Professional Documents
Culture Documents
FALSE TEETH
j
I
As COEDITOR
Democratie
Revolution in Print: The Press in France 1775-1800
NEW YORK
LONDON
,,
GEORGE
, WASHINGTON'S
.
FALSE TEETH
ROBERT DARNTON
w
Copyright
2 00 3
by Robert Darnton
x,
detail) :
5 8. 5 in. (23 6 .2
lalla
ISBN 0-393-05760-7
8 9
Ij
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
lX
.2
25
76
89
119
156
137
107
C O N T E N T S
NOTES
175
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
INDEX
193
189
INTRODUCTION
not the least of his battles, and he finally lost it. Having defeated the
British and won the first election to the presidency, he was inaugu
rated in 1789 with one tooth in his mouth, a lower left bicuspid . If
you know how to look, you can see the effects of his losses on the
dental front by inspecting his portraits
the dollar bill, or the famous Stuart of 1796 in which the artist
packed cotton behind Washington's lips to make them look more
natural, but the portrait of 1779 by Charles Willson Peale (see Fig
ure I), which shows the scar on the caved -in area beneath his left
cheekbone, the result, it seems, of a fistula from an abscessed
tooth. Washington was worked over by all the best-known dentists
of the country. He had a large collection of false teeth, made of
everything from elephant ivory, walrus tusk, and hippopotamus
tusk to the teeth of a fellow human . l Nor was he alone in his war
against tooth disease. His contemporaries probably worried more
about the pain in their gums than about the new constitution in
1787. But they were an odd lot, if seen up close.
I N T R O DUC T I O N
Fig.
J.
of inde
and it pub
lishes treatises:
But it adds
I NT R O D U CT I O N
tried to find a way out of the crises by poring over every scrap of
paper produced by the men who had sat in the Constitutional Con
vention. Yet they lived in a different world from ours. Open the
correspondence between Jefferson and Madison, and you will
stumble upon remarks like the following: "The earth belongs
always to the living generation . . . . Every constitution then, and
every law, naturally expires [sic] at the end of 19 years. If it be
enforced longer, it is an act of force, and not of right." 2 If we ven
ture far enough into "the lost world of Thomas Jefferson," as Daniel
Boorstin called it, we are likely to get lost ourselves.
This book provides a guide to the eighteenth century, not to all
of it (that would require a multivolume treatise) but to some of its
most curious, out-of-the-way corners and also to its main concern,
the cause of the Enlightenment. I first imagined writing such a
guidebook long ago while attempting to follow Jefferson through
Paris. His trail led into the lives of Frenchmen who mixed an ide
alistic passion for America with bareknuckled politics in Grub
,
I NTRODUCTION
. .
of the eighteenth century, but each also has some affinity with con
temporary issues, and that poses a problem. "Thou shalt not com
mit anachronism" is the historian's first commandment. We may
break it if we draw connections between the present and the past.
The danger of "presentism," as it is sometimes called, is more insid
ious than it seems. Few historians sift through the past for moral
lessons or imagine Washington as one of us, dressed up in period
costume. But how can we see him except through our own eyes,
looking back through our own time? Is there not a presentist bias
built into the frame of our perception? And how can we get a direct
view of him even when we contemplate the paintings of Gilbert
Stuart and Charles Willson Peale? There is no unmediated access to
the past.
Historians deal with this dilemma by embracing a professional
ethos. They try to reconstruct the past "as it actually was," accord
ing to standards set by Ranke following Thucydides. 3 But this com
mitment comes at a cost, for professional history tends to be
esoteric, and professional historians often write for one another,
cut off from the general public by a protective wall of erudition.
This book is intended to break through that barrier. It is written for
the general educated reader and is meant to provide historical per
spective to current questions such as: Does the adoption of the
euro challenge notions about the identity of Europe? Has the Inter
net created a new information society? Can the obsession with the
private lives of public figures expose fault lines in political culture?
By projecting those questions against an eighteenth-century back
ground, I think it is possible to see them in a new light, while at the
same time enjoying a fresh view of the eighteenth century.
That may sound like unashamed anachronism. I hope, however,
to cope with the presentist element implicit in any picture of the
past by acknowledging it and putting it up front. My argument is
not that the eighteenth century was strange in itself
Washington
,
,
I NT R O D U CT I O N
;0=
.
passeisme.
passeisme
and presentism,
except to shuttle back and forth across the centuries, looking for
fresh perspectives. But that, as I understand it, is the value of his
tory: not to teach lessons but to provide perspective.
I N T R O D U CT I O N
I NT R O D UCT I O N
and his Indians but Hector Saint John de Crevecoeur, the Norman
turned American farmer who passed as an expert on noble savages.
The Web itself is surrounded by a myth, the notion that it ush
ered in a new phase of history, "the information age." In this respect
as well, the eighteenth century offers an opportunity for us to
sharpen our historical consciousness, for it too was an age of infor
mation with media of its own, and they transmitted messages that
can still be picked up from the surviving documentation. On a
good day in the archives , one can even piece together parts of the
communication system through which they flowed . That historical
task coincides with the general goal of this book: to open up lines
of communication with the eighteenth century and, by following
them to their sources, to understand the century "as it actually
was," in all its strangeness.
LIVE
IN
AN
AGE
OF
I N F LATI O N :
I N F LAT E D
M O N E Y,
G E O R G E W A S H IN G T O N ' S
FALSE T E E T H
I
I propose deflation. Let us consider the Enlightenment as a move
ment, a cause, a campaign to change minds and reform institutions.
Like all movements, it had a beginning, a middle, and, in some
places but not others, an end. It was a concrete historical phenom
enon, which can be located in time and pinned down in space: Paris
in the early eighteenth century. Of course it had origins. What
movement does not? They extended back to antiquity and covered
the map of Europe. Cartesian doubt, Newtonian physics, Lockean
epistemology, the cosmologies of Leibniz and Spinoza, the natural
law of Grotius and Pufendorf, the skepticism of Bayle, the biblical
criticism of Richard Simon, the toleration of the Dutch, the Pietism
of the Germans, the political theories and freethinking of the Eng
lish: One could list philosophical sources at length, and many his
torians have done so. But to compile the sources is to miss the
point, for the Enlightenment was less than the sum of its philosoph
ical parts, and few of the
They were men of letters. Only rarely did they develop ideas
undreamed of in earlier generations. Compare Voltaire with Pascal,
Condillac with Locke, Diderot with Descartes, Laplace with New
ton, d ' Holbach with Leibniz . The
on
T H E CASE FOR T H E E N L I G H T E N M E N T :
G E O R G E WA S H I N G TO N ' S F A L S E T E E T H
philosophes,
such as Vico,
philosophes
apart?
Commitment to a cause.
a new
philosophes
repre
G E O R G E WAS H I N G T O N ' S
FALSE T E E T H
Brandes dames in
philosophes,
and
philosophes,
philosophes
concentrated
Encyclopedie
to the pamphlet
philosophes.
philosophe,
sion
philosophe en mis
philosophes
them . Nor does it imply passivity on the receiving end of the mes
sages sent out from Paris and from other transmission points along
the circuits of intellectual exchange. On the contrary, the foreign
ers talked back. Backtalk, personal interaction, mutual exchange of
letters and books kept expanding "the Church," as Voltaire called it.
And the cause carried conviction because the ideas of the philosophes
were
ideesjorces,
G E O R G E WAS H I N G TO N ' S
FALSE T E ET H
monarchy and the prestige of literature had grown apace, but after
1 685
Simon
,
,
,
,
j
,
T H E C A S E F O R T H E E NLI G H T E N M E N T :
G E O R G E WA S H I N G T O N ' S F A L S E T E E T H
La ville
Ia cour
salons
and breathed new life into the libertinism developed during the
seventeenth century. In 1 7 0 6 a twelve-year-old prodigy, Franyois
Marie Arouet, later known as Voltaire, made his debut in the liber
tine society of the Temple. By the death of Louis XIV nine years
later he had established a reputation as the sharpest wit in town,
and the town, or the wealthy, worldly part of it known as
Ie monde,
ertine tracts passed from salon to salon, but they rarely appeared
in print . The first great exceptions were Montesquieu's
Persanes
Lettres philosophiques
Lettres
( 1 734) , Both
Philosophe
philosophe,
Encyclopedie
pendence for the intellectual and at the same time provided him
G E O R G E WA S H I N G T O N ' S
FALSE T E ETH
1 750
to
from Montesquieu's
1 757- 1 76 2 ,
the
1 7 50S
most
the Austria of Joseph II, the Tuscany of the archduke Leopold, the
Spain of Charles III, the Portugal of Joseph I , the Sweden of Gus
tavus III
philosophes
for
T H E C AS E F O R T H E E N L I G H T E N M E N T :
G E O R G E WA S H I N G T O N ' S F A L S E T E E T H
consulted the
Encyclopedie,
ff
subjects.
The point of taking this detour through historicism is not merely
to reduce the Enlightenment to manageable proportions but also to
address the next question, its relevance to issues that arose after the
eighteenth century. The inflated Enlightenment can be identified
with all modernity, with nearly everything subsumed under the
name of Western civilization, and so it can be made responsible for
nearly everything that causes discontent, especially in the camps of
the postmodernists and anti-Westernizers.
II
Whatever our success in shrinking the Enlightenment down to its
true size as an eighteenth-century phenomenon, we cannot deny
that it produced a set of values that remained alive through the cen
turies that followed and that set some societies apart from others.
The nomenclature varies
but taken
together, the contrasting terms point to a dividing line that has long
existed in the collective consciousness. Like most boundaries, it has
provoked conflict. Some have wanted to move it; some, to wipe it
out. Now, however, it may simply disappear without a fight because
a new line has been drawn:
1 989,
before and after the Cold War. We have come to the end of a short
century, which extended from 1 9 14 to
G E O R G E W A S H IN G T O N ' S
FALS E T E ET H
they came into contact with other parts of the world, nor would I
dispute Cook's reputation as a prototypical man of the Enlighten
ment. But Cook showed much respect for native customs, far more
than the conquistadors of the sixteenth century and the imperialists
of the nineteenth. Tragedy could not be avoided in the West-East
and North-South encounters, but it was driven by trade, disease,
and technology rather than by philosophy. Mutual incomprehen
sion certainly compounded the damage. Its cultural dimension was
crucial; but the Enlightenment was not the same thing as Western
culture, and the
philosophes
understand other peoples but also to improve their lot: thus the
T H E CASE FOR T H E E N L I G H T E N M E NT :
G E O R G E WAS H I N GTO N ' S FALSE T E E T H
13
that
dialogues.
Orientalism certainly provided the Westerners with stereo
types that they visited on the East, and the
philosophes contributed
philosophes.
G E O R G E WA S H I N G T O N ' S
FAL S E T E E T H
tetes de Tures
namely, racism.
Candide,
De l'esprit.
philosophes. The
philosophes
T H E CASE FOR T H E E N LI G HT E N M E NT :
G E O R G E WA S H I N G T O N ' S F A L S E T E E T H
15
philosophe,
the
one who put d ' Alembert's "experimental physics of the soul" into
practice in the darkest corners of cruelty. Max Horkheimer and
Theodor Adorno aligned Sade with Kant and Nietzsche in a "dialec
tic of enlightenment" that stretched from Homer to Hitler. Faced
with the disasters of totalitarianism and world war, they questioned
the assumed wisdom of the Left, which associated Enlightenment
with revolution . Instead they argued that the Enlightenment led by
a negative dialectic to what might seem to be its opposite, fascism .
One
can
philosophe.
G E O R G E WA S H I N G TO N ' S
FALSE T E E T H
philosophes
Neveu de Rameau
T H E CASE FOR T H E E N L I G H T E N M E NT :
G E O R G E WA S HIN G T O N ' S F A L S E T E E T H
17
p,
15
5. The
It provided the theoretical basis for the Terror of the French Revo
lution, which in turn pointed the way to the terrors of Hitler and
Stalin. The common element in all three was the attempt to force
the social order to conform to an ideological blueprint.
True, in making his case for the Terror, Robespierre drew on
Montesquieu and Rousseau. Like many other Jacobins, he tried to
redesign France in accordance with political theory. But he also
smashed the bust of Helvetius in the Jacobin Club and railed against
the Encyclopedists, reserving his praise for the one
philosophe,
philosophes.
and the Terror had nothing in common with the ideologies of fas
cism and communism. The crimes committed by twentieth-century
states violated basic principles of the Enlightenment: respect for
the individual, for liberty, for all the rights of man.
But rhetoric about the rights of man exposes the Enlightenment
to a further critique : It says nothing about the rights of women.
And what about animals, the environment, and other causes that
command the attention of the post-Cold War world? Those ques
tions lead to a final accusation.
6 . The
philosophes
champi
T H E CA S E F O R T H E E N L I G H T E N M E N T :
G EO R G E WAS H I N GTO N ' S FALSE T E ET H
III
If I may add some observations of my own, I would stress the
refusal of the philosophes to respect boundaries, either of disciplines
or of nations. Despite their Parisian origins and their proclivity for
French, they lived in a Republic of Letters that was truly cosmo
politan. It had neither borders nor police. It was open to ideas from
everywhere. Yet no one in it, or anywhere else, conceived of the
idea of nationalism. That barbarism began with the wars of 179 2
and the fatal notion of "My country, right or wrong!"
.2.0
lying cry of the Indian revolutionaries who wanted to throw off the
FerinBhee,
is
Casablanca, when
T H E CA S E F O R T H E E N L I G H T E N M E N T :
G EO R G E WAS H I N G TO N ' S FALSE T E ETH
.2 !
before our eyes on the screens of our television sets. How can we
make sense of the drive to die for fantasies like Mother India?
Here is Ajit Singh, a passionate nationalist, haranguing a crowd
at Rawalpindi in
1 90 7 ,
[300,000,000] . They
[ 15' 0,000].
30
crores
A puff of
wind would blow them away. Cannon are of no account. One fin
ger can easily be broken. When five fingers join to make a fist, no
one can break it. (This was given with great emphasis, and flowers
were thrown. )"
One gets the point. But can one "get" the gale of flowers, the
stamping of bare feet, the songs bursting from chests, the small
boys rushing to take oaths in blood, the old men with tears in their
eyes, the lumps in all the throats?
The words remain, the music has gone
who respond to Graves and would add: "Goodbye and good rid
dance! May nationalism die a thousand deaths and never rise again."
Yet there it is, alive and howling all around us, practically within
hearing distance of London, Amsterdam, Paris, and Rome. Is there
any way we can pick up the beat, if not in sympathy, at least with
enough empathy to understand the force that drives it?
One way lies through a reconsideration of our own traditions.
We may be appalled at the patriotic gore spread throughout our
past, but even the most sophisticated of us, at one time or other, has
felt that peculiar lump in the throat.
I underwent an attack of lumpiness myself, I must confess, dur
ing a gUided tour of Independence Hall in Philadelphia a few years
ago. There sat Washington, the guide explained, in that very chair,
in this very room . It was a handsome Georgian chair with an
emblematic sun carved on its back, and Washington was presiding
over the Constitutional Convention of I 7 8 7 . At a particularly diffi
cult moment in the debates, when the fate of the young republic
G EO R G E WAS H I N G TO N ' S
FALSE T E ETH
and Jefferson, at
that moment advising Lafayette during the first phase of the French
Revolution. How much greater than our politicians today. They
were men of the Enlightenment."
I cannot comprehend the rising sun of Japan, and I doubt that
Washington's sun meant much to the Japanese tourists at my side in
Independence Hall . Seen from abroad, the cult of the Constitution
and the Founding Fathers must look like an alien folklore. To be
sure, Washington himself no longer stirs much emotion in Ameri
can breasts. Unlike Lincoln and Roosevelt, he looks too stiff,
propped up in those Gilbert Stuart portraits, jaw firm, lips pursed,
brow ponderous, more an icon than a human being. Icons are for
worshiping, but the iconic Washington worshiped in the United
States is the one that looks out at us from the dollar bill.
Now, the cult of the dollar may not be all bad. Its emotional
range is limited but not lethal . Unlike nationalism, it inspires self
interest rather than self-sacrifice, investment rather than bomb
throwing. And for all its crassness, it is ecumenical; one man's dol
lar is as good as another's. That principle also derives from the
Enlightenment, the branch that runs through Mandeville and
Adam Smith. Enlightened self-interest may not be as lofty as lib
erty, Equality, Fraternity; but it made a new life possible in the
New World for millions of immigrants, and it may ultimately ren
ovate Russia, where the dollar has become the effective currency.
This line of thought has a respectable ancestry. It passed through
French physiocracy, Scottish moral philosophy, and English utilitar
ianism. But it takes us Americans far away from the passions that
T H E CA S E F O R T H E E N L I G H T E N M E N T :
G EO R G E WAS H I NGTO N ' S FALSE T E ET H
.2.4-
energy into the fight against fanaticism. If he seems too foreign for
postmodern America, why not summon up the central figure in our
own political culture? When the crunch comes, we may be able to
face up to the injustices around us by gritting our teeth and remem
bering how hard it Was for Washington to grit his.
