test of holland's theory of vocational

personalities and work environments

Kristine D. Toomey
Edward M. Levinson
Eric J. Paimer
This study investigated the validity of J. L. Holiand's (1997) theory of vocational
personalities and work environments. The sample consisted of 241 randomly
selected members of the National Association of School Psychologists, each of
whom completed a demographic data form, the Self-Directed Search-Revised
(SDS-R; J. L. Holland, 1994) and a modified short form of the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (D. J. Weiss, R. V. Dawis, G. W. England, & L H. Lofquist, 1967).
Only limited support was found for major constructs associated with Holland's theory,
although the study found several significant relationships between 3-letter SDS-R
codes and desired role function as would be predicted by Holland's theory.

Holland's (1997) theory of vocational personalities and work environments is one ofthe
most well-respected and widely used theories of career development. It is frequently
the basis for the use and interpretation of assessment instruments used by employment
counselors, career counselors, and other professionals. Holland believed that there are
six major personality types and that people and occupations can be categorized according to combinations of these types. Congruence, or the degree of similarity between an
individual's personality and any given work environment, can be determined and can
be used to predict job satisfaction, job performance, and job stability. Differentiation,
or the variability among scores representing each of the personality types, can also be
assessed and influences the prediction of these vocational outcomes. However, there is
empirical ambiguity regarding some of the theory's basic constructs. In a large-scale
meta-analysis, Spokane (1985) reviewed 40 correlation and 23 change studies on
congruence. The overall finding was that congruence was significantly and positively
correlated with academic performance and persistence, stability of choice, perceived
congruence, personality (ego-strength), and job satisfaction. In spite of the relationships, the correlations rarely exceeded .25 to .35.
In response, Assouline and Meir (1987) conducted an analysis of 41 congruence
studies. Results yielded negligible residual variance for studies measuring congruence
stability and congruence achievement, with correlations of .15 and .06, respectively.
In contrast, there was a great deal of variability in congruencesatisfaction

Kristine D. Toomey, Baltimore County Public Schools, Towson, Maryland; Edward M. Levinson, Department of Educationai and School Psychology, Indiana University of Pennsylvania; Eric J. Palmer, Western
Beaver County School District, Industry, Pennsylvania. Correspondence concerning this article should
be addressed to Edward M. Levinson, Department of Educationai and Schooi Psychology, Indiana
University of Pennsyivania, 246 Stouffer Haii, Indiana, PA 15705 (e-maii: emievins@iup.edu).
2009 by the American Counseling Association. Atl rights reserved.
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study results, with the overall correlation falling at .21. When congruence between
an individual's personality code and the modal code for people in his or her work
environment was compared to satisfaction, the mean correlation was .29. The 16
studies that compared a person's personality type and overall occupational satisfaction
yielded a correlation of .21, whereas those comparing interests to within-occupation
specialty yielded a correlation of .42.
Spokane, Meir, and Catalano (2000) reviewed the congruence literature from 1985
to 1999. They concluded that research on congruence needs to be further refined and
research methods need to be improved. However, Tinsley (2000), in his review of the
congruence literature, was more direct and concluded that Holland's (1997) model
lacks validity when it comes to personenvironment fit and needs to be revised.
Many researchers have studied the congruence-satisfaction relationship by
investigating the relationship between the individual and his or her work environment using outcome measures such as job satisfaction. Early studies found
support for the validity of Holland's (1997) model in a single occupation (Doty
& Betz, 1979; Spokane & Walsh, 1978). Holland (1997) summarized the literature on predictive validity by stating that the predictions of occupation from
interest inventories have been "statistically significant and usually moderately
efficient" (p. 103).
However, some recent studies have suggested otherwise. For instance, a study
by Lent and Lopez (1996) found mixed results for the congruence-satisfaction
relationship. Overall findings demonstrated that low congruence was associated
with more satisfaction, which is opposite of what would be predicted by Holland's
theory. Young, Tokar, and Subich (1998) also reported mixed results when they
demonstrated that satisfaction is related to congruence only for certain personality
types and in certain occupations. They found that the relationship was strongest for
investigative types, but not significant for social types. They also found that people
in artistic occupations had the highest congruencesatisfaction relationship whereas
those in realistic settings had the lowest. Finally, Meir and Tzadok (2000) found
that congruence was related to satisfaction when comparing each worker's Holland
code with every other worker's code, but did not find a relationship when congruence was calculated by the traditional method (comparing an individual's code to
an environmental code). Miller, Bass, Wallace, and Cowger (2004) recently provided
evidence contrary to Holland's (1997) model. They found no correlation between
congruence and job satisfaction.
Within-occupation congruence studies seem to have yielded higher congruence
correlations than those at the more general career level. These studies differed
somewhat from the traditional congruence studies in that a person's scores on an
instrument designed to measure interests in specialty areas within an occupation were
compared with the person's actual specialty choice (Meir & Yaari, 1988). Exploring
within-occupational interests is especially important given the diversity in many
occupations and the myriad specialty choices a person has to make throughout his
or her career (Meir, 1988).
In a study within the engineering profession, it was determined that the higher the
individual's preference for the job function that characterized his or her current job.

