetweenGod,nature
andhumanity.TheheresyoftheTranscendentalists(forwhichtheearlyPuritanshadhangedpeople)
wastocountenancemysticismandpantheism,orthebeliefsinthepotentialofthehumanmindto
communewithGodandinaGodwhoispresentinallofnature,ratherthanunequivocallydistinct
fromit.Nevertheless,theTranscendentalistscontinuedtothinkofthemselvesasChristiansandto
articulatetheirphilosophywithinaChristiantheologicalframework,althoughsomeeventuallymoved
pastChristianity(asEmersondidinevolvinghisideaofan"oversoul")orabandonedorganized
religionaltogether.
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