..
..
but rather
.26
news
To find out what was really going on, you went to the Tree of
Cracow. It was a large, leafy chestnut tree, which stood at the heart
of Paris in the gardens of the Palais-Royal. It probably had acquired
its name from heated discussions that took place around it during
the War of the Polish Succession ( I 7 3 3- I 7 3 5) , although the name
also suggested rumormongering
(craquer:
nouvellistes de bouche,
or
A N
E A R LY
T H E N EW5 I N PAR I 5 :
I N FO R M AT I O N SOCI ETY
.2.7
important evidence, I
:u
G E O R G E WAS H I N G TO N ' S
FALSE TEETH
nouvellistes of
(nouvel
monkey
nouvelliste draws a
believe, but the kind that calls for especially critical interpretation) :
He was "tall and fat, a full face, round wig, and a brown outfit .
Every morning he goes from house to house asking, in the name of
his mistress, 'What's new?"', The servant wrote the first entries for
A N
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T H E N EWS I N PA R I S :
I N FO R M AT I O N SOCI ETY
.2.9
G E O R G E WA S H I N G T O N ' S
FALS E T E ETH
30
up shops of their own, and those shops spawned other shops, so that
by
1 7 50
an
nouvelles a 1a main.
D E C R J\.
Ull
"
i: !:f:l''!:.. Crac)'1o'/
A N
In
E A R LY
T H E N EWS I N PA R I S :
I N FO R M A T I O N SOCI ETY
3f
trade.6
Anecdotal as they are, these examples show that news
(nouvelles)
oral,
roi,
Ie secret du
arcana imperii,
ttr"
G E O R G E WAS H I N G TO N 1 S
FALSE T E ET H
,lu....--.
-
_
__ .....
.,.
J
,
,",'
,
"-
'-;
.\
" ,\
,
'.
'.
,
A N
E A R LY
T H E N EWS I N PAR I S :
I N FO R M AT I O N SOCI ETY
33
de France. Why should it care if the king has performed the ritual of
foot-washing for some poor folk whose feet weren't even dirty? Or if
the queen celebrated Easter in company with the comte d' Artois? Or
if Monsieur deigned to accept the dedication of a book that he may
never read? Or if the Parlement, dressed in ceremonial attire,
harangued the baby dauphin, who was dressed in swaddling clothes?
The people want to know everything that is actually done and said in
the court
taken it into his head to play games with a pearl necklace; if it is true
that the comtesse Diane appoints the generals of the army and the
comtesse Jule the bishops; how many Saint Louis medals the minister
of war allotted to his mistress for distribution as New Year's presents.
It was the sharp-witted authors of clandestine gazettes [nouvelles a 1a
3'7-
G E 0 R G E WA S H I N G T O N ' S
FALSE T E ETH
not
Gazette de Ieyde learned when it tried and failed to cover the most
important political story of Louis XV's reign, the destruction of the
parlements from 1 7 7 1 to 1 7 74.
So newspapers of a sort existed, but they had little news, and the
reading public had little faith in them, not even in the French jour
nals that arrived from Holland . The general skepticism was
expressed clearly in a report from a police spy in 1 746 :
It is openly said that France pays 2 , 000 livres [a year] to Sieur du
Breuil, author of the Gazette d'Amsterdam, which is vetted by the French
representative at The Hague. Besides that, France gives 1 2 ,000 to
1 5" , 000 livres to Mme. Limiers, who does the
money comes from the revenue of the gazettes, which the postal serv
ice sells for 1 7 sous 6 deniers [per copy] to David, its distributor in
Paris, and which he sells to the public for 2 0 sous. When the gazettes
did not appear as usual yesterday, it was said that the minister had had
them stopped.
10
In short, the press was far from free, and it was also underdevel
oped, if you compare it with the press in Holland, England, and Ger
many. The first French daily newspaper, Ie Journal de Paris, did not
appear until 1 7 7 7 . The first German daily had appeared more than a
century earlier, in Leipzig in 1 660. Yet a substantial reading public
had existed in France since the seventeenth century, and it expanded
A N
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T H E N EWS I N PAR I S :
I N FO R M ATI O N SOCI ETY
35
even
WE
TEND
G E O R G E WA S H I N G T O N ' S
FALSE TEETH
36
Media
____
Bruits publics,
Streets, markets,
the coun
rumor, goSSIp
Noulltlks tk bout:,".
bom mots. ""'UVllispropos.
public gardens
Noullt!ks Ii fa ""'in.
Printing shops,
bookstores
Books
(biography. contemporary
hismryl
Homes, libraries,
reading groups
.......
----.. Further Events
+--
'WWWM'O
"
"
""
'_
'
_"',,"
'_
__
_O
W
"
'
"
_0"'. _ _,_ _ _
'
.."""
'
'''
''
'
,,, _,,,,
"'
,,",,',,,,.
du Barry,
"'oW"..,,,
1991) , 189'
A N
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T H E N EWS I N PAR I S :
I N FO R M ATI O N SOCI ETY
37
spread about by some courtiers, which proves that Mme. du Barry has
not lost any favor or familiarity with the king, as some had suspected.
His Majesty likes to brew his own coffee and, by means of this inno
cent amusement, to get some relief from the heavy burdens of gov
ernment. A few days ago, the coffeepot began to boil over while His
Majesty was distracted by something else. 'Hey France! ' called out the
beautiful favorite. ' Look out! Your coffee's buggering off.' [La France,
ton cPJout Ie camp. ] We are told that 'France' is the familiar expression
utilized by this lady in the intimacy of the king's private chambers
mauvais
Second, it turned into a bruit pub
nouvelles a la main,
libelle,
or scandalous book
is a scurrilous
nouvelliste
nouvelliste.
G E O R G E WA S H I N G T O N ' S
FALS E T E ETH
narrative line, which takes the heroine from her obscure birth as
the daughter of a cook and a wandering friar to a star role in a
Parisian whorehouse and finally the royal bed. ' 3
Mairobert did not hesitate to vent his political opinions in telling
his story, and his opinions were extremely hostile to Versailles. In
1749 a police spy reported that he had denounced the government
A N
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T H E N EWS I N PA R I S :
I N FO R MATION SOCI ETY
3'1
Fortunately for the historian, if not for the French, the Old
Regime was a police state
and the
cafes. Of course spy reports and police files should not be taken lit
erally. They have built-in biases, which sometimes reveal more
about the police themselves than the persons they were observing.
But if handled with care, the archives of the police provide enough
information for one to see how oral networks functioned. I should
like to draw on them in order to discuss two modes of communi
cation that operated most effectively in eighteenth-century Paris :
gossip and songs.
mauvais propos,
or insolent talk
1 79
conversations in
380
7 . ) The
29
sam
cafes at that
time, but it indicates the topics and the tone of the talk in cafes
located along the most important channels of communication, as
one can see from the map in Figure
G E O R G E WA S H I N G T O N ' S
FALSE T E ETH
'7-0
A e4 NE.E.. .C H ,
N.D (C LI I'
.'
..
.
"-
At the Cafe de Foy someone said that the king had taken a mistress,
that she was named Gontaut, and that she was a beautiful woman, the
AN
E A R LY
T H E N EWS I N P A R I S :
I N FOR M A T I O N S O C I ETY
1-1
-:--
www.
Cafe de
that
----
.
,
,...
G E O R G E WA S H I N G T O N ' S
FALSE TE ETH
--
--
5 reports
reports
2
reports
report
AN
E A R LY
T H E N EWS I N PA R I S :
I N FO R M AT I O N SOCI ETY
est evil if he had a mistress." "Well, messieurs," another added, "it may
not be a pa sing fancy, either, and a first love could raise some danger
on the sexual side and could cause more harm than good. It would be
far more desirable if he liked hunting better than that kind of thing."I ]
,
l
Fig.
As always, the royal sex life provided prime material for gossip,
but the reports all indicate that the talk was friendly. In I 7 2 9, when
the queen was about to give birth, the cafes rang with jubilation:
"Truly, everyone is delighted, because they all hope greatly to have
a dauphin . . . . In the Cafe Dupuy, someone said, ' Parbleu,
messieurs, if God graces us with a dauphin, you will see Paris and
the whole river aflame [with fireworks in celebration] .' Everyone is
praying for that." I 8 On September 4 the queen did indeed produce
a dauphin, and the Parisians went wild with joy, not merely to have
an heir to the throne but also to have the king in their midst, for
Louis celebrated the birth with a grand feast in the Hotel de Ville
following the fireworks. Royal magnificence choreographed to per
fection in the heart of the city: That was what Parisians wanted
from their king, according to the spy reports: "One of them said [in
the Cafe de Foy] , ' Parbleu, messieurs, you could never see anything
more beautiful than Paris yesterday evening, when the king made
his j oyful entry into the Hotel de Ville, speaking to everyone with
the greatest affability, dining to a concert by two dozen musicians;
and they say the meal was of the utmost magnificence."' I 9
Twenty years later the tone had changed completely:
AN
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T H E N EWS I N PAR I S :
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whelmed with disasters; that the duc de Richelieu was a pimp, who
would crush Mme. de Pompadour or be crushed by her. He promised
to show Sieur Dazemar this book, entitled The Three Sisters. 2 0
What had happened between those two dates,
1 7 2 9 and I 749? A
beautiful, at least ready and eager for sexual adventure. But that is
a delicate subject, so I had better disguise their names and set the
story in Africa.
So: Once upon a time, in the African kingdom of the Kofirans , a
young monarch, Zeokinizul, began to eye the ladies in his court. (If
you
choose
to
unscramble
the
names
KofiransI Frans:ais ,
and ambitious of them all . She too accepted counsel from the
wicked Kelirieu, and she conquered the king so completely that
soon she was ruling the kingdom . Blinded by passion, Zeokinizul
took her with him to the front when he set off to repulse an inva
sion of the Maregins (Germans). His subjects grumbled that kings
should leave their mistresses at home when they did battle. In fact
the attempt to make love as well as war proved to be more than
Zeokinizul's constitution could bear. He fell ill, so deathly ill, that
the doctors gave him up for lost, and the mullahs prepared to give
him the last rites. But it looked as though the king might die
unshriven, because Mme. de Lenertoula and Kelirieu refused to
allow anyone else near the royal bedside. Finally, one mullah broke
into the bedroom. He warned Zeokinizul of the danger of damna
tion. As the price for administering confession and extreme unc
tion, he demanded that the king renounce his mistress. Lenertoula
departed under a volley of insults, the king received the sacra
ments, and then
miracle!
he recovered .
Three Sisters,
The
A N
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T H E N EW5 I N PAR I 5 :
I N FO R M ATI O N SOCI ETY
"17
of the
roi-mane,
1 744,
although I believe he
badly damaged it. My purpose was to suggest the way stories struck
the consciousness of Parisians by the middle of the century.
To modern Americans, the story of the three sisters may
read like an unconvincing blend of folklore and soap opera. But to
eighteenth-century Parisians, it served as a gloss on current events:
Louis XV's brush with death at Metz in August
1 744:
G E O R G E WAS H I N G TO N ' S
FALSE T E ETH
"7-6
1722
1 745 ,
1 740S
by Parisians. Per
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T H E N EWS I N PAR I S :
I N FO R M AT I O N SOCI ETY
doses of tropes. 2 3 I therefore looked far and wide for a book titled
But they all read like a commentary on current events, and they all
condemn the king. The story of "The Three Sisters" as I recounted
it is a faithful synopsis of Les Amours de ZeokinizuI, and it fits the nar
rative line of all the others. 24
The meaning of those novels for their readers can be ascertained
with some accuracy because they all have keys. A collection of keys
is available in the Bibliotheque de l' Arsenal, ms. 7 0 6 7 , and many of
the copies of the novels have keys printed at the end, entered in
handwriting, or inserted in the binding. (See Figure 9 . ) Decoding
with a key, however, turns out to be a less mechanistic process than
you might expect. If you work through a novel with a key in hand,
you find yourself reading Simultaneously at different levels and
reading between the lines. A stilted story can come alive, once it is
found to conceal another, naughtier story, and the inside stories
proliferate as you penetrate deeper and deeper into the text. Some
references are obvious, but others are ambiguous, and some are
unexplained. In fact the keys occasionally contradict one another or
contain manuscript corrections. So reading with a key becomes a
kind of puzzle solving, and the heart of the mystery turns out in the
end to be Ie secret du roi, the private life of the king, which is the ulti
mate mainspring of power. The
libelle of the
G E O R G E WA S H I N G TO N ' S
FALSE T E ET H
50
K1fi",, .
Xoji, .
Xofir."I .
K'lIl1fs .
NodAis
Pemenra/t
I'tpa
Sicirk", .
S,/aml
1
,
Alit-
mand.,
I. D.lC d. Mal...
N
Icalienne.
Rbln.
.M
I.
Daouil.
VantadoDl'.
Pape.
LorraiM.
Meffe
Medleil.
SIJOIlf,
Pm
..
pd.p
Yofoie
Zto!ti1lizul
J.r",.
Zeotti,iUlI
Z,killlrl,,_'.
Maurice Comte
Saxe.
Mr. de Maurepas.
Pompadour.
Touloufe.
l'Efclur.
do
Savoie.
LOllis quinzt'o
Louil treie.
Lows qu:ltone
..
f"" o t<.V,,.,.
.,Y'')
l... J,u.u. v;
d.
(iJiI.
Jt., I 'l"et ".....
.. .....
........
.
..
Sou-Fermien.
Parlel'Ql!Dt.
V;ft, () .
laud.
Gmnaiaa
f!'iImtri'
Due de Cumb....
Romain.
J. TOlimene.
NoaiUes.
VeotimiUt.
M,iOi.
:u.,p
Tefou/oU
Tueska
l'E_gile,
Crebillon..
Re;nn,o/ . .
,s,!t"u
,,
OIInovan
Mia.; (Xatle)
Paris.
Fil.
Frana.
M4rquife.
( L. 1.
Omtrif".fj
Neitil"",.
Nhi, .
M""tt'1I1
uojilnil
wliI,,,,,il ..
Liamil ,
, Liepl/au .
L""d."",,,*
de ) ,
MtlllIiIJr s ..
U"trlolll4 .
K,.in,lbol
I
.,..
..
"If
..
...
...
p,.
..
..
--
..--:-
removed from the raw gossip that coursed through the cafes, but by
1 749: 2 ,
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of some poems that attack her. Does she expect to be praised while she
is wallowing in crime?
Jean-Louis Le Clerc: Made the following remarks in the Cafe de Pro
cope: That there never has been a worse king; that the court, the min
isters and the Pompadour make the king do shameful things, which
utterly disgust his people.
Fran<j:ois-Philippe Merlet: Accused of having said in the tennis court of
Veuve Gosseaume that Richelieu and the Pompadour were destroying
the reputation of the king; that he was not well regarded by his peo
ple, since he was driving them to ruin; and that he had better beware,
because the twentieth tax could cause some mischief to befall him.
Fleur de Montagne: Among other things , he said that the king's extrav
agant expenditures showed that he didn't give a f
that he knows they are destitute and yet he is piling on another tax, as
if to thank them for all the services they have rendered him. They must
be crazy in France, he added, to put up with . . . . He whispered the
.
1ibelles
mauvais propos
and the
52
Tanastes,
roman
Tanastes,
Le Baron de XXX,
Asked what it was that gave her a taste for writing? Hadn't she consulted
someone who was familiar with the composition of books in order to
learn how to go about organizing the ones she intended to write?
Answered that she did not consult anyone; that since she reads a
great deal, this had given her a desire to write; that she had imagined,
moreover, that she could make a little money by writing. . . .
Had she written the book out of her own imagination? Hadn't
someone supplied her with written material to work over?Who was it
that had given [that material] to her?
Replied that no memoirs had been given to her, that she had com
posed her book by herself, that in fact she had fashioned it in her imag
ination. Agreed, however, that having her head full of what people
were saying in public about what had happened during and after the
king's illness, she had tried to make some use of it in her book . ' 7
Once it began to circulate, the book-;and especially the key,
which was printed and sold separately
A N
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53
noises." From talk to print to talk, the process built on itself dialec
tically, accumulating force and spreading ever wider. It is difficult
to follow, owing to the sparseness of evidence about oral exchanges
that occurred 2)"0 years ago. But enough documentation has sur
vived to suggest that by 1 7)"0 the talk of the town had turned deci
sively against the king.
N ow
'
LET S
CONSIDER SONGS.
G E 0 R G E WAS H I N GT O N ' S
FALSE T E ET H
5'7-
at the Foire
T H E N EWS I N PA R I S :
I N FO R M ATI O N SOCI ETY
E A R LY
AN
(,"'.,
_
__
'.
__
/I
'.'#
(" /bU<4
/ F
-:n .
!k-, /#,.w ./'
.
iIr
/jI'7" t;,>P.