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the higher the level of job satisfaction (Meir & Erez, 1981). Correlations between .44
and .62 were found between specialty congruence and satisfaction. Similarly, Meir
and Yaari (1988) found that the mean correlation between specialty congruence and
satisfaction was .41, which exceeds the .30 noted by Spokane (1985).
Attempts have been made to investigate the congruence-satisfaction association
over a longer period of time using longitudinal research. A study by Gottfredson and
Holland (1990) found a correlation of .36 between Vocational Preference Inventory
(Holland, 1985) congruence and satisfaction of bank tellers over a 4-month period.
A positive relationship between congruence and satisfaction was also reported in
a similar study with bank tellers in Israel (Meir & Navon, 1992). A study of Dutch
employees also yielded a correlation between congruence and satisfaction and found
that over time, worker profiles tended to fall more in line with their occupation (Feij,
van der Velde, Taris, & Taris, 1999).
Several studies have tested Holland's assumption that individuals will search for
more congruent occupations when changing careers. In one study (Oleski & Subich,
1996), the data suggested that for career changers moving toward a more congruent
occupation, job satisfaction was correlated with congruence at .32 to .33, depending
on the congruence index used.
METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES IN CONGRUENCE STUDIES
In a review of the literature, Arnold (2004) proposed 14 reasons that congruence
studies have yielded either mixed or weak correlations with satisfaction. He categorized these 14 reasons into three categories: changes that may be needed to Holland's
(1997) theory, research methodological problems, and changes in the world and the
way in which individuals approach work. One reason cited by numerous researchers
regarding differing results in congruence studies is the use of discrepant measurement
techniques (Assouline & Meir, 1987; Spokane, 1985). Use of different congruence
measures may also yield different results.
METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES IN DIFFERENTIATION STUDIES
Like congruence, research on differentiation has produced mixed results. A welldefined interest profile has been found to be related to vocational stability (Longthorp
& Pattison, as cited in Holland, 1997). In a study with teachers, differentiation
was correlated with job satisfaction at .19 and was the next best predictor after
congruence (Wiggins, Lederer, Salkowe, & Rys, 1983). In a study by Gottfredson
and Holland (1990), the construct was not supported. Holland (1997) summarized
the research by saying that although differentiation is a weak concept, "successful
investigations have typically included diverse and large samples, an appropriate
design, and standard outcome measures" (p. 148).
Given the ambiguity associated with research on Holland's (1997) theory, particularly the constructs of congruence and differentiation, the study reported in this
article was designed to test aspects of Holland's theory with a heretofore unstudied