J
?
'
. .
Il#7
fi4
/J
55
tL
r/
4- -4
..
-.
/J
h'.o
"4'W_j44 /'
/
__
Un-.
.4:n4
#'mi"2Z"
7 .
/0
',;<;y ,_
JL -
:6i.-
e-#''.
".
/'
.
___
.-
(2./V"1 f\.(J
..
(
'- - ..-
. .
Fig. [0. The police lifted this scrap of paper from a pocket ofthe abbe
Guyard when they frisked him in the Bastille on July 10, [749' The verse was
dictated to Guyard by Pierre Sigorgne, a professor in the University of Paris,
who had memorized a whole repertory of antigovernment songs and poems
and declaimed them to his students. This poem, a burlesque edict by the
Parlement ofToulouse, attacks the recent twentieth tax and various abuses
of power, which it attributes to the immorality of the king as exemplified by
his alTair with the three daughters of the marquis de Nesle. Bibliotheque de
- ._--
5'6
24, 1 749 , the king dismissed Maurepas from the government and
sent him into exile by fettre de cachet. Contemporaries interpreted
Maurepas's fall as a spectacular upheaval in the power system of
Versailles. What had caused it? they asked. The answer, as it appears
in letters and diaries, was unanimous: not political conflict, not
ideological opposition, not questions of principle or policy or even
patronage . . . but songs , and one song, in particular, written to the
tune "Quand Ie peril est agreable": 34-
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57
three companions: thus the "white flowers" in the song. But }leurs
perhaps,
55
ever the tactics pursued at court, the singing in Paris caused the
government serious concern. With the backing of the king, d' Ar
genson organized a campaign to wipe it out. He went into action as
soon as he learned that Parisians had taken up a new song with the
first line "Monstre dont la noire jurie" (Monster whose black fury),
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the police gave up, fourteen arrests from the beginning. Each arrest
generated its own dossier, and each dossier contains new evidence
about the modes of communication. The overall pattern can be seen
in the flow chart on the following page (Figure I I ) .
At first glance, the pattern looks straightforward, and the milieu
seems to be homogeneous. The verse (poem I on the diagram) was
passed along a line of students, priests, lawyers, notaries, and
clerks, most of them friends and all of them young
between six
G E O R G E WA S H I N G TO N ' S
FALSE T E ET H
co
Bonis
medical student
7/4/49
2.
Edouard
!
- - -+
priest
7/ ';/49
Montange
priest
mm"
7/S/49
Dujat
priest
7/ S/49
Hallaire
Guyard
Le Mercier
law student
abbe
abbe
7/9/49
L-
-----' ,,
__
__
l'
7 / 1 0/49
....
.
Jouret
:
:
law clerk
7/9/49
philosophy student
7 1 > 0/49
I
I
I
'
'1#'$-
,..
,
:I ""
Du Chaufour
.,.
7 1 > 0/49
l'
$
*
$
,
ussancourt
priest
7 / 1 2/49
,
,
,
,
.,.
Sigorgne
,
,
professor of
philosophy
7 / 1 6/49
,
,
,
Varmont
student
7 1 2 6/49
"..
j
Maubert
student
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Manjot
LanglOis de
Theret
son of maitre
Guerard
seminary
des comptes
conseller au
student
Grand Consedl
7 / 1 9/49
Maubert
Tranchet
de Freneuse
clerk of notary.
spy
7 / 1 9/49
DuTerraux
clerk
7 / 2 5 /49
Ladoury
law clerk
Fig.
II.
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T H E N EWS I N PA R I S :
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G E O R G E WAS H I N G TO N ' S
FALSE T E ET H
It was at this shameful time that the general scorn for the sovereign and
his mistress began to become manifest, then continued to grow until
the end of the reign . . . . This scorn broke out for the first time in some
satirical verse about the outrage committed to Prince Edward [Charles
Edward Stuart, or Bonnie Prince Charlie, the Young Pretender, who
was arrested in Paris on December 1 0 , 1 748, and expelled from the
kingdom in accordance with the British demands accepted by France
in the peace of Aix-Ia-Chapelle] , where Louis XV is addressed in a pas
sage that compares him with that illustrious exile :
I1
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TH E N EWS I N PA R I S :
I N FO R M ATI O N SOCI ETY
void
Celui qui n'en a nul souci," pointed a finger at the king, clue
cle and the rest join hands and skip around him singing "the farmer
in the dell" or "the cheese stands alone"
A N
Fig.
12.
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T H E N EWS I N PA R I S :
N FO R MATION SOCI ETY
Some verses from the song "Qu'une batarde de catin;' taken from the
abbe Guyard by the police when they searched him in the Bastille. Biblio
theque de I'Arsenal, ms. I l O, fols. 678, 174<).
----
G E 0 R G E WA S H I N G T O N
FALSE T E ETH
66
64 I songs and poems from the period I 745"-1 75" I and 264 that
date from the end of I 748 to the beginning of I H 1 . 46 It seems
clear therefore that the six songs and poems exchanged among the
Fourteen constituted only a tiny fraction of a gigantic repertory,
but they show up everywhere in the chansonniers, along with a host
of other songs and poems on the same subjects. "Qu'une batarde de
catin" appears most often, eight times in all. It can be taken as a
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come directly
IN S T E A D O F CHASIN G
G E O R G E WAS H I N G TO N ' S
FA LSE T E ETH
like that of the police , were to trace a message to its source. It was
the spread of the message that mattered
I would begin with the key phrase La France! Ton ccifeJout le camp.
AN
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T H E N EWS I N PA R I S :
I N FO R M AT I O N SOCI ETY
beneath her courtly veneer, forJout Ie camp was the language of the
brothel, not the court. Similar outbursts of vulgarity occur through
out the book. In fact they constitute its central theme. Anecdotes sur
G E O R G E WA S H I N G TO N ' S
FALS E T E ET H
tion of royal symbols and the person of the king himself. The
scepter, it says, has become as feeble as the royal penis. 50
This was strong language for an age that treated kings as sacred
beings directly ordained to rule by God and invested with the royal
touch. But Louis had lost his touch, as I explained earlier. Anecdotes
same time, it invited the reader to enjoy the frisson of seeing into
the innermost chambers of Versailles, into the secret du roi itself,
even to observe the king between the sheets. For that is where the
great affairs of state were decided: the fall of Choiseul, the partition
of Poland, the destruction of France's judicial system by the chan
cellor Maupeou, everything that would have warranted a banner
headline, if there had been headlines , or newspapers with news. In
each case, as the story went, du Barry filled the king with drink,
dragged him to bed, and got him to sign any edict that had been pre
pared for her by her evil counselors. This kind of reportage antici
pated techniques that would be developed a century later in yellow
journalism: It presented the inside story of politics in Versailles; it
pictured power struggles as what the butler saw; it reduced complex
affairs of state to backstairs intrigue and the royal sex life.
That of course was hardly serious history. I would call it folk
lore. But it had enormous appeal, so much that it is still alive today.
I found the coffee-spilling episode
in a French-Canadian comic
A N
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T H E N EWS I N PA R I S :
I N FO R M AT I O N S O C I E TY
71
M
E
R
f)()lI
PA
OH
P
f
O
J.,{/f D4M
_
__
_
'I.L
/
PP
L
t"
T
7'IXIT SIMPJ./CI
LA FRANCE
LA FlJ4NCE,
7oA/ C4Ft
_
FO'!Ji'-ft.'!
.., } ,
J
.................. .
.......
............ ... .
.. ... .........
. . ...... ..
..
...... ..
. .............. .
..
....
..
..
. .
... ...
. . . ......
.. .
A N
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T H E N EWS I N PAR I S :
I N FO R M AT I O N S O C I ETY
73
G E O R G E WA S H I N G T O N ' S
FALS E T E ETH
True, I don't know how the readers read those books, but I don't
think it extravagant to insist on a quality of reading in general; it is
an activity that involves making sense of signs by fitting them in
frames. Stories provide the most compelling frames. Ordinary peo
ple often find meaning in the booming, buzzing confusion of the
world around them by telling, hearing, and reading stories. The
general readers in eighteenth-century France made sense of politics
by incorporating news into the narrative frames provided by the lit
erature of libel . And they were reinforced in their interpretations
by the messages they received from all the other media: gossip,
poems , songs , prints , jokes , and all the rest.
HAVE REAC H ED
1
J
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T H E N EWS I N PAR I S :
I N F O R M AT I O N S O C I ETY
even poli
of our politicians, just as the French regaled themselves with the Vie
privee de Louis Xv. How can we make sense of it all? Not merely by
reading our daily newspaper but by rereading the history of an ear
lier information age, when the king's secret was exposed beneath
the Tree of Cracow and the media knitted themselves together in a
communication system so powerful that it proved to be decisive in
the collapse of the regime.
TH E
2002
RAISED FUNDAMEN
What
76'
T H E U N ITY O F E U RO P E :
C U LT U R E A N D POLITE N ESS
((
symbols and a system of values. The euro is one of them, but its
value will fluctuate erratically, whereas the values of the Enlighten
ment are rooted deeply in the past.
Which past? Whose past? For the last two centuries Europe tore
itself in pieces; and it is still coming apart at the edges, in Ireland,
Russia, and the Balkans. Many things contributed to its dissolution,
industrial revolutions and class struggles among them. But the most
destructive force, the only one capable of mobilizing masses and hurl
ing them against each other, was nationalism . The quarter century of
warfare that began in I 792 put an end to Europe as a way of life and
a mode of thinking shared by everyone in the educated elite. To make
contact with their common past, Europeans must therefore take a
great leap backward over the nineteenth and twentieth centuries and
reconsider the European dimension of life in the eighteenth century.
Not that anyone would want to revive the Old Regime. At that
time the vast majority of Europeans lived in misery. Most of them
east of the Elbe were serfs ; most to the west lived in a state of intel
lectual serfdom, unable to read or to assert the rational maturity
G E O R G E WAS H I N G TO N ' S
FALS E T E ET H
( 1 768), "I had left London [for Paris] with so much precipitation
that it never entered my mind we were at war with France." The
first stirrings of national sentiment can be detected in Britain and
France during the Seven Years War ( 1 756-1 763), but Samuel John-
T H E U N I TY O F E U RO P E :
C U LT U R E A N O P O L I TE N E 5 5
7.9
G E O R G E WAS H I N G TO N ' S
FALS E TEETH
they took grand tours of their own, living by their wits and the
gullibility of their victims.
Having tramped around Europe with these chevaliers d'industrie in
his youth, Rousseau in The Social Contract condemned the cosmopol
itan as someone who "pretends to love the whole world in order to
have the right to love no one." By contrast in this as in so many other
things, Voltaire embodied the positive variety of cosmopolitanism.
His estate at Ferney on the border between France and Geneva was
the grandest stop on the grand tour. Flanked by busts of Locke and
Newton, he received visitors from every corner of the Continent.-.
and at least three hundred from Britain
that is,
T H E U N ITY O F E U R O P E :
C U LT U R E A N D P O L I T E N E S S
51
turned laughter
Frederick the
G EO R G E WAS H I N G TO N ' S
FALS E T E ET H
and Budapest learned the latest styles by studying dolls sent out
every month from the couturiers of the rue Saint-Honore . Palates
were educated everywhere, thanks to treatises on the new art ofoas
Twelve months from the date of the present, I will pay against this,
my sole [bill] of exchange to the order of the Societe typographique
de Neuchatel the sum of two thousand, five hundred, thirty-nine
livres tournois in specie at the current rate for value received in
merchandise.
F. Courtener
T H E U N I TY O F E U R O P E :
C U LT U R E A N D POLITE N ESS
63
de l'Europe
G E O R G E WA S H I N G T O N ' S
FALS E T E ET H
T H E U N I TY O F E U R O P E :
C U LT U R E A N D P O L I T E N E SS
It took many forms and came from many sources, but it con
verged around one idea that resonated everywhere , happiness.
Europeans came to believe that they should enjoy life on earth
instead of enduring it in order to win a place in paradise after
death . Expanding economies brought the new consumer goods
within the range of many middle-class budgets. Even peasants
enjoyed better conditions : A warmer climate succeeded the
"little ice age" of the seventeenth century ; new crops
potatoes, beets
turnips ,
66"
1 79 3 and 1 84 8 .
Of course I 848 looks impossibly remote in the age of the euro.
Does the age of the Enlightenment have any relevance for the
predicament of Europe in 2 00 2 ? Not directly, but the eighteenth
century can serve as a reminder that the nation was not always a
fundamental unit of existence, and the principles of the Enlighten
ment are still alive today. What else can one invoke if one wants to
protest against intolerance and torture, discrimination and censor
ship, abuses and injustice of all kinds? This argument, however,
seems vulnerable to two objections.
First, the elitist character of the Enlightenment may undercut
commitment to its values. If the Republic of Letters was not demo
cratic, why celebrate its cosmopolitanism as an inspiration for a
democratic Europe? Answer: The Frenchified, aristocratic Europe of
the eighteenth century does not provide a model for the European
Community today. It merely shows that Europeans once felt united
by a common way of life. But could not this sense of participation in
a shared civilization spread to all segments of society? Could not
English serve as a lingua franca today just as well as French did two
centuries ago? It need not obliterate other languages. There is plenty
of room for other varieties of culture to flourish between the
extremes of cosmopolitanism and campanilismo. Elitism provided a
strategy for Voltaire in his fight against l'irifame, but there were other
strategies available at that time, some of them democratic, some
revolutionary, as the French proved in 1 7 8 9 .
Second, the Enlightenment may be accused of Eurocentrism, or
worse : of perpetrating cultural hegemony in the guise of universal-
T H E U N I TY O F E U R O P E :
C U LT U R E A N D POLITE N ESS
57
from the fact that Europe existed as a cultural entity long before it
became a monetary zone. If they heed their history, they will find
grounds for defending human rights
sons, but rather that it shows how the civilizing process entailed a
struggle against barbarism. That struggle still goes on, and Euro
peans still have cause to cry, "Ecrasons l'jrifame. "
THE PURSUIT O F
HA P PINESS: VOLTAIRE
AND JE F FERSON
TH E
IDEA O F H A P P I N E S S HAS B E C O M E S O D E E P LY E M B E D D E D
IN AMERICAN
FROM SIG HT.
C U LT U R E
THAT
IT
SOMETIMES
D I S A P P EA R S
tion that colors a world view, hardly an idea at all. But it took shape
as an idea centuries ago, and if seen from the perspective of the his
tory of ideas, it has a long and impressive pedigree.
It appears among the ancients in the philosophies of Plato and
Aristotle and especially in the thought of the Epicureans and Stoics.
The Epicureans incorporated the concept of happiness into a general
philosophy of pleasure and pain, which led to an ethics of rational
self-interest. The Stoics linked it to withdrawal from the dangerous
hurly-burly of civic life and contentment in the minimal pleasures of
life in Arcadian retreats. "Happy is he who, far away from business,
like the race of men of old, tills his ancestral fields with his own
oxen, unbound by any interest to pay," said Horace in the first cen
tury
B.C.
A.D. 604-, Saint Augustine characterized life on this side of the City
of God as the pursuit of vanity through a vale of tears. His message
corresponded to the human condition as it was experienced by
.90
G E 0 R G E WAS H I N GT O N ' S
FALSE T E ETH
most people for the next thousand years, when men and women
worked the fields in a state of semislavery, ate little more than bread
and broth, and died young. Theirs was an existence best summed up
by Thomas Hobbes's description of life in the state of nature : "soli
tary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short."
By the fifteenth century, however, philosophers were facing a
revived notion of pleasure
the court of the Medici. To be sure, the classical revival was snuffed
out in Florence by Savonarola's bonfire of vanities in 1 497 and in
Rome by the troops of Charles V during the sack of 1 5 2 7 . The ref
ormations and religious wars made happiness as a consummation to
be desired this side of the grave look more unlikely than ever.
But in the eighteenth century the idea of happiness revived once
again, attached to other notions such as progress and prosperity.
The Enlightenment philosophers took happiness to be the end of
man's life as an individual and of sOciety's existence as a collectiv
ity. The most radical of them, Diderot, Rousseau, Helvetius, and
d' Holbach, built the concept of happiness into a modernized Epi
cureanism, reinforced with a strong civic consciousness.
Having reached this point, philosophy in the nineteenth and
twentieth centuries could not turn back, despite the countercur
rents of pessimism stirred up by figures such as Nietzsche and
Freud . Jeremy Bentham's rallying cry, "the greatest happiness of the
greatest number," actually was formulated by two philosophes of the
Enlightenment, Francis Hutcheson in Scotland and Cesare Beccaria
in Italy. Bentham worked it into a philosophy of enlightened
self-interest derived from Epicurus and Lucretius and adapted to
the reform politics of Britain. For Karl Marx, the prophet of social
ist happiness, liberal reforms could never reconcile individual and
collective interests because class interests stood in the way. Instead
Marx imagined happiness as a historical state to be reached at the
end of a dialectical process by society as a whole.
T H E P U RS U I T 0 F HAP P I N ESS :
VOLTA I R E A N D J E FF E RSON
.91
G EO R G E WAS H I N G TO N ' S
FALSE T E ET H
32
;
I
I
I
,
I
T H E P U R S U IT 0F H AP P I N ESS:
VOLTA I R E A N D J E FF E R SO N
.93
34-
FALS E
T E ET H
But Voltaire filled the word "politeness" with a passion that may
escape the twentieth-century eye. The first characteristic Candide
noticed among the inhabitants of the utopian society of Eldorado
was their "extreme politeness." He marveled at their good man
ners, elegant clothing, sumptuous housing, exquisite food, sophis
ticated conversation, refined taste, and superb wit. The king of
Eldorado epitomized those qualities. Like the philosophic Turk at
the end of the book, he "received them with all imaginable grace
and invited them politely to supper." Utopia is above all a societe
tique
tural system of the Old Regime shaded off into a power system, and
the code of polite society belonged to the politics of enlightened
absolutism.
The interpenetration of culture and politics is the main theme of
Voltaire's most ambitious treatise, Le Siecle de Louis XlV ( 1 7 S I ) . This
was a crucial work for eighteenth-century writers, a book that
defined the literary system of the Old Regime and that created lit
erary history in France. In it, Voltaire effectively argued that all his
tory is literary history. Kings, queens, and generals do not count in
the long run, although they attract most of the attention of their
contemporaries and occupy a good deal of Voltaire 's narrative.
What matters above all is civilization. So, of the four "happy" ages
in the history of mankind, the happiest of all was the age of Louis
XlV, when French literature reached its zenith and the politeness
T H E P U R S U I T 0 F H A P P I N ESS :
VOLTA I R E A N D J E F F E RSON
35
Louis XlV. Louis masters the French language by studying the works
of Corneille, he controls the court by staging plays , and he domi
nates the kingdom by turning the court itself into an exemplary
theater. That idea may be a cliche now, but Voltaire invented it. He
saw power as performance, the acting out of a cultural code. This
code spread from Versailles to Paris, to the provinces, and to the
rest of Europe. Voltaire does not deny the importance of armies,
but he interprets the supremacy of Louis XIV as ultimately a mat
ter of cultural hegemony. The script for his conquest at court was
written by Moliere, whom Voltaire describes both as a philosophe
and as "the legislator of the code of conduct in polite SOciety" (Ie ieg
something
uneven,
to. be sure, but one in which barbarism retreats before the forces of
politeness.
Candide finally joins those forces. He becomes a philosophe
not
a false philosopher, like his tutor Pangloss, but a true one, who opts
for engagement instead of withdrawal. His pursuit of happiness, in
the person of Cunegonde, does not lead to a happy ending. When
he finally marries her, she has become ugly and disagreeable. But
the pursuit has taught him to commit himself to something more
substantial: polite society, or the process of civilization.
36
"TH E
P U R S U I T O F H A P P I N E S S"
cans than "We must cultivate our garden" is to the French. It is the
most memorable phrase in the American Declaration of Indepen
dence, the rhetorical climax to Thomas Jefferson's enunciation of
natural rights and revolutionary theory: "We hold these truths to be
self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed
by their Creator with certain inalienable Rights, that among these
are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness."What did Jefferson
mean by "the pursuit of Happiness"? And what does his meaning
have to do with a subject that belongs to the history of mentali
ties
T H E P U RS U I T O F H A P P I N ESS:
V O LTA I R E A N D J E F F E R S O N
37
!Jg
been done for him by his friend George Mason. Mason was the one
who did the most to stretch "property" into "happiness" in the
philosophical deliberations of Virginia's radical squierearchy. Like
Jefferson, Mason had a library packed with the works of philoso
phers, ancient and modern, in Gunston Hall, his country estate.
Having worked through this material while participating in the agi
tation over the Stamp Act, Mason drafted a series of manifestos
about representative government and natural rights. He discussed
them with like-minded country gentlemen
George Washington,
around dinner
.
.
T
' terare entermg
"c ommon sense and "the Amencan mmd" : H
vve
"
T H E P U R S U I T O F H A P P I N ESS:
VOLTA I R E A N D J E F F E R S O N
CJCJ
ritory that the French call the history of mentalities, and that I
should prefer to describe as anthropological history. The American
anthropologist Clifford Geertz has analyzed common sense as a
"cultural system"
mo
G E O R G E WA S H I N G TO N ' S
FALSE T E ET H
T H E P U R5 U IT OF HA P P I N E 55
VOLTA I R E A N D J E F F E R S O N
fOf
G E0 R G E WAS H I N GTO N
FALSE T E ET H
1C1.2
nach Westen. Ever since 1 848 it has seemed that the whole country
has tried to move to California. I am exaggerating, of course,
because the great waves of immigrants who were carried across the
Atlantic during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries
generally washed onto the East Coast and emptied themselves in the
slums between Boston and Baltimore. Many of the poor from Kiev
and Naples never got farther west than the East Side of Manhattan,
although their descendants usually crossed the Hudson and settled
in the suburbs of New Jersey
but on their own plots of land, in houses with gardens and white
picket fences, which turned into the new version of the American
dream . To such people, America really was the land of opportunity,
even if it took two generations to extricate themselves from the
slums , even if suburbia was a far cry from the Oregon Trail .
Thus did the Jeffersonian vision become transformed into the
American dream, a vision that was basically materialistic but that
inflamed imaginations throughout the Old World, where millions
struggled to get out and to get ahead. The dream is still alive today,
although the immigrants generally come from Latin America and
settle in Miami, Houston, and Los Angeles. But its realization
remains an elusive goal to many African Americans, whose ances
tors
were legally
excluded from its pursuit and who provided a living witness to the
tragic flaw in the American dream .
That did not prevent the dream from gathering more force in
the second half of the twentieth century. Technology seemed to
bring happiness within the reach of nearly everyone, because it pro
vided the means of controlling the environment, of enjoying pleas
ure and mitigating pain. The point may be so obvious that we
cannot see it, as we have become insulated from the pains of every
day life that existed in the age of Jefferson. Having read thousands
of letters from the eighteenth century, I often think of the dread of
. .
. -
T H E P U R S U I T 0 F HA PP I N E SS:
V O LTA I R E A N D J E F F E R S O N
- --
103
rotting teeth, the horror of the itinerant tooth puller, the sheer pain
in jaws everywhere in the early modern world. Dentistry may not
look like a particularly noble calling, but it has weighed heavier
than many professions in the hedonistic calculus we have inherited
from Epicurus and Jeremy Bentham.
To dentistry, add medicine in general, vaccination, public
hygiene, contraception, insurance, retirement benefits, unemploy
ment compensation, lightning rods, central heating, air condition
ing. . . . The list could go on forever because it leads through the
endless array of goods we associate with the so-called consumer
society and the services we expect of the "welfare state." I know
that these are hard times for millions of Americans and that my
remarks may sound hollow. But I have spent so much time in the
eighteenth century that I cannot fail to be impressed with how
much control man has gained over his environment in the nine
teenth and twentieth centuries.
The pursuit of happiness in America has spilled over from science
and technology into popular culture, a favorite subject for histori
ans of mentality. The most exotic varieties bloom in Southern
California: hot tubs, "perfect" waves, "deep" massage, fat farms,
love clinics, and therapy of every conceivable kind, not to mention
the happy endings that still prevail in Hollywood. This kind of pop
ular culture can easily be caricatured, but it cannot be dismissed
easily because it has spread throughout the country and now the
world. One encounters the face of "Joe Happy"
smile in it
a circle with a
holes, even, I have found, dotting the i 's in students' papers. Along
with the current greeting
it expresses the
G E O R G E WAS H I N G TO N ' S
FALS E T E ET H
1984, Animai Farm, Brave NewWorld, and dark varieties of science fic
tion. They also have produced a vast amount of pessimistic litera
ture, from Hawthorne and Melville to T. S. Eliot, Kurt Vonnegut,
and John Updike. The Civil War, the closing of the frontier, the
Great Depression, the Beat Generation, and the antiwar activists of
the 1 960s represented so many stages of disillusionment with the
,
,
,
1
1
1I
I
iJ
as a way of life.
:.1
T H E P U R S U IT 0F HA P P I N E SS:
VOLTA I R E A N D J E F F E R S O N
105
me
between the private and the public varieties of happiness that were
incarnated in Voltaire and Rousseau, and back even farther to the
Epicureans and the traditions of antiquity. While remaining rooted
in the Jeffersonian tradition, the American pursuit of happiness
shares promises and problems that have characterized Western
civilization in general.
What to make of it all? The leitmotifs in patterns of culture do
not lead to bottom lines, so I shall not try to end with a firm con
clusion. Instead let me cite two examples of the pursuit of happiness
I recently came upon. The first expresses the technical, commercial,
and individualistic strain. Dr. Raymond West announced a couple of
years ago that ''happiness is a warm stethoscope," and offered a new
invention to an astonished world: a stethoscope warmer, which
would make health checkups more pleasurable and abolish forever
the unpleasurable sensation of "ice cubes on the back."
The second example is less trivial. It expresses the collective end
of the American republic as it was originally defined by Thomas Jef
ferson, and it comes from the inaugural address President Clinton
delivered in January 1 99 3 : "When our founders boldly declared
America's independence to the world and our purposes to the
Almighty, they knew that America, to endure, would have to
change. Not change for change's sake, but change to preserve
America's ideals
5
THE GREAT DIVIDE:
ROUSSEAU ON THE
ROUTE TO VINCENNES
a new coali
107
ms
G E O R G E WA S H I N G TO N ' S
FALSE T E ET H
,
,
i
:
RO USSEAU
O N
T H E
T H E G R EAT D I VI D E :
ROUTE TO V I N C E N N ES
(03
him at his word and with his words and to ask why the question
posed on the road to Vincennes seemed so significant to him . For
Rousseau translated it into personal terms: What is the sense of my
life? What has gone wrong with it? The search for an answer would
lead from his obscure origins to "the contradictions of the social
system"
110
leberry Finn. If it had come from the pen of Voltaire , it would have
turned into a series of insults
fidence man
ROUSSEAU
ON
T H E
T H E G R EAT DI V I DE :
ROUTE TO V I N C E N N E S
fff
Vaussore de Vil
a gaffe
11.2
G E0 R G E WAS H I N GT O N ' S
FALSE T E ET H
married. The two men struggled against the same odds in the same
milieu. As he sweated along the road to Vincennes, Rousseau saw
his friend as a victim of despotism. Years later, when he looked back
on their life together in Grub Street, Diderot saw Rousseau as a
nephew of Rameau.
That last point may be impossible to prove, at least to the satis
faction of the army of Diderot experts. But I see some striking
ROUSS EAU
O N
T H E
T H E G R EAT D I VI D E:
R O U T E TO V I N C E N N E S
113
HAD
T H E P RO G R E S S
G E 0 R G E WA S H I N G T O N ' S
FALS E T E ET H
114-
he
Frankish warriors,
.
1 eness," "urbam'ty," and the beaux-espTIts
H e exconated "taste," "pol't
.
namely,
Diderot.
Rousseau's outburst can be read as an indictment of the Ency
clopedie of Diderot and d' Alembert, which bore the subtitle "Rea
soned Dictionary of the Arts and Sciences." But the Encyclopedists
held together and even prospered for a few years after the publica
tion of the Discourse on the Arts and Sciences. Diderot, released from
prison, saw the first volumes of the Encyclopedie into print and
through increasing storms of controversy. Rousseau continued to
contribute articles. And in the "Preliminary Discourse" to the Ency
ROUSSEAU
O N
T H E
T H E G R EAT 0 I V I D E :
ROUTE TO V I N C E N N ES
115
11C
"Thrown into Ie monde without having the right tone and without
being able to acquire it . . . I pretended to despise the politeness
that I could not practice." Celebrity had transformed the intellec
tual tramp and Grub Street hack into a dancing bear.
In the process, Rousseau lost something: his self, the original
Jean-Jacques of his fabled Geneva. When the sense of loss became
unbearable, he broke with Ie monde. First he changed his dress. He
renounced his wig, his sword, his white stockings, his watch, and
(with the help of a thief) his forty-two fine linen shirts. He refused
to lobby for the royal pension. He quit his job and took up copying
music for a pittance a page. Finally, in April 1 7)6, he left Paris.
Installed with Therese in a cottage prOVided by Mme. d' Epinay in
the park of Montmorency, he began the feverish period of writing
that was to end six years later after the publication of three books
that changed the course of cultural history: La Nouvelle Heloise,
( 1 759), was a passionate protest, which ran on for more than a hun
dred pages, against the suggestion that a theater be established in
Geneva. D ' Alembert had slipped the suggestion into his article on
Geneva in the Encyclopedie, and Rousseau flayed away at it as if it
were the wickedest idea in the wickedest century of history.
Why? Why did this composer of plays and operas fly into a fury
at the seemingly innocent proposal to erect a stage in his home
town? Behind d' Alembert, Rousseau saw Voltaire, who was then
living just outside Geneva; behind Voltaire, he saw Diderot and all
ROUSSEAU
O N
T H E
T H E G R EAT D I V I D E :
ROUTE TO V I N C E N N E S
117
as agents of political
a matter of fraterniz
Heloise ( 1 76 1 ).
When he came to a direct account of political theory in The
not an
115
G E 0 R G E WAS H I N GT O N ' S
FALSE T E ETH
a premonition of Nuremberg
THE
O N LY
DA I LY
N E WS PA P E R
IN
1 780
America
119
(;2. 1
reason, both pure and practical, in the struggle for control of the
collective imagination.
Marie-Jean-Antoine-Nicolas Caritat, marquis de Condorcet,
seems in retrospect to be the last of the philosophes, the incarnation
of the Enlightenment in its final phase. As the successor to d' Alem
bert and a protege ofVoltaire and Turgot, he stood out both as a geo
metrician and as a crusader against all forms of injustice. He also
passed as an expert on America. A friend of Franklin, Jefferson, and
Lafayette, he could claim to be an American himself. In I 7 8 5 he was
made an honorary citizen of "New Haven dans la Nouvelle Yorck," as the
aeois de New-Haven," "un citoyen des Etats- Unis," and "un IIEpublicain." He
was paSSionately pro-American. But his passion was for reason.
Where other Frenchmen peopled their American fantasies with
noble savages and sturdy yeomen, Condorcet saw a problem of
applied mathematics. He claimed that the theory of probability
developed in his Essai sur l'application de l'analyse a la probabilite des
122
G EO R G E WAS H I N G TO N ' S
FALS E T E ETH
T H E C RAZ E F O R AM E R I CA :
C O N DORCET A N D B R I SSOT
1.2.3
which was twice as long, one can see how American themes were
transformed through French sensiblerie.
One example should suffice. In the English Letters, Crevecoeur
observes that because they lived close to nature, Americans
favored a "natural" religion in place of an established church. In
the French Lettres, this religion turned into a version of the
ecstatic deism preached by Rousseau's Savoyard vicar, A two-page
passage, which consisted mainly of observations on the habits of
birds in the English, became a six-page hymn to nature in the
French. The Frenchified American farmer sings along with the birds,
prays in his fields, and retires to a "temple of greenery," where he
communes with nature : " , . . Oh! sweet breath of Nature, thou
comest, carried on the wings of zephirs; already thy reason speaks
through the leaves that surround me everywhere." And thus edi
fied, he indoctrinates his children in a sentimental civil religion:
"I lead them into the fields, I teach them to think, to feel as I do;
I plant in their tender hearts the first principles of universal moral
ity, of probity, rectitude, truth, humanity, obedience to the law. . . .
I have composed for them a prayer to God under the name of
Father of Farmers,"9
This was precisely the kind of enthusiasm that set Condorcet's
teeth on edge. Having worn white dresses in honor of the Virgin until
the age of at least eight and then suffered through spiritual exercises
in a Jesuit school, he had contracted a fierce case of anticlericalism
and felt no sympathy for religion of any kind, whether Catholic,
Quaker, or Rousseauian, He had enlisted in Voltaire's church
that
is, in the battle against l'irifame, or religious persecution, and for the
rights of man. He aligned himself with the older generation of
125
I I
But to
reach Lafayette in the salon of the Hotel d' Enville, one had to walk
past Houdon's bust of Condorcet, stationed on a marble table.
ac
T H E e R AZ E F O R A M E R I CA :
C O N DORCET A N D B R I SSOT
1.27
as
G E O R G E WA S H I N G TO N ' S
FALSE T E ET H
Etats- Unis reads like a political tract. France should export wool
rather than silk textiles and copper rather than silver utensils to
America, Brissot and Claviere argued, because luxury goods were
incompatible with republicanism: "People governed by a free con
stitution are necessarily grave and reflective. In the articles of
everyday life, they prefer things that are good to things that are bril
liant, solid things to things valued merely because they happen to
be in style. As long as the free Americans [the Gallo-Americans
insisted on terms like "free Americans" and "free America" to dis
tinguish the United States from the colonial territories of the New
,
1.2'l
on equality
"Look upon
DO
Mercure. 24
The most outspoken of all the Gallo-American publications was
a short book by Brissot, Examen critique des voyaOes dans I'Amerique
people.