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occupation and one similar to employment counseling, that is, school psychology.
The data presented here were collected as part of a broader study by Toomey (2001),
and partial results from that study have been presented elsewhere (Toomey, Levinson, & Morrison, 2008). Specifically, research questions to be answered by the data
presented in this article are as follows:
What is the relationship between congruence and overall, intrinsic, and extrinsic
job satisfaction?
What is the relationship between congruence and intent to remain in the
field?
Are there any significant relationships between scores on the Self-Directed
Search-Revised (SDS-R) and desired role function?
What is the relationship between differentiation of the SDS-R profile and job
satisfaction?
METHOD
Participants
A systematic random sample of 450 full-time, school-based psychologists was selected from
the membership directory of the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP).
instruments
Data form. This form was used to obtain demographic information and respondent
characteristics to assist with identifying correlates of job satisfaction. Additionally,
it elicited participants' responses regarding the actual time they spent in various
roles and the time they desired to spend in various roles (assessment, counseling,
consultation, administrative tasks, clerical tasks, research).
SDS-R {Holland, 1994). This is a self-administered and self-scored measure that
is based on Holland's (1997) theory and is used primarily for career counseling. As
we have reported elsewhere (Toomey et al., 2008), internal consistency reliability of
the SDS-R has been reported to be in the .80s and .90s, for the Activities, Competencies, and Occupations scales. According to information presented in the manual
(Holland, Powell, & Fritzsche, 1994), the SDS-R yielded correlation coefficients
of .90 to .94 for summary scales and .37 to .84 between the two self-estimates.
The test-retest reliability ranged from .76 to .89 for the summary scales. In tests
of concurrent validity, the overall hit rate between high point code and aspiration/
occupation was 54.7%.
The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ; Weiss, Dawis, England, & Lofquist,
1967). The MSQ is a widely used measure of job satisfaction that is based on the
theory of work adjustment postulated by Dawis and associates. The theory of work
adjustment is well-established and well-respected, the result of considerable research
that has been conducted on it (Dawis & Lofquist, 1984; Tinsley, 1993).

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Several versions of the MSQ are available, including a long form, a modified long form,
a short form, and a modified short form. The long form of this instrument contains 100
items that yield intrinsic, extrinsic, and general scales, with internal consistency coefficients of .86, .80, and .90, respectively (Dawis, 1992). Zytowski (1994), in a review of the
MSQ, reported that internal consistency for the 21 scales ranged from .59 to .97 among
27 different norm groups. However, 83% of these coefficients were above .80. Test-retest
was reported as .83 after 1 week, and .61 after 1 year, for the 20 facet scales.
There is also a short form of the MSQ, which is self-administered. The short
form comprises one item from each of the 20 subscales of the long version that
correlated highest within the original sample. A study by Hirschfeld (2000)
demonstrated that the original MSQ short form did not differ significantly from
a revised version and reported excellent alpha coefficients for both versions.
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire-Modified Version (mMSQ; Weiss et ai, 1967).
The original MSQ was first modified by Anderson, Hohenshil, and Brown (1984) to
increase face validity of job satisfaction ratings for school psychologists. Since that
time, the mMSQ has been used extensively in a number of similar studies with school
psychologists (M. B. Brown, 1992; Levinson, 1989; Moore, 1999; Rhodes, 1993; Solly
& Hohenshil, 1986; South, 1990; VanVoorhis & Levinson, 2006). The mMSQ has been
shown to have excellent psychometric properties and concurrent validity (Anderson et
al., 1984; Levinson, 1990, 1991).
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire-Modified Short Form (mMSQ-Short; Weiss et ai,
1967). In the current study, we made modifications in the mMSQ-Short, similar to those
of Anderson et al. (1984) for the mMSQ, for purposes of generalization to the school
psychologist's work environment by changing "boss" to "supervisor" and "company" to
"school system." Additionally, thefive-itemresponse format was changed to a four-level,
Likert-type scale in accordance with previous studies.
Each of the 20 items on the mMSQ-Short represents a job reinforcer and corresponds to a scale on the MSQ long form (Dawis, 1992). Cronbach's alpha was
utilized to estimate the internal consistency of the two scales of the mMSQ-Short.
When analyzed at an item level, the reliability for the Intrinsic scale was .81,
whereas the reliability for the Extrinsic scale was .71. The coefficient alpha for
the Intrinsic, Extrinsic, and Overall scales of the mMSQ-Short was .86.
The overall job satisfaction score on the mMSQ-Short was correlated with a one-item job
satisfaction item on the data form to determine concurrent validity. The Pearson correlation
coefficient was .72 (p< .001), which indicated that the relationship between the mMSQ-Short
and the data form is statistically significant. Previous studies have also yielded statistically
significant correlations with this procedure (Anderson et al., 1984; Levinson, 1989,1990,
1991; Levinson, Fetchkan, & Hohenshil, 1988; Solly & Hohenshil, 1986).
Procedure
The survey materials were distributed and returned by mail. The data collection
process consisted of four steps: initial survey distribution, a postcard reminder, and
two follow-up mailings.