To judge from the Examen, the public would think that Chastellux
and Crevecoeur had engaged in a major debate about the nature of
society, and sensitive readers would know where to find the truth:
"Even if I did not know M. de C. [Crevecoeur] , even if I had not
read his soul a hundred times, I would be able to form a judgment
merely by reading your two books. The soul alone dictated his.
Yours proves that you have a great deal of wit, but it is with the soul
that one must judge republicans, men of pure morals, and such are
the Quakers."26
By suggesting that African Americans were inferior to whites,
Chastellux had failed to heed the call of nature, "that good mother
who wants us all to be equal, free, and happy." And by denigrating
the American common people, he had reinforced the subjugation of
T H E e R AZ E FOR AM E R I CA:
CON DORCET A N O B R I SSOT
131
"revolting,
lated Correspondance litteraire. But the Journal de Paris did not entirely
ignore the polemics stirred up by the book. In November and
December 1 786 it printed an exchange of letters that further helped
to defme the issues dividing the two camps. The first letter, signed
G E O R G E WA S H I N G T O N ' S
FALSE T E ET H
T H E e R AZ E FOR A M E R I CA :
C O N DORCET A N D B R I SSOT
133
Raynal and Mably, who perpetrated wild ideas about the state of
nature along with potentially damaging misinformation about the
effectiveness of the state governments and the conditions of trade.
When J. -N. Demeunier asked for help on his article about the
United States for the Encyclopedie mhhodique. Jefferson spent many
hours weeding out inaccuracies. Even so, the article retained far
too much fantasy for Jefferson's taste : "He has left in a great deal of
the abbe Raynal, that is to say a great deal of falsehood."33 Mazzei
intended his Recherches historiques to be an antidote to such roman
ticizing. In a letter to James Madison, he explained its origins as fol
lows: "Abbe Raynal had for a long time been getting on my nerves,
and abbe de Mably's Observations [Observations sur Ie nouvernement et les
G E O R G E WA S H I N G T O N ' S
FALSE T E ETH
ously: "You are made to legislate for us, because for us you are men
from the Golden Age . . . . Ah, Monsieur, your land is the promised
land . . . . How happy would I be to exist in such a fine country,
where I would be a man instead of a slave as I am here."35 Jefferson
worried that such sentiments might provoke a wave of misguided
immigrants. Mazzei tried to counter them by warning that Creve
coeur's Lettres did not provide an accurate picture of American life
and that many Frenchmen had acquired "the most far-fetched ideas
by reading that book."36
Those remarks provoked another round of polemics in I 7 8 8 .
Brissot fulminated against Mazzei in three articles printed by
Mirabeau in his I:Analyse des papiers anglois, a periodical that cham
pioned the favorite themes of the Gallo-Americans. Brissot went
over all of them once more, from the vices of luxury to the virtues
of Quakerism, but he added nothing except vehemence to the
debate : "To attack such a worthy person [as Crevecoeur] is to insult
talent, the human race, sound morals, France, and the American
republics; it is to warrant excommunication from them."37 Con
dorcet took charge of Mazzei's defense. In a letter to the Journal de
135
1 79 3
he sup
ported it. It was not that he was more conservative than they
on
Db
G E O R G E WA S H I N G T O N ' S
FALS E T E ETH
" B U S I N ES S I S B U S I N E S S . "
the refrain echoes across the centuries with a finality that seems to
put everything in place. But what precisely was the place of busi
ness, or rather finance, in prerevolutionary France? I should like
to argue that finance, politics, and ideology intermingled in ways
that defy the conventional dividing lines of history and that
Rousseauism belonged to the scramble for power and lucre on
what would seem to be a most unlikely site, the Parisian Bourse.
Speculation on the Bourse fed directly into sedition against the gov
ernment, as one can see by examining the careers of a financier,
,
137
f3S
(a second child was born in March 1 7 86) crammed into two rooms
and dressed "in rags." But there was no getting around it: Brissot's
dream of winning a respectable place in the Republic of Letters had
ended in Grub Street. He had become a hack, living on literary odd
jobs and the hope that something might turn Up. 2
That something was Etienne Claviere. Claviere had been run out
of Geneva for siding with the radical Representants during the munic
ipal revolution of 1 7 8 2 . He had toyed for a while with the idea of
founding a colony of republican watchmakers in Waterford, Ireland,
and finally had settled in Paris in order to play the stock market.
His account books, now in the Archives Nationales, show that
he was a wealthy man. He had invested 1 , 2 9 3 , 7 7 0 livres in annu
ities (rentes via8eres), which brought in
T H E
P U R
S U I T
R O U S S E A U I S M
O N
0 F
T H E
P R O
F I T :
13.9
B O U R S E
G E O R G E
F A L S E
W A S H I N G T O N ' S
T E E T H
against Brissot's account. Thus, for example, the journal entries for
June 2 0 , 1 78 8 :
2 0 June : Debit cash and credit J. -J. Claviere [Etienne Claviere's
brother and business associate] for the following items, which he paid
on my behalf: 200 livres to War ville [Brissot, who had added "de
Warville" to his surname] ; 200 livres to Warville, 300 livres to
Warville, 1 50 livres to the same . . . .
2 0 June : Debit Brissot de War ville and credit cash for the following
sums paid to him:
3 00
400
300
1 20
2 00
livres for his note to the credit of Verguin on the l Oth of this
month
277
ditto to GaIly
900
240
78
96
3I2
livres ditto at
2 livres 1 9 sols
livres his note to the credit of Lejay on the l Oth of this month
490 2 [total]
T H E
P U R S U I T
R O U S S E A U I S M
O N
0F
P R O F I T :
T H E
B O U R S E
14-1
incendies and the Compagnie des assurances contre la vie. The first,
1<7-.2.
E 0 R G E
F A L S E
W A S H
N G T O N
T E E T H
T H E
P U R S U I T
R O U S S E A U I S M
O N
0 F
P R O F I T :
T H E
B O U R S E
143
11-1-
E 0 R G E
F A L S E
W A S
H I
N G T O N ' S
T E E T H
T H E
P U R S U I T
R O U S S E A U I S M
O N
0 F
P R O F I T :
T H E
B O U R S E
1'7-5
Sur les actions de la Cornpaanie des eaux de Paris. Par M. Ie cornte de Mirabeau
( 1 7 8 5)
The baissiers had got along well with Etienne de Calonne, the
controller general and a key figure in the government in the early
I 7 8 0s, because he had favored low discount rates at the Caisse
d' escompte and moderate dividends for the Banque d' Espagne, the
two companies whose shares were the object of the fiercest specu
lation. But in 1 7 8 5 Claviere and the other bears gambled huge sums
on a drop in the shares of the Compagnie des eaux de Paris, a com
pany that Calonne was trying to shore up. The controller general
had his own reasons for supporting it: He had received 2 3 0 ,000
livres' worth of its shares as a gratification from the king when he
assumed the direction of France's finances in 1 7 8 3 . According to a
report submitted to the National Assembly in 1 79 0 , Calonne had
secretly subsidized the company from the national treasury, first
with an advance of 1 , 2 00 , 000 livres in 1 7 84, and ultimately with
1'7-6
E 0 R G E
F A L S E
W A S H I N G T O N ' S
T E E T H
7 8 5 the shares of the Compagnie des eaux had soared from 800 to
3600 livres apiece. Claviere had contracted to supply a bull specu
lator named Mazois with one hundred shares at 1 , 600 livres in
March 1 7 8 7. To bring the price down, he set Mirabeau's stable of
writers to work on a pamphlet, Sur les actions de la Compaonie des
eaux de PariS, which contained all the usual arguments of the bears.
The company was not a bad thing in itself, they conceded, speaking
collectively as "Mirabeau." It was established to bring drinking
water to Parisians by means of pumps and pipes in place of the old
system of dipping tubs in the Seine. But it would never be prof
itable. The costs of maintaining a steam pump and of laying hun
dreds of leagues of wooden pipe would never be offset by revenue,
and the whole project might be scuttled by a more sensible plan to
supply Paris with water by diverting the Yvette River. In fact, the
enterprise was nothing more than a pretext for the haussiers to
make money by inflating the company's assets so that they could
boost its shares up to 5,000 livres and then dump them on unsus
pecting "fathers of families."14
The argument worked well enough to knock 500 livres off the
share price within a month. It also provoked a counterattack by the
propagandist of the bulls, Beaumarchais, who defended the prof
itability of the company and derided Mirabeau 's "Mirabelles" as a
poor attempt to rescue his patrons among the bears. This mockery
T H E
P U R S U I T
R O U S S E A U I S M
O N
0 F
P R O F I T :
T H E
B O U R S E
14-7
tion, Brissot deployed all the standard arguments of the bear group
G E O R G E
F A L S E
WA S H I N G T O N ' S
T E E T H
and stretched them to the breaking point. Paris did not need a com
mercial fire brigade like that of London, he claimed, because its
houses were made of stone, London's predominantly of wood. Fire
insurance in Paris was a still worse idea, because it would encour
age people to burn down their houses, despite the stone, in order
to collect indemnities. And the potential damage to public moral
ity represented a far greater danger than the physical devastation.
Beaumarchais's professional firemen, "vile mercenaries," if they
succeeded in putting out fires, would also extinguish pitie or com
passion, which Rousseau had shown to be the fundamental virtue
that held society together. Volunteer firemen, moved by the suffer
ing of their fellow citizens, constantly replenished society's reser
voir of pitie. By eliminating them, the Compagnie des eaux would
destroy civic virtue. But virtue meant nothing to bull speculators:
"They don't care if they corrupt souls and ossify hearts." Their
stockjobbing represented the very opposite of the democratic,
egalitarian spirit described by Rousseau in his account of republi
can festivals, but amateur firefighting epitomized that spirit: "In this
sacred activity, all social distinctions disappear among the citizens:
magistrates, soldiers, churchmen, artisans, all are merged, all are
linked together." In short, Brissot supported Claviere with the same
kind of Rousseauistic moralizing as he had used against the Genevan
aristocrats in Ie Philadelphien a Geneve, but now he aimed it at Clav
iere's enemies on the Bourse in order to bring down the price of
shares in the Compagnie des eaux. 1 6
Meanwhile Claviere attempted to undercut the company in his
own manner, by promoting the project to supply water to Paris by
diverting the Yvette River and by developing a scheme for a rival
insurance company. The conflict between these speculations came
to a head in July 1 7 86, when the shareholders of the Compagnie
des eaux formally voted to include firefighting and insurance in
their water supply business. Claviere countered this move by arguing
T H E
P U R S U I T
R O U S S E A U I S M
O N
0 F
T H E
P R O F I T
ftf}!
B O U R S E
150
E 0 R G E
F A L S E
W A S H I N G T O N ' S
T E E T H
. . 2 04 livres 1 0
sols." On the previous day, the radical enthusiasts for the American
Revolution in the Gallo-American Society noted in their minutes
that Claviere had been unable to attend a meeting because he had
gone into hiding. They deplored the "persecution" of him, and in a
clear allusion to the Denonciation de l'a8iota8e they voted to support
his "patriotic efforts . . . to spread light concerning various ques
tions of high politics and finance." Politics and finance had finally
been joined, but the juncture took a curious form : While the
Gallo-Americans applauded his patriotism and enlightenment,
Claviere was fighting the government from the Bourse.
The point is worth stressing because Mirabeau's biographers,
following a somewhat misleading account by Etienne Dumont,
have failed to recognize Claviere's crucial role in the production of
the Denonciation de l'a8iota8e, despite the testimony of some
well-informed contemporaries. 2oTo be sure, Mirabeau contributed
a great deal to the success of the pamphlet, if only by putting his
name on it. He had returned to Paris in January 1 7 8 7 , and after fail
ing to receive an important enough appointment by Calonne, he
had decided to attack the controller general openly in a work that
would continue the line of denonciations developed in 1 7 8 6 . But, as
in 1 7 86, he mainly supplied the rhetoric. Claviere and some other
bear speculators, notably Benjamin Panchaud, provided the sub
stance of the argument, using hack writers like Brissot and Gorsas
to compose the text. Brissot alluded to his collaboration only
briefly in his memoirs, but Gorsas published a full account of
the whole operation in
the elder loaned his name for the famous work entitled De l' agio
tage, which some persons have attributed in part to me
and they
are not wrong, at least not concerning the draft of some chapters,
but as to the financial calculations, they belong to Panchaud and
T H E
P U R S U I T
R O U S S E A U I S M
O N
0 F
P R O F I T :
T H E
B O U R S E
t5t
some others : I invoke the testimony of the minister Clavi ere on that
score."
Gorsas went on to explain how he directed the printing, using
family connections and clandestine presses in Troyes: "The copy,
written and dispatched by Panchaud and others, was addressed to
me at the Inn of the Mule c/o the innkeeper, a relative of mine
named Coquet. It was at my residence in Versailles, rue des Bour
donnois, that the precious pack [of printed copies] was delivered. It
was under the very nose of that evil despot Calonne, and despite all
his spies, that I had it sent on to Paris."2 [
The bear group had to resort to such hugger-mugger because
this time, in attacking the bulls, they directed their fire at the gov
ernment itself. To be sure, "Mirabeau" adopted the pose of a
philosopher who condemned all attempts to make money by
manipulating the Bourse instead of by cultivating the earth. But his
indignation fell exclusively on the
aaioteurs,
terme
specula
yes, it is they
15.2.
RG
F A L S E
W A S H I N
T O N ' S
T E E T H
effectively they had scored a hit because they had only caught a
glimpse of one of the greatest scandals in the history of French
3 2 ,500
terme
contracts for
46, 000
9 ,000
more
controller general look like the evil genius behind all the shady
dealings on the Bourse, the embodiment of agiotage. 2 3
This view of Calonne creates a problem because historians have
generally given him a good press. Some have gone so far as to hail
the reform program he presented to the Assembly of Notables as an
eighteenth-century "New Deal." And most would agree that his
measures represented a desperate attempt to save the monarchy
from bankruptcy at a time when the annual deficit had grown
T H E
0 F
P R O F I T :
T H E
B O U R S E
P U R S U I T
R O U S S E A U I S M
O N
15'3
7 8 I , and
1 77 I - I 7 74,
7 8 7- I 7 8 8 .
baissiers.
G E O R G E
F A L S E
W A S H I N G T O N ' S
T E E T H
baisse. The
societe
penser,
think as we do. 2 5
Sometime in mid - I 7 8 9 Claviere tried his hand at a declaration
of the rights of man. His draft included this clause: "The preserva
tion of morals being absolutely necessary for the maintenance of
the social contract, all financial activities in the public sector must
be considered in relation to morality."26 There was no speculation a
T H E
P U R S U I T
R O U S S E A U I S M
O N
0 F
P R O F I T :
T H E
B O U R S E
15'5'
1 96 s .
foreigner who had ever knocked on the library's door, and the man
who opened it, the deputy librarian named Le Maire, gave me a
cordial welcome.
Because the tour began with the town hall and because my French
,
,
j
j
J
,
T H E
5 K E L E T 0 N S
H o w
I N
T H E
H I S T O R I A N S
L O S E T
P L A Y
157
G O D
he
and inherit property. He also agitated against the death penalty and
against slavery. He was a passionate Rousseauist, who had actually
witnessed an abortive revolution inspired by Rousseau's ideas in
Geneva in
156
E 0 R G E
F A L S E
of Letters
WA S H I N G T O N ' S
T E E T H
where he founded
papers from the
77 6 to August I 785,
in the library of Orleans and found this note in Lenoir's hand: "Bris
sot remained in Paris [after his release from the Bastille, where he
had been imprisoned by
1 0, 1 7 84-1 .
I 2 to September
1 800,
T H E
5 K E L E T 0 N S
H O W
I N
T H E
H I S T O R I A N S
L O S E T
P L A Y
153
G O D
as
an honest
and capable civil servant. One might fudge the issue by noting that
"espionage" could involve writing relatively innocent reports about
authors and public opinion. But the Parisians abhorred police spies
well before
used explicit language: Brissot was employed and paid "as a spy for
the police." Thirty -six years later I still find myself disturbed by the
irreducible either/or quality of the question: Either Brissot spied for
police, or he did not. Either Lenoir told the truth, or he was lying.
Orleans was the first stop on a research trip that ended in a truly
great and virtually untapped archive, the papers of Brissot's pub
lisher, the Societe typographique de Neucbatel (STN) in Switzer
land. The STN printed large numbers of pirated and prohibited
books, which it smuggled across the Jura Mountains and sold
everywhere in France. Similar publishers and wholesalers had
sprung up all around France's borders, and they did a huge busi
ness, thanks to the restrictions imposed on publishing within the
kingdom by censorship, the booksellers' guilds, and the book
police. The papers of the STN
account books
are the only ones that have survived from this vast
19
1 9 letters in a
G E O R G E
F A L S E
W A S H I N G T O N ' S
T E E T H
of his biographers, Marat was in prison for having stolen one hun
dred pounds worth of coins and medals from the Ashmolean
Museum in Oxford. As the story went, he had been teaching
French at Warrington Academy, Lancashire, under an alias, Jean
Pierre Le MaItre. He defended himself eloquently at his trial, per
haps by invoking the principle proclaimed in his
Plan de le8islation
1 77 7 .
But it was
wrong. The letter I held in my hand was written from France before
the jailbreak in England. It proved that the whole debate turned on
a case of mistaken identity.
Without meaning to, I had declared Brissot guilty of spying and
Marat innocent of theft. I was pronouncing verdicts about two indi
viduals whom I had never met and who could never defend them
selves because they had died in a far-off revolution two hundred
years ago. Was this a proper exercise of the historian's vocation?
Back to Brissot. Now that I have published all those letters along
with a biographical essay, I realize that I have never stopped living
with the man since
1 96 8 ,
T H E
S K E L E T O N S
H O W
I N
T H E
H I S T O R I A N S
C L O S E T :
P L A Y
fef
G O D
789
and championed
G E O R G E
F A L S E
W A S H I N G T O N ' S
T E E T H
4,000 livres,
a minimal "legitime," from a fortune of more then 1 00,000 livres,
when he died in 1 77 9 . Jacques-Pierre used some of the money, 600
livres , to buy a perfunctory law degree from the University of
Reims but soon abandoned the law for literature. He explained in
his
T H E
5 K
E L E T 0 N S
H O W
I N
C L O S E T
T H E
H I S T O R I A N S
P L A Y
163
G O D
789,
1 965.
Theorie des
178I
1 780,
and they
of which we have
G E O R G E
F A L S E
W A S H I N G T O N ' S
T E E T H
rope,
Courrier de l'Eu
him with some publicity; but he raged at his inability to crack the
T H E
L E T 0 N S
H O W
I N
T H E
H I S T O R I A N S
C L O S
P L A Y
fb5
G O D
Biblio
theque philosophique du Je8islateur and a Correspondance universelle sur
ce qui interesse Ie bonheur de l'homme et de la societe, which was sup
posed to go on indefinitely but stalled after volume 2 . Their titles
suggest high-mindedness, but their contents show them to be noth
ing more than scissors-and-paste jobs. In fact Brissot never wrote
anything of any distinction
[canaille] ,
philosophe,
fbb
G E O R G E
F A L S E
WA S H I N G T O N ' S
T E E T H
T H E
5 K
E L E T
H O W
N S
I N
T H E
H I S T O R I A N S
C L O S E T
P L A Y
167
G O D
to cover their cost with bills of exchange that matured six months
after he received the printed copies . If he could market them fast
enough, he could square his accounts. He wrote the bills on his
Parisian bookseller, E . -M . -P. Desauges, a wily veteran of the under
ground, who collaborated with equally shady characters, such as
Jacques Revol, a smuggler in Lyons, and the Widow La Noue, a
shipping agent with secret stockrooms scattered throughout Ver
sailles. The middlemen had enough expertise to handle their roles
effectively; but, as Brissot described them in his letters, they oper
ated on the principle of honor among thieves , and they had no
honor. In the end, after all sorts of complications and maneuvers,
Desauges refused to accept Brissot's bills of exchange, and Brissot
protested that he had been fleeced by a pack of rogues.
He also had another excuse for failing to pay his bills: the police
had confiscated a shipment of five hundred copies of his
Theorie des
1es
G E 0
R G
F A. L S E
W A S H I N G T O N ' 5
"T E E \' H
liotheque philosophique
Bib
respondance universelle
in volume 5 of the
Cor
Bibliotheque philosophique
friend he had made during the troubles in Geneva, Etienne Claviere. But on July 1 2 , 1 7 84, after he had spent an evening discussing
his crisis with Claviere, the police carried him off to the Bastille. I
calculate his indebtedness at that point as 2 5 , 6 3 6 livres , the equiv
alent of eighty years of wages for an ordinary artisan.
T H E
163
Why did the police imprison Brissot? Not, as he said in his mem
oirs, because of his radical philosophizing, but, as the Bastille
records put it,
"pour libelles"
brush with the police, when he had narrowly escaped the Bastille,
had also been for slander, because he had made some nasty remarks
about the sex life of a salon lady in a pamphlet called
His offense in
1 784
Le Pot Pourri.
attributed to him concerned the sex life of the queen. Brissot had
spent much of
1 783
and
in
9 : 3 0 to 1 0: 3 ."
Did Brissot collaborate on smutty pamphlets like Les Amours de
Charlot et Toinette, Le Passe-temps d'Antoinette et du vizir de Vergennes, La
Naissance du dauphin devoiiee, and Le Diable dans un benitier? Having
170
E 0 R G E WA S H
FALS E T E ET H
TO N
are scattered through the archives at the Quai d ' Orsay, I think it
unlikely. None of the spies linked a specific libel to Brissot, and the
police released him after only two months, whereas they kept
Pelleport behind bars for four years. But as two of his friends
hinted in letters to the STN, Brissot might have helped distribute
some of the pamphlets. And after finding himself betrayed, he may
have told the police everything he knew about Pelleport and the
other London
libellistes. We
question that has been gnawing at me all these years: was Brissot a
police spy? He mentioned confidential contacts with the police sev
eral times in letters to the STN before his imprisonment, and in a
letter written afterward, on February 1 9 , 1 7 8 Ij , the STN's agent in
Paris, J. -F. Bornand, reported that Brissot had been meeting with
"M . Martin, first secretary of the lieutenant general of police," and
that Martin had provided him with some inside information about
police measures against book smuggling. Martin could have been
the secretary mentioned in Lenoir's statement about Brissot's spy
ing. And Lenoir's account fits the picture of growing desperation that
emerges from Brissot's correspondence with the STN. It also fits the
way Brissot was pictured at that time by Marat: "There he was [after
his release from the Bastille] in the street, without any resources, and
to add to his misery, burdened with a wife and a baby. It is now noto
rious that, not knowing what to do, he decided to offer his services
to Lenoir, the lieutenant of police, who made him a royal observor
for 1j0 ecus [ I 1j0 livres] a month."
Although Marat and Brissot became mortal enemies after 1 790,
they were close friends in the 1 7 8 0s. Marat's account of Brissot's
spying also correlates closely with that of Lenoir. It too , however,
T H E
5 KE L
H OW
0 N S I N T H E C LOS ET :
H I STO R I A N S P LAY G O D
171
E T
du peuple on June 4, 1 79 2
Ami
1 784
7,
after the Convention decreed the arrest of Claviere along with the
other Girondists, and they showed an impressive series of payments
to Brissot during the second half of the I 7 8 os, when Brissot wrote
a series of pamphlets designed to promote Claviere's speculations
on the Bourse.
Brissot's pamphleteering took him directly into the struggles
that brought down the Old Regime, but when the rickety edifice
began to fall, he was in America
172
G E 0 R G E WA S H
FALS E T E ETH
TON
Ie Patriote franrais
three months
before the Bastille fell, and his fortune rose with the success of his
newspaper. For a few moments in the spring of 1 79 2 he probably was
the most powerful man in France. He used his power to have Clav
iere appointed minister of fmances . The Revolution was their great
est speculation, and they went down together in the spring of
1 79 3 .
Put that baldly, Brissot's biography looks like a string of lies , the
very opposite of the narrative line developed in his memoirs and
adopted by all his biographers, except me. Propelled by the sensa
tion of belonging to a minority of one and by the eternal tempta
tion of revisionism, I enlisted in a faculty seminar on psychobiography
that was being taught at Harvard in
1 96 7 by Erik Erikson.
I gave a
1 96 8
T H E
S K E LETO N S I N T H E C LO S ET:
HOW H I ST O R I A N S P LAY G O D
173
Corifessions
Corifessions for
memoirs lack the ring of genius , but they do not ring false. They are
the authentic memoirs of a Grub Street hack caught up in a revo
lution that was partly of his own making. God rest his soul. God
have mercy on all of us.
You may suspect me of losing my grip on facts and of slipping
into postmodernism or even the sort of superstition that the
Enlightenment combatted. So let me cite a final fact, which I dug
out of the same archives in Neuchatel : the death of Jean- E lie
Bertrand on February
24, 1 7 7 9 .
17'1
G E 0 R G E WAS H
FALSE T E ET H
NGTO N ' S
NOTES
I NTRODUCTION
I.
Malvin E . Ring,
8 , ), p. 1 9 3 , and James
Wynbrandt,
8 ) , pp. 1 , 8-62.
lifJerson
(New
3 . Ranke's famous formula is actually more powerful than it appears to be in the phrase
commonly quoted in translation. In the original, a preface to his Histories ifthe Latin
and
Germanic NationsJrom 1494 to 1514, he wrote that his endeavor was not to judge the past
or to instruct the present but ". . . only to show what actually happened":
".
. . Er wilI bloss zeiaen, wie es eiaentlich aewesen." It is the "only" that carries such heavy
weight. Leopold von Ranke, "Vorrede der ersten Ausgabe," Geschichten der romanischen
und aermanischen Volker von 1494 bis 1514 in Leopold von Ranke's Siimmtliche Werke (Leipzig,
1 8 7 7), vol. 3 3 , p. vii.
4. See, for example, James Clifford and George E. Marcus,
1 994), vol. I ,
chap. 50, pp. 1 3 8 - 39. See also the superb essay by Colin Jones, "Pulling Teeth in Eigh
teenth-Century Paris," Past
c'1ar (
Present,
I . John Gray,
Enliahtenment's Wake: Politics and Culture at the Close if the Modern Aaen
(Lon
175
NOTES
t7b
C'ft<r.2.
TO
C HA P T E R
T H E N EWS I N PA R I S
[ . People have complained about a surfeit of information during many periods of history.
as
lecture and that I have tried to maintain the tone of the original by adopting a relatively
informal style in the printed version. More related material is available in an electronic
edition, the first article published in the new online edition of the
Review,
American Historical
The Kiss if
Lamourette: RifIections in Cultural History (New York, [ 990), chap. 5 . See also Michael
Schudson, Discovering the News:A Social History ifAmerican Newspapers (New York, [ 97 8 )
and Helen MacGill Hughes, News and the Human Interest Story (Chicago, [ 940).
3 . Brian Cowan, "The Social Life of Coffee: Commercial Culture and Metropolitan Soci
ety in Early Modern England, [ 600-[ 7 20" (Ph.D. dissertation, Princeton University,
2 000); Qin Shao, "Tempest over Teapots: The Vilification of Teahouse Culture in Early
4 . Planted at the beginning of the century and cut down during the remodeling of the gar
den in [ 7 8 [ , the Tree of Cracow was such a well-known institution that it was cele
brated in a comic opera by Charles-Fran90is Panard,
fArbre de Cracovie,
performed at
Rosset,
remarks made beneath the Tree of Cracow spread throughout Paris and Versailles, see
NOTES
I) . Pierre Manuel,
I
TO
C H A P T E R
177
, p. 206. I have not been able to find the original of this spy report by the notorious
Charles de Fieux, chevalier de Mouhy, in Mouhy's dossier in the archives of the Bastille:
Bibliotheque de I' Arsenal (hereafter, BA), Paris, ms. 1 0029.
6. This description relies on the work of Funck-Brentano,
devanciers,
Les Nouvellistes,
and
Fiaaro et ses
but more recent work has modified the picture of the "parish" and its con
nection to the
Memoires secrets. See Jeremy D. Popkin and Bernadette Fort, eds., Tbe
''Memoires seerets" and tbe Culture <1 Publicity in Eiabteentb-Century France (Oxford, 1 9 9 8);
Frans:ois Manreau, Repertoire des nouvelles a 1a main: Dictionnaire de 1a presse manuscrite
elan destine XVl'-XVIll' sieele (Oxford, 1 999); and Moureau, De bonne main: La Communi
cation manuserite au XVIll' sieele (Paris, 1 99 3 ) . After studying the voluminous text of the
nouvelles a la main produced by the "parish" between 1 741) and 1 ]1)2 , I have concluded
that the copy in the Bibliotheque Nationale de France (hereafter, BNF) contains little
information that could not have passed through the censorship administered by the
police: BNF, ms.
fr.
ered the period 1 7 62-1 7 8 7 and first appeared in 1 77 7 , is completely different in tone.
It was highly illegal and sold widely; see Robert Darnton,
7 . In the case of France, a vast number of excellent books and articles have been published
by Jean Sgard, Pierre Retat, Gilles Feyel, Fran90is Moureau, Jack Censer, and Jeremy
Popkin. For an overview of the entire subject, see Claude Bellanger, Jacques Godechot,
Pierre Guiral, and Fernand Terrou, Histoire aenerale de la pressefranraise (Paris, 1 969) and
the collective works
edited
De bonne main.
9. Manuel, La Police de Paris devoilee, vol. I , pp. 2 I -02 .
1 0 . A . de Boislisle, ed., Lettres de M. de Marville, Lieutenant-General de Police, au ministre Mau
repas (1742-1747) (Paris, 1 8 9 6), vol. 2, p. 262.
I I . On literacy, see Fran90is Furet and Jacques Ozouf, Lire et eerire: I:Alpbab.!tisation des
Franrais de Calvin a Jules Ferry (Paris, 1 977), 2 vols.; on public opinion, Keith M . Baker,
"Public Opinion as Political Invention," in Baker, lnventina tbe French Revolution: Essays on
French Political Culture in tbe Eiahteentb Century (Cambridge, 1 990); and Mona Ozouf,
"L'Opinion publique," in Keith Baker, ed., Tbe Political Culture <1 the Old Reaime, vol. I ,
Tbe Frencb Revolution and tbe Creation <1 Modern Political Culture (Oxford, 1 9 8 7 ) .
1 2 . [Mathieu-Fran90is Pidansat de Mairobert], Anecdotes sur Mme. 10 comtesse du Barry (Lon
don, 1 7 7,), p. 2 1 , .
175
NOTES
TO
C H A P E R
[ 3 . This and the following remarks about Mairobert are based on his dossier in the
archives of the Bastille: BA, ms. [ [ 6 8 3 , and on his dossier in the papers of Joseph
d'Hemery, inspector of the book trade : BNF, ms. acq.
on him in the
fro
Ie Portefeuille d' un talon rouge contenant des anecdotes nalantes et secretes de 1a cour de France,
rpt. as Le c'!!fret du bibliophile (Paris, n.d.), 2 2 .
[ 6 . BA, ms. [ 0 [ 70 . This source, the densest I have been able to find, covers the years
[ 7 2 6- [ 7 2 9 . For help in locating the cafes and in mapping them, I would like to thank
Sean Quinlan, editorial assistant at the
ence librarian and collection manager for linguistics, Indiana University Libraries,
who worked with the staff of the
AHR
this essay. The detailed mapping, with excerpts from reports on conversations in eight
een of the cafes,
can
[ 7 . BA, ms. [ 0 [ 70 , fol. [ 7 S . For reasons of clarity, I have added quotation marks. The
original had none, although it was clearly written in dialogue, as can be seen from the
texts reproduced in the electronic version of this essay, at the link titled "Spy Reports
on Conversations in Cafes," www.historycooperative.org/ahr.
[ 8 . BA, ms. [ 0 [ 70 , fol . [ 76 .
[ 9 . BA, ms. [ 0 [ 70 , fol . 9 3 .
2 0 . BNF, ms. nouv. acq. fro [ 8 9 [ , fol . 4 [ 9 .
2 [ . Marc Bloch,
(Paris, [ 9 24). On contemporary indignation about the route around Paris, see BNF,
ms. fro ' 3 7 [ 0 , fol. 6 6 . For a sober account of Louis XV's relations with the Nesle sis
ters (there were actually five of them, but contemporary
mentioned
[ 989), pp.
libelles usually
Louis XV (Paris,
...
"
2 3 . These issues have been dramatized most recently in the controversy aroused by the
duplicitous mixture of fact and fiction in Edmund Morris,
Reaaan
Perspectives,
For my part, I would not deny the literary quality of history writing, but I think the
invention of anything that is passed off as factual violates an implicit contract between
the historian and the reader: whether or not we are certified as professionals by the
award of a Ph.D., we historians should never fabricate evidence.
24 . Four editions of Les Amours
NOTES
TO
C H APT E R
173
BNF, Lb3 8 . H4.A-D. All but the first have elaborate keys, usually inserted into the
binding from a separate copy, sometimes with manuscript notes. Some notes also
appear in the margins of this and the other three works, which also have keys.
2 5 . The following quotations come from BNF, ms. nouv. acq. fro 1 8 9 I , fols. 4 2 I , 4 3 I , 43 3 ,
43 7
2 6 . BNF, ms. nouv. acq. fro 1 0 7 8 3 .