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RESULTS
Response Rate
Although the 450 school psychologists to whom packets were sent was a systematic,
random sample at the time data were collected, only 70.2% (316) of the sample
returned questionnaires. Furthermore, 19 of the respondents indicated that they
did not wish to participate. Fifty-six other surveys could not be used because the
respondents were not working full-time or were not working in the capacity of a
school psychologist. Therefore, the data from 241 respondents were included in the
analyses. As a consequence, the final sample was not wholly representative of NASP
membership at the time of data collection.
Demographics
At the time data were collected, a total of 72.3% of NASP members were women,
but a total of 78.6% of the respondents were women. Therefore, the sample slightly
overrepresented women and slightly underrepresented men. The mean age of the
sample was 42 years, with a range from 26 to 67.1 years.
The sample represented the following NASP geographic regions: North Central
(18.3%), Northeastern (25.3%), Southeastern (23.6%), West Central (15.8%), and
West (17%). These percentages were similar to the regional representation reported
in the NASP population at the time the study was conducted.
Although 25.5% of NASP members held a doctoral degree at the time data were
collected, a total of 15.6% ofthe sample reported that they held such a degree. Thus,
doctoral-level practitioners were slightly underrepresented in the study. Whereas
53.9% of NASP members held either a master's plus 30 hours or a specialist degree
at the time data were collected, 74.3% of respondents reported that they had earned
a 60-hour master's or specialist degree. Hence, the sample slightly overrepresents
master's plus 30 hours and specialist-level practitioners. A total of 10.1% of respondents indicated that they had earned a master's degree.
The mean number of years as a school psychologist for the sample was 8.9, with
a standard deviation of 6.4. Although 46.3% of the NASP population had less than
10 years' experience at the time data were collected, almost 73% of respondents
had served less than 10 years. Hence, the sample slightly overrepresents school
psychologists with less than 10 years of experience.
Congruence-Satisfaction Relationships
Two indices were used to calculate the congruence between individuals and their
work environment. The congruence scores were then correlated with three mMSQShort measures of job satisfaction: Overall, Intrinsic, and Extrinsic scales.
In order to calculate the congruence between each individual's code and the ascertained
modal code of the school psychologist, the lachan Index (lachan, 1984a, 1984b) and

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the Brown and Gore C Index (S. D. Brown & Gore, 1994) were used. The lachan Index
considers all three code letters as well as their relative importance in each pair of codes,
with some pairings receiving weights. The weights range from 1 to 22, with higher scores
representing increasing levels of congruence. Although this index assumes the RIASEC
(Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, Conventional) order, it does not
incorporate the circumplex assumption of Holland's (1997) theory.
The Brown and Gore C Index (S. D. Brown & Gore, 1994) is based on the premise that
three dimensions need to be met. First, the measures need to have symmetrical underlying
distributions so that cases at the upper and lower ends ofthe distribution can be discriminated. Second, they should be able to discriminate among individuals with like but out of
order codes. Third, they should be consistent with Holland's (1997) circumplex model.
Scores for Overall, Intrinsic, and Extrinsic scales measuring job satisfaction were
obtained from each individual's responses on the mMSQ-Short. A correlation coefficient
was calculated to determine the relationship between personality-occupation congruence
and job satisfaction with each of the congruence measures. We used t tests to determine if
there was a statistically significant difference between results with the lachan and Brown
and Gore C indices.
What is the relationship between congruence and overall, intrinsic, and extrinsic
job satisfaction when using the lachan Index? Because SEI and SIE were equally acceptable three-letter codes based on the data, calculations were completed with each
as the modal code. Congruence was calculated with the lachan Index (lachan, 1984a,
1984b) for SEI and SIE. The lachan method for treating ties in scores was used. For
instance, if the code SIA/SIE was compared with the modal code of SEI, congruence
was calculated for SEI and SIA, as well as for SEI and SIE. The average of the two
was used as the congruence measure.
No significant correlations were found between overall job satisfaction on the mMSQ
and congruence with the lachan Index. Correlations were similar when SEI (r = .11,
p = .09) and SIE (r = .12, jo = .06) were used as the modal code. These were much
lower than the levels previously found in meta-analyses on congruence (Assouline
& Meir, 1987; Spokane, 1985). When intrinsic job satisfaction was compared with
congruence, no significant correlations were found. Although there was a statistically significant relationship with extrinsic job satisfaction, it was not meaningful,
because the correlations were not above .16 with any pair.
What is the relationship between congruence and overall, intrinsic, and extrinsic job
satisfaction when using the Brown and Gore C Index? Calculations were completed
with both SEI and SIE as the modal code. The Brown and Gore C Index (S. D. Brown
& Gore, 1994) was also calculated for each protocol. Although the authors did not
stipulate how to deal with ties, the same averaging procedure was applied to allow
for comparison between the two indices.
No significant correlations were found between overall job satisfaction on the mMSQ
and congruence when using the Brown and Gore C Index (S. D. Brown & Gore, 1994).
When SEI was used as the modal code, the correlation was .12 (p - .067). When SIE
was used, the correlation was .03 (p = .635). There were no significant correlations
when either intrinsic or extrinsic job satisfaction was used as an outcome measure.

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What is the relationship between congruence and intent to remain in the field?
There were no significant correlations between intention to remain in the current
position and congruence when measured with the lachan Index (lachan, 1984a,
1984b). There was a statistically significant negative correlation (r = -.22, p < .01)
between the SIE code calculated with the Brown and Gore C Index (S. D. Brown &
Gore, 1994) and intention to remain in the field of school psychology.
Are there any significant relationships between SDS-R seores and desired role function variables? To further investigate the construct of congruence, an analysis was
conducted using SDS-R scores and desired role functions. The relationship between
congruence and job satisfaction was not significant; there were, however, some noteworthy relationships among the SDS-R scores and role function variables. There was
a statistically significant positive correlation between a participant's total Social score
and desired time in counseling (r = .26, p < .001), as well as a negative correlation
with desired time in assessment (r = -.20, p < .01). The total Enterprising score was
also negatively correlated with desired time in assessment (r .27, p < .001) and
positively correlated with desired time in administrative activities (r = .22, p < .01).
Desired time in research was positively correlated with the Investigative (r = .23,
p < .01) and Artistic scales (r = .20, p < .01), whereas the Conventional scale was
positively correlated with desired time in clerical activities (r = .24, p < .001).
What is the relationship between differentiation ofthe SDS-R profile and job satisfaction? To answer this question, the lachan (1984a, 1984b) Differentiation Index
was used to determine the level of differentiation of each SDS-R profile. Then, a
correlation coefficient was calculated to determine the relationship between differentiation and overall job satisfaction.
Differentiation was calculated for each protocol using Iachan's (1984a, 1984b) Differentiation Index and compared with the job satisfaction variables. The correlation between
differentiation and overeJl job satisfaction was statistically significant but not meaningful
(r = .13, p < .05). The correlation between intrinsic satisfaction and differentiation was
not statistically significant. However, the correlation between differentiation and extrinsic
job satisfaction was significant but not meaningful (r = .19, p < .01).
DISCUSSION
Congruence and Job Satisfaction
No significant correlations were found between overall job satisfaction on the mMSQShort and congruence with either the lachan Index (lachan, 1984a, 1984b) or Brown
and Gore C Index (S. D. Brown & Gore, 1994). With the highest correlations falling
in the .11 to .12 range, they were far below the levels previously found in metaanalyses on congruence (Assouline & Meir, 1987; Spokane, 1985). This finding is
consistent with other studies that have failed to find a congruence-satisfaction relationship (Lent & Lopez, 1996; Leong, Austin, Sekaran, & Komarraju, 1998; Miller
et al., 2004). This is especially interesting given that prior studies indicated a strong
congruence-satisfaction relationship for primarily Social types (Assouline & Meir,