27.
BA, ms. 1 1 5 8 2 , fols. H-5 7 . See also Mlle. Bonafons's remarks in her second interro
28.
elle represente qu'il y a dans cet ouvraae desfaits particuliers dont son
etat ne lui permettait pas naturellement d'avoiT connaissance. lnterpellee de nous declarer par
qUi elle en a he instruite. A dit qu'il ne lui a etefourni aucuns memoires ni donne aucuns con
seils, et que c'est Ies bruits publics et Ie hazard qUi l'ant determinee a inserer dans 1'Duvlage ce
,
qUl S Y trouve. "
Louis-Sebastien Mercier, Tableau de Paris, new ed. (Neuchatel, 1 ] 8 8) , vol. I , p. 2 8 2 .
Mercier also remarked (vol. 6 , p. 40); "Ainsi a Paris tout est matiere a chanson; et
qUiconque, marechal de France ou pendu, n'a pas ete chansonne a beau Jaire il demeurera
inconnu au peuple." Among the many historical studies of French songs, see especially
Emile Raunie, Chansonnier historique du XVlII' siecle (Paris, 1 8 79-84), 1 0 vols . ; Patrice
Coirault, Formation de nos chansonsfolkloriques (Paris, 1 95 3 ) , 4 vols . ; Rolf Reichardt and
gation, fols. 79-8 0 : "A
it
la fin de I' An
cien Regime," Dix-huitieme siecle, vol. 1 8 ( 1 986), pp. 1 1 7-44; and Giles Barber, "'Mal
brouck s' en va-t-en guerre' or, How History Reaches the Nursery," in Gillian Avery
and Julia Briggs, eds. ,
Children and Their Books: A Collection '!f Essays to Celebrate the Work
2 9 . This bon mot may have been coined by Sebastien-Roch Nicolas Chamfort; see Raunie,
Chansonnier historique,
vol. I , p. i.
3 0 . One box in the Bibliotheque de I ' Arsenal, ms. 1 0 3 1 9 , contains dozens of these snip
pets, thrown together helter-skelter, which comment in rhyme on all sorts of current
events-the amorous adventures of the regent, Law's fiscal system, the battles of the
Jansenists and Jesuits, the tax reforms of the abbe Terray, the judicial reforms of the
chancellor Maupeou-set to all kinds of popular tunes: "La Bequille du Pere Barn
abas," "Reveillez-vous belle endormie," "Allons cher coeur, point de rigueur;' "1' avais
pris femme laide." The repertory of melodies was inexhaustible, the occasions for
draWing on it endless, thanks to the inventiveness of the Parisians and the rumor mill
at work in the court.
3 1 . BA, ms. 1 1 68 3 , fol . 59, report on the arrest of Mairobert by Joseph d'Hemery, July
2,
1 749. The verse on the scrap of paper comes from a separate dossier labeled
"68
pieces paraphfes. In a report to the police on July I , 1 749, a spy noted (fol. 55): "Le sieur
Mairobert a sur lui des veTS cantre Ie rai et cantre Mme. de Pompadour. En raisonnant avec lUi
sur ie risque que court l'auteur de pareils ecrits, il repondit qu'il n 'en courait aucun, qu'il ne
s'aaissait que d'en alisser dans la poche de quelqu'un dans un c<ife au au spectacle pour les
150
NOTES
TO
C H APT E R
repandre sans risque au d'en laisser tomber des copies aux promenades . . .J'oi lieu de penser qu'j1
en a distribue bon nombre."
3 2 . BA, ms. 1 1 6 8 3 , fol. 45 .
3 3 . Maurepas's love of songs and poems about current events is mentioned in many con
temporary sources. See, for example, Rathery, journal
sion is taken from d' Argenson's account of this episode, 41)6. See also Barbier,
Chronique,
1 8 68), vol.
I,
Colle (Paris,
Bernis, Memoires et
(Paris, 1 8 78), p. 1 20 .
A full and well-informed account of Maurepas's fall, which includes a version of the
song that has "Pompadour" in place of "Iris," appears in a manuscript collection of
songs in the Bibliotheque Historique de la Ville de Paris, ms. 649, pp. 1 2 1 - 2 7 .
H.
3 6 . In addition to the references given above, note 3 0 , see Bernard Cottret and Monique
Cottret, "Les
Chansons
( 1 748-1 71)0)," in
drou
du
mal-aime:
Raison
d ' Etat
et rumeur publique
(Paris, 1 9 8 1 , pp. 3 0 3- 1 1) .
Eckhard Knabe,
in German:
AHR Web
can
1 690.
3 9 . Marc Pierre de Voyer de Paulmy, comte d' Argenson, to Nicolas Rene Berryer, June
2 6 , 1 749, BA, ms. 1 1 690, fol. 4 2 .
40. "Interrogatoire du sieur Bonis," July 4, 1 749, BA, ms. I 1 690, fols. 46-47.
41.
Vie privee de Louis Xv, ou principaux evenements, particularites et anecdotes de son reane (Lon
don, 1 7 8 1 ), vol. 2 , pp. 3 0 1 -0 2 . See also LesJastes de Louis Xv, de ses ministres, maltresses,
aeneraux et autres notables personnaaes de son reane (Villefranche, 1 7 8 2), vol. I , pp. 3 3 3-40 .
4 2 . My own understanding of this field owes a great deal to conversations with Robert
Merton and Elihu Katz. On Gabriel Tarde, see his dated but still stimulating work
NOTES
TO
C H A PT E R S
A N D
1S1
valid enough as a conceptual tool, but I think that some of his followers make the mis
take of reifying it, so that it becomes an active agent in history, an actual force that pro
duces actual effects, including, in some cases, the French Revolution. For some
stimulating and sympathetic discussion of the Habermas thesis, see Craig Calhoun,
ed. ,
1 99 2 ) .
43 . I have located and compared the texts of nine manuscript versions of this song. The
first verse, quoted below and reproduced in Figure 1 0 , comes from the scrap of paper
taken from the pockets of Christophe Guyard during his interrogation in the Bastille:
BA, ms. 1 1 690, fols. 67-68. The other texts come from: BA, ms. 1 1 6 8 3 , fol . 1 34 ; ms.
1 1 6 8 3 , fol. 1 3 2 ; BNF, ms. fro 1 2 7 1 7 , pp. 1 - 3 ; ms. 1 2 7 1 8 , p. 5 3 ; ms. 1 2 7 1 9 , p. 8 3 ; Bib
liotheque Historique de la Ville de Paris, ms. 648 , pp. 3 9 3-96; ms. 649, pp. 70-74;
and ms. 5 8 0 , pp. 248-49 .
44. Albert B. Lord,
of poetry and music contribute to the extraordinary feats of memorizing epic poems.
45 .
Unfortunately, the
chansonnier
Clairambault extends through the mid-century years: BNF, mss. fro 1 2 7 1 7-20.
46. Bibliotheque Historique de la Ville de Paris, mss. 648-5 0 .
47. P. Capelle,
are anonymous manuscripts available in the Fonds Weckerlin of the BNF. The most
important for this research project are
49 .
264.
53.
c'1ur "
I .
This account is based on a reading of the Journal de Paris from 1 7 8 0 to 1 7 8 9 , along with
other periodicals. The quotation about
Le Hero americain
152
T O
N O T E S
C H A P T E R
l'Americain
issue of February 1 3 , I 7 8 5 . The best of the many studies of French attitudes toward
America are still Bernard Fay, L'Esprit revolutionnaire en France et aux Etats- Unis a
la.fin du
X VIlle sieele (Paris, ( 9 2 5) and Durand Echeverria, Mirage in theWest:A History ifthe French
Image ifAmerican Society to 1 815 (Princeton, ( 957). In this essay I have drawn on my own
thesis "The Gallo-American Society:' submitted for the degree of Bachelor of Philoso
phy in the University of Oxford in 1 96 2 .
nal de Paris,
6 . Condorcet,
and Arago,
Memoires
St.
Jean de Crevecoeur (New York, 1 9 ( 6) , and the best study of his writing remains H. C.
Rice, Le Cultivateur americain (Paris, ( 9 3 3 ) .
9 . Crevecoeur, Lettersfrom an American Farmer . . . (London, 1 7 8 2 ), pp. 3 8-40, and Lettres
d'un cultivateur americain . . . (Paris, ( 7 84), vol. I , pp. 1 7 1-76.
1 0 . Eiy, L'Esprit revolutionnaire en France, pp. 50 and 1 3 6-3 7 .
I I . The expression comes from Georges Lefebvre, who entitled the chapter on 1 790 in his
great synthesis La
imply that other revolutionaries, notably Mirabeau, were less important than Lafayette
but rather that Lafayette occupied the center of the stage, at least for the period sur
rounding the Fete de la Federation of July 14, 1 790.
1 2 . On the location of the bust and Mme. d' Enville's "parental affection" for Condorcet,
the Massachussetts Historical Society. Quoted by Johanna Hecht in her essay in the
present publication.
J
3 . Brissot,
Memoires, vol.
1 4. Ibid. , p. 49 .
1 5 . Ibid . , p. 5 2 .
2 , p. 4 8 .
N O T E S
T O
C H A P T E R
fS3
2 , p 49
1 8 . The minutes have been printed in Claude Perroud, ed. , J. -P.
papiers (Paris,
Brissot. Correspondanee et
1 9 . Ibid . , p. 1 09 .
2 3 . Ibid. , letter 1 0 .
24. Excerpt from the
Mercure,
2 5 . Brissot, Examen. Brissot wrote this diatribe of 1 43 pages after he was seeing Crevecoeur
virtually every day, but before the founding of the Gallo-American Society: see Brissot,
26.
2 7 . Ibid. , p. 1 2 1 - 2 2 .
2 8 . Brissot,
Memoires,
2 9 . Jean-Fran\,ois de La Harpe,
30. Ibid . , p. 2 1 6 .
3 I . On Mazzei, a key figure in this story, see Raffaele Ciampini, ed. , Lettere di Filippo Mazzei
alla corte di Poionia (Bologna, 1 9 3 7 ) : Margherita Marchione, ed. , Philip Mazzei: Selected
Writings and Correspondence (Prato, Italy, 1 9 8 3 ) ; and R C. Garlick, Philip Mazzei. Friend of
jqJerson: His Life and Letters (Baltimore, 1 9 3 3 ) .
3 2 . journal de Paris, November I 6 and 2 6 , and December 5 , I 7 8 6 .
3 3 . Filippo Mazzei, Recherches historiques et politiques sur Ies Etats-Unis de l'Amerique septentri
onale (Paris, 1 7 88) vol.4, pp. 1 40 , 144, and 1 56 , and Jefferson to John Adams, August
2 7 , 1 7 86, in The Papers ofThomasjdJerson, vol. 1 0 , p. 3 0 2 .
34. Mazzei to Madison, August 14, 1 7 8 6 , Philip Mazzei: Selected Writings and Correspondence,
vol. I , p. 5 3 0 .
3 6 . Mazzei,
37.
1 7 8 8), p. 3 6 8 .
N O T E S
3 8 . Journal de Paris,
May
T O
C H A P T E R S
1 0 , 1 7 8 8 . Although the
A N D
par un bourgeois de
New Haven, the nom de plume that Condorcet favored at that time. As far as I can deter
mine, none of Condorcet's biographers have noticed this letter, nor have Jefferson
scholars come across the pamphlet that he printed from Mazzei's
Recherches his
tOTiques.
39.
40.
pp.
Revolution Franraise,
vol.
Condorcet expounded his analysis of the prerevolutionary crisis most cogently in his
Lettres d' un citoyen des Etats- Unis a un Franfais, sur ies '!!Jaires presentes ( I 788) and Senti
ments d'un republicain sur Ies assembIees provinciales et Ies Etats Generaux ( 1 789), both
reprinted in O ' Connor and Arago, Oeuvres, p. 9 . On IaJaction americaine du parlement de
Paris, see Joseph Weber, Memoires concernant Marie-Antoinette (Paris, 1 8 2 2), vol. I ,
p. 1 80 .
4 I . Mazzei reported on this conflict at some length in his correspondence with King Stanis
laus Augustus Poniatowski of Poland. See especially his letter of November 2 I , 1 788,
in Philip Mazzei: Selected Writings and Correspondence, vol. 2, pp. 67-77, in which he noted
this bit of dialogue: "Condorcet to me: 'If you go to M . de La Fayette's, try to exorcise
the demon Aristocracy there to tempt him in the person of a Parlement counsellor
or Breton nobleman. To do that, go carrying in your pocket a small vial
of Potomac water and an aspergillum made from the stock of a Continental army
rl'fle , . . .' "
4 2 . Eloge de Franklin, in O ' Connor and Arago, Oeuvres, vol. 3 , pp. 407 and 420.
43. Of several references to the split between Condorcet and the d'Enville circle, the most
vivid is a letter from Mazzei to King Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski of December 2 2 ,
1 79 I , in Marchione, Philip Mazzei, vol. 2 , p. 678. In it he excoriated "that scoundrel,
Brissot, the leader of the republicans, of whom Condorcet, who formerly considered
him a mischief-maker or a raving madman, is now a follower rather than associate.
His public behavior has finally prompted the Duchess d'EnvilIe and the Duke
de la Rochefoucauld to write two letters asking him to spare himself the trouble to call
on them."
2 7 , 1 799,
transcript kindly
c'jat" 7
I .
T H E P U R S U IT O F P RO F I T
The follOwing account is condensed from a much longer study in my doctoral disser
tation,
N O T E S
T O
C H A P T E R
185
ManieuTS d'arBent a Paris a lafin du X VIlle siecle (Paris, 1 9 39), 3 vols. , and to J. Benetruy,
L'Atelier de Mirabeau. Qyatre proscrits Benevois dans la tourmente nivolutionnaire (Geneva and
Paris, 1 96 2).
2 . Mazzei's remark occurs in his
Memoirs,
3 . Claviere's papers in the Archives Nationales include his "Copie de lettres," T*646
( 1 -3); his "Livre de caisse," T*646 (4); and his "journal," T*646 (5), as well as two
cartons full of notes : T 646
(I)
for the following discussion of Claviere's finances and Brissot's pamphleteering. Clav
iere summarized his income from
I , I 786.
notes,
6 . I have transcribed all the entries in Claviere's papers that concern Brissot and have
reconstructed Brissot's account with Claviere in
pp.
De la Caisse d'escompte
( 1 7 8 5 ) , published
8.
I I . Brissot,
12.
Particular
ites et observations sur Ies ministres desfinances de France Ies plus celebres, depuis 1660 jusqu'en
1791 (London, 1 8 1 2) , pp. 2 5 5-56, and Memoires secrets pour servir a l'histoire de la
republique des lettres en France, depuis MDCCLX/I jusqu'a nos jours (London, 1 7 84- 1 7 89),
3 6 vols., entry for November 14, 1 7 8 7 . The report of the baron de Batz is in Gazette
nationale, au ie Moniteur universe}, March 2 2 , 1 79 0 .
N O T E S
14.
IS.
16.
T O
C H A P T E R
Sur Ies actions de Ia Compasnie des eaux de Paris (London, 1 7 8S). On Claviere's specula
tion, see Bouchary, Les Manieurs d'arsent, p. 6 3 .
Pierre-Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais, Reponse a l'ouvrase qui a pour titre: "Sur Ies
actions de Ia Compasnie des eaux de Paris"par M. Ie comte de Mirabeau (Paris, 1 7 8 S), quota
tion from p. I I , and Reponse du comte de Mirabeau a l'ecrivain des administrateurs de Ia
Compasnie des eaux de Paris (Brussels, 1 7 8 S), quotations from pp. 3 and I I .
Jacques-Pierre Brissot, Denonciation au public d' un nouveau projet d'asiotase, ou Iettre a M.
Ie cornte de Sxxx sur un nouveau projet de compaanie d'assurance contre Ies incendies a Paris, sur
ses inconveniens, &..en aeneral sur ies inconvenients des compaBnies par actions (London, 1 7 86),
quotations from pp. 3 3- H .
I 7 . Jacques-Pierre Brissot,
18.
19.
Bouchary,
20.
Correspondance et papiers,
vague remarks by Dumont himself, pp. S4 and I I 8 , that provide the basis for
Benetruy's account in
I:Atelier de Mirabeau,
Paris until August 1 7 8 8 and had no firsthand experience of the financial pamphleteer
ing of 1 7 8 7 . The most recent biographies of Mirabeau hardly mention the pamphle
teering; see, for example, Guy Chaussinand-Nogaret,
Mirabeau
(Paris, 1 98 2 ) , p. 94.