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1987) like the group of professionals included in our study. Instead, our results are
similar to findings of a study by Young et al. (1998) wherein no significant relationship was found between congruence and job satisfaction for Social types.
In addition, when intrinsic job satisfaction was compared with congruence, no significant correlations were found. Although there was a statistically significant relationship
with extrinsic job satisfaction, it was not meaningful. It appears that the personality of
school psychologists is rather diverse and job satisfaction at the occupational level is
not related to personality code. In fact, the various correlations between desired role
functioning and personality type suggests that job satisfaction may be more influenced
by the specific role an individual school psychologist has than by the congruence
between his or her personality and the modal code for the profession.
A possibility suggested by numerous researchers regarding the reason for dif-.
fering results among studies is the use of discrepant measurement techniques
for calculating congruence (Assouline & Meir, 1987; Spokane, 1985). Spokane
argued that by using different procedures for measuring congruence, the number
of participants who could be labeled as such varied from 30% to 70%. However,
the criticism of discrepant measurements does not apply to our study because two
different congruence indices were used, and still no significant and meaningful
relationship was found.
When considering the two congruence measures for the modal codes SEI and SIE,
there was a significant correlation for each pair. The lachan Index (lachan, 1984a,
1984b) and Brown and Gore C Index (S. D. Brown & Gore, 1994) yielded correlations of .67 for SEI and .63 for SIE, which is fairly consistent with what has been
reported in the literature. Previous comparisons between the two measures in the
literature yielded correlations of .48 (S. D. Brown & Gore, 1994) and .75 (Young et
al., 1998). There was also a statistically significant difference between the pairs,
depending on the index used.
intention to Remain in the Fieid
There were no significant correlations between intention to .remain in the current
position and congruence as would be predicted by Holland's (1997) theory. There
was, in fact, a statistically significant negative correlation between the SIE congruence code calculated with the Brown and Gore C Index (S. D. Brown & Gore, 1994)
and intention to remain in the field of school psychology. This finding is opposite
what would have been expected based on Holland's theory.
Differentiation of the SDS-R and Job Satisfaction
The correlation between differentiation and overall job satisfaction was statistically
significant; however, it was not meaningful. The correlation between intrinsic job
satisfaction and differentiation was not statistically significant. However, the correlation between differentiation and extrinsic job satisfaction was significant and
does offer some support for Holland's (1997) theory as applied to the occupation of
school psychology. It appears that school psychologists with more clearly defined'

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SDS-R profiles are more satisfied with the external reinforeers of the job. The reason
for this is unclear, however, and warrants further investigation.
Consistent with our study, there are numerous others in which a relationship
between differentiation and overall job satisfaction was not supported (Gottfredson
& Holland, 1990; Nafziger, Holland, & Gottfredson, 1975). Holland (1997) himself
described differentiation as a weak concept.
Limitations of the Study
One factor that may have influenced our results was the choice of instrumentation. A
potential limitation of congruence studies is the choice of outcome measure (Arnold,
2004; Spokane et al., 2000). The mMSQ-Short, rather than the longer version of the
measure was used because of the number of protocols included in the survey packet.
Therefore, there was a smaller sampling of items than would have been the case had
the long form of the MSQ been used. A variety of respondents also expressed dissatisfaction with several of the items on the mMSQ-Short, which may have influenced
responses. Relatedly, a different measure of job satisfaction, or another outcome
measure such as performance, might have produced different results.
Recommendations for Future Research
In light of our findings, the following questions might form the basis for future
research in this area.
1. Would congruence be found at the role function or micro-level of the occupation
if an interest inventory had been devised specifically for school psychologists,
as has been done for other professions (Hener & Meir, 1981; Meir & Engel,
1986; Meir & Erez, 1981)?
2. Would the congruence hypothesis be supported if another personality or job
satisfaction measure had been used?
Future researchers should attempt to answer such questions and should also attempt
to replicate our findings with similar occupations like employment counseling. Would
similar results have been obtained if employment counselors instead of school psychologists had been used in the current study? Caution should be exercised in generalizing
our findings until such studies are conducted. These questions, and limitations of our
study notwithstanding, only limited support for the validity of Holland's (1997) theory
with a heretofore unstudied occupationschool psychologywas provided in this
study. Given these results, employment counselors and others who use assessment
instruments based on Holland's theory, and use the constructs of congruence and differentiation when interpreting and using assessment data, should do so with caution.
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