The older biographies proVide some excellent accounts of it, but they did not draw on
the information available in Claviere's papers; see Charles de Lomenie,
Les Mirabeau,
nouvelles etudes sur Ia sOcietefranfaise au 1 8e siecle, 4 vols. (Paris, 1 8 89), vol. 3 , p. 6so,
and Alfred Stern, La Vie de Mirabeau par Alfred Stern, traduit de l'allemand par MM. Lespes,
Pasquet &",Pierre Nret, 2 vols. (Paris, I 89S), vol. I , p. 2 7 2 . For contemporary remarks
linking Claviere to the Denonciation, see Brissot, Memoires, vol. 2 , p. 2 9 ; A. M. de
Cubieres, Mirabeau juse par ses amis et par ses ennemis (Paris, 1 79 I ) , p. 9 1 - e est M.
Claviere qUi aJait presqu'en entier Ia Denonciation de I' agiotage . . . ."-and J. -Po Hardy,
Considerations sur Ia Denonciation de 1'asiotase. Lettre au comte de Mirabeau (n.p., 1 7 8 7 ) ,
"
'
pp. 29-3 0 . The bookseller S.-P. Hardy recorded in his journal on April 1 0, 1 7 8 7 , an
extract from the
2I.
22.
the
23.
For general discussions of d' Espagnac's coup and the Bourse crisis of I 7 8 7 , see Mar
cel Marion,
La
N O T E S
T O
C H A P T E R
157
The most thorough of the many accounts of Calonne and his program are Albert
Goodwin, "Calonne, the Assembly of the French Notables of 1 7 8 7 and the Origins of
the 'Revolte Nobiliaire' ,"
3 2 9-7 7 ,
5-54.
1787 (Paris,
( 960).
Radical Propa8anda,
2 5.
pp. 2 34-69.
et papiers,
pp. 1 3 1 -3 3 . The
Correspondance
Trends in
AC KNOWLEDGMENTS
TH E C HAPTERS O F T H I S B O O K W E R E C O N C E IV E D AS PARTS O F
A
G E N ERAL A R G U M E N T THAT
E N LI G H T E N M E N T
TO THE
EXT E N D S
FROM T H E
E A R LY
themes, which spill over from the eighteenth century into the pres
ent. Because the latter draw on general study rather than original
research and are addressed to the general reader rather than to spe
cialists, they do not include any scholarly apparatus. In the follow
ing acknowledgments, however, I should like to mention some of
the secondary works that I found especially helpful. And I particu
larly want to acknowledge the help of two editors who have
labored with me on these and many other texts: Robert Silvers of
The New York Review cifBooks and Steven Forman ofW. W. Norton &
Company.
Chapter
False Teeth" in
(March
2 7 , 1 997),
pp.
34-3 8 .
Chapter
(J9
A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S
vol.
1 0{
(February
in
Opinion
(Berlin,
2000 ) ,
pp.
1 49-2 3 0 .
Chapter
(autumn
1 9% ) ,
pp.
A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S
r
,
INDEX
35, 99
enlightened, 1 0, 94, 9.\"
questioning of, 8-9
Academie de Ch.lons-sur-Marne,
1 64
64-6.\"
Academie framyaise,
79, 1 30, 1 3 1
academies, 80, 1 63-64
Academy of Dijon, 1 08-9, " 3 , I I .\"
Academy of Sciences (Berlin), 83
Academy of Sciences (Paris), 1 36
Achard, Jacques, 141
actors and actresses, 93
Adorno, Theodor, I .\" , 1 7
"Affair of the Fourteen, The," .\" 8-67, 60, 65
Africans, 14see also blacks; slavery
Daioteurs, 14-2 , 1 47 , 1 5 1 , 1 5 2
AIDS epidemic, 1 04
Aix-laChapelle, Treaty of, 44, 6 2
Alembert, Jean Le Rond d', I .\", 1 14-1 7 ,
1 2 1 , 1 24Brissot's relationship with, 1 6 2 , 1 64American Antiquarian Society, I 7 2
American dream, I 0 2 , I 04American Historical Review website, 4 1 , 67, I J8n
American Indians, 14, 1 2 2
French fascination with, x, xv, 1 1 9, 1 2 3
American mind, 98-99
American Philosophical Society, I 2.\", 1 3 6
American Revolution, 1 20, 1 25, 1 3 1 , 1 50, 1 57
American Stamp Act Congress, 96
99
3
Rousseau and, 1 07-8, 1 09, I 14
antiutopian literature, 1 04Arbre de Cracovie, L' (Panard) , 1 76n
Archimedes, 1 08
Archives nationales, 1 7 1
Aretina, Pietro, 74
72
57, 58, 59
29-30
aristocrat, aristocracy,
as social ideal,
Aristotle,
8I
99, 143
89, 9 7
84
asceticism:
Christian,
92
egocentric, 1 05
1.93
I N D E X
Ashmolean Museum,
"Asiatic values,"
Bogart, Humphrey,
1 60
Bonafon, Marie-Madeleine-Joseph,
87
Assembly of Notables,
1 29 , 1 49 , 1 5 2-53
Augustine, Saint, 89-90, 1 74
Austria, 1 0- 1 1 , 78
authority, Enlightenment questioning of,
8-9, I
Bachaumont, Louis Petit de,
1 8 In
Bagueret (confidence man), I I I
baissiers, 1 4 1 , 142, 1 44, 1 45, 147, 1 49, 1 5 3
balance of power, war and, 78-79
Balkans, 77
Banque de Saint-Charles, 1 4 1
Banque d'Espagne, 1 45
Baron de XXX, Le (Bonafon), 5 2
Baroud , c.-L.-J., 1 4 2 , 1 49
Barre, Poulain de la, 1 9
Barthes, Roland, 59
Basques, 20
Bastille, 9, 3 9 , 5 2
"Affair of the Fourteen" at, 5 8 , 59-6 I , 60,
65, 66
Brissot in, 1 3 7, 1 6 2-63 , 1 68-7 1
Mairobert in, 3 8 , 54
prisoners frisked at, 54, 55, 64-66
Bayle, Pierre, 6, 80
Beaumarchais, Pierre Augustin Caron de,
1 20, 1 46-47, I 8 2 n
Beccaria, Cesare, 7, 8 1 , 9 , 1 6 3 , 1 6 5
Bentham, Jeremy, 90, 1 0 3
Bergasse, Nicolas, 1 1 7, 1 35, 1 54, 1 58
Berlin, 7 , 8 3 , 9 3 , 1 47
Bernard, Jules-Alexis, 44, 46, 48
Bertrand, Jean-Elie, 1 7 3-74
Bezenval, Mme . , I I I
Bibliotheque de l 'Arsenal, 49, 54, 1 79n
Bibliotheque municipale
20
d' Orleans,
66
1 56-57,
1 58
Bibliotheque nationale de France,
67
Bibliotheque philosophique du Jeaislateur (Bris
sot), 1 65, 1 6 8
bills of exchange, 8 2 , 1 4 2 , 1 67, 1 68
blacks, 8 , 1 4, 1 0 2 , 1 30
see also slavery
Blackstone, William, 97
Bloch, Marc, 47
Boccaccio, Giovanni, 90
body language, 79
52-5 3 ,
1 79n
Bonis, Franvois,
58, 6 1
bons mots, 3 , 9, 36
book trade, 1 0 , 3 3
8 2 , 1 6 7 , 1 68
European scale of, 83
underground , 3 I , 34, 70-74, 1 59, 1 6 3 ,
1 6 7 , 1 70
Boorstin, Daniel, xi
Bornand, J.-F.,
1 70
Borodino, Battle of ( 1 8 1 2), 78
Bosnia, 20
Boulainvilliers, Henri de, 8-9
Bourdieu, Pierre, 1 6 2
Bourse (Paris), xi, 1 3 7, 1 3 8 , 1 4 1 -49, 1 7 1
aoioteurs and , 142, 1 47 , 1 5 1 , 1 5 2
baissiers and, 1 4 1 , 142, 144, 1 45, 147,
1 49, 1 5 3
and Compagnie des eaux de Paris, 1 45-49
haussiers and, 1 4 1 , 146, 1 49, 1 5 1 , I S" 2
marches a prime and, 1 4 1
marches a terme and, 1 4 1 , 1 49, 1 5 2
politics and ideology in, 1 37, 1 39, 144-55
public opinion and, 1 42-43, 1 5 3
Boze, Mme. de, I I I
Breuil, Sieur de, 34
Brissot, Jacques-Pierre, 1 34-45, 1 56-74,
1 8 3n, I 8 5n
background of, I 6 2
career trajectory of, 1 57-58
Claviere's collaboration with, 1 39-42,
143-45, 147-50, 1 53-55, 1 7 1
and craze for America, xv, I 26-3 2 ,
1 34-36, 1 57 , 1 7 2
imprisonment of, 1 62-63, 1 68-7 1
libel charges against, 1 69-70
in London, 1 6 8-7 I
lying of, 1 7 2-73
as pamphlet writer, 143-45, 1 47-50,
1 5 3-55, 165, 1 66, 1 69-7 0, 1 7 1
pyramid strategy used by, 1 66-67
self-advancement strategy pursued by,
1 62-65
as spy, xi, 1 58-60, 1 70-7 1 , 1 74
in United States, 1 58, 1 7 1-7 2
unpublished letters of, 1 59-60, 1 6 2 , 1 7 1
bruits publics, see "public noises"
Bruno, Giordano, 85
I N D E X
Buddhism,
87
Burke, Edmund,
5, 6
1 3- 1 4
Caesar, Julius,
76
Cafe de Fay, 42, 45
Cafe du Caveau, 54
Cafe Dupuy, 44
Cafe Maugis, I I I - I 2
Cafe Procope, 38, 5 I
cafes, Paris, 5, 142
list of, 42
map of, 43
news in,
1 0-1 1 , 8 1 , 1 64
Catholics, Catholicism, 9, 46-48, 80, 93,
1 09, 1 24, 1 6 2
censorship, I 29-30
illegal book trade and, 70-73 , 1 59
of news, 3 1-3 3 , 34, 3 8 , 7 3 , I 77n
police role in, 3 3 , 34, 1 77n
royal privileges and, 33
"Chansonnier Maurepas," 66, 1 8 1 n
chansonniers, 66-67, I 8 In
"keys" for, 67, 1 8 In
Charlemagne, king of the Franks, 76
Charles III, king of Spain, 1 0-1 1
Charles V, Holy Roman emperor, 90
Chastellux, marquis de, 1 3 0- 3 2
Chateauroux, Mme" 45-48
China, 1 3 , 87
Choiseul, Etienne-Franl'ois de, 70
Christianity, 7, 14, 76, 8 1 , 9 2 , 1 1 7
Cicero, 99
civilization:
1 3- 1 4, I 1 5
Voltaire on, 94-95
civilizing process, 95
civil religion, I 1 7- 1 8, 1 29
Claviere, Etienne, xi, 1 3 1 , 1 35, 1 3 7-5 1 , 1 6 8
arrest of, 1 7 1
Brissot's collaboration with, 1 39-4 2 ,
143-45, 1 47-50, 1 53-55, 1 7 1
as Finance Minis teT, I 39, I 7 2
as Gallo-American, 1 2 7-29, I S0, 1 5 7
Claviere, J. -J . , 140
"Clef du Caveau, La" (Capell), 67
Clinton, Bill, x-xi, 1 06
Clovis I, king of the Franks, 48
coffeehouses, 26, 80, 84
see also cafes, Paris
Colle, Charles, 53-54
collectivism, 1 2 , 90
common sense, 98-99
communication systems, xi-xii, xv, 25-75
correspondence networks, 80-8 I
Doublet salon, 2 7-3 1 , 5 1 , 56, 1 77n, I B In
forgotten media and genres of, 35
history of, 26, 67-68
manuscript copying services, 2 7-3 I , 37
nouvellistes de bouche (newsmongers),
26-2 7 , 28, 32, 36, 3 7-38, 54
philosophes' mastery of, 7, 1 0
schematic model of, 35-36, 36
and Tree of Cracow, 26-27, 28, 3 1 , 75,
1 76n-77n
see also news; public opinion
communism, 1 8
Compagnie des assurances contre la vie,
1 4 1 -42
Compagnie des assurances contre les
incendies,
1 4 1 -42
1 45-49, 1 5 2
Compagnie des lndes, 1 49, 1 5 1
Condillac, Etienne Bonnot de, 4
1 20-25,
8, I 7, 87
1 3 5-36, J 84n
I N
D Ex
1 20,
[ 2 3-30, [ 3 3-34, [ 35, [ 57-58,
1 8 2n, I 8 3n
Crusades, 1 4
cultural imperialism, [ 2- [ 4, 86-87, 95
cultural systems, 99
culture:
boundaries in,
1 3 , 1 8-[ 9
as civilizing process, 8 I
consumer, 84, 85, 1 0 3 , l OS
human sciences and, 1 07-8
material, 8 2
political, see political culture
popular, 68, [ 0 3
pursuit of happiness in, 99-[ 06
Rousseau's views on, 1 0 7-8, I I 3-[ 7
secular, 76
Voltaire on literary history in, 94-95
currency, 8 2
euro, xii, 76, 7 7 , 8 2 , 86
U.S. dollar, 2 2
Dazemar, Sieur,
1 6 , 1 9 , 76-77
Dei deli"i e delle pene (Beccaria), [ 65
Delacroix, Ferdinand-Vietor-Eugene,
[ 3-[ 4
De 1a France et des Etats-Unis (Brissot and
Claviere), [ 28
Delavault, Helene, 67
De l'esprit (Helvetius), [4
De l' esprit des lois (Montesquieu), [ 0
Delessert, Etienne, [44
De fhomme, ou des principes et des lois de l'iriflU
ence de I'ame sur 1e corps et du corps sur
1'Qme (Marat), [60
De l'irifluence de 1a revolution d'Amerique sur
l'Europe (Condorcet), [ 2 2 , [ 3 3
Demeunier, j.-N. , 1 33
democracy, x, 1 6 , 86, 87, 1 0 1 , 1 1 7
Denonciation au public d'un nouveau projet
d'aoiotaoe (Brissot), [ 47-48
Denonciation de l'agiotage ("Mirabeau"), 1 47 ,
[ 49-S [
dentistry, ix, xii-xv, 2 3 , 1 0 3
Derrida, Jacques, 1 9
Desauges, E . - M . - P. , [ 6 7-68
Descartes, Rene, 4, 85
Devin du villaoe, Le (Rousseau), [ [ 5
diaries, 3 8 , 56
Diderot, Denis, 4, 1 3 , 1 5, 1 6 , 1 9 , 90,
[ [ 2- 1 3 , 1 1 4Rousseau's break with, I 1 6- [ 7
in Vincennes, 1 0 8 , 1 1 2
Discourse on the Arts and Sciences (Rousseau),
[ 1 3-[ 5
Discourse on the Origins ifInequality
(Rousseau), [ [ 5
dollar, U.S. , 2 2
Don Juan (Moliere), 85
manuscript news sheets of,
salon of ("the parish"),
2 9-3 I , 37
27-3 [ , 5 [ , 56,
1 77n, I 8 1 n
du Barry, comtesse,
36-3 8, 68-70
Duer, William,
16,
1 24, 1 29
Doublet, M.-A. L . :
4-4-45
deism ,
172
Dujast, Alexis, 58
Dumont, Etienne, 1 50
Dupin, Mme., I I 2
92,
I I I
Edict of Nantes,
[44
f.
t!l7
I N D E X
'
,
,
Edouard, Jean,
equality,
Edwards, Jonathan,
1 04
eighteenth century:
76-88
as information age, xv, 2 5-7>
life expectancy in, 8
strangeness of, ix-xiii, xv
warmer climate in
B s-
Epicureans, Epicureanism,
1 06
Epicurus, 90, 1 0 3
faith, I ,.
1 6- 1 7 , 8 I
fascism, 1 4- 1 8
fashion, I I I , I 1 6
in luxury goods, 8 1-8 2
Favart, Charles-Simon, B-H
in reason,
16
8-9
1ilS
I N D E X
Filangieri, Gaetano, 76
transition to, 1 6 1 6 2
Terror in, 1 7 , I S , 1 6 1
I S on
( 3), [ , 8
Florence, 90
furniture, S 2
Fontenoy, Battle of ( [ 74 , 69
food:
Formey, Samuel, 8 0
Foucault, Michel, 1 3 , ,9
currency in, 8 2
destruction of parlements in
( [ 7 7 [ [ 774), 34
Gallet, Pierre, B H
Gallo-American Society, [ 2 73 [ , [ 34, 1 3"
gardens:
in
1 50 , 1 54, 1 5 75 S , I S 3n
Candide,
9 [ 96
in Monticello, 1 0 0
gastronomie,
82
Gelehrtenrepublik,
80
General Will, [ [ 7 , [ 2 9
gentlemen:
Germany, 8 1
Franklin, Benjamin, 2 2 , 1 2 0, 1 2 I , 1 2 5, 1 3 3 ,
1 34, 1 3 7
fraternity, 2 0 , 2 2 , 8384
German language, 7 8
Gibbon, Edward , 8 3
Girondists, 1 2 6, 1 3 5 , 1 3 6, 1 3 9, 1 5 6 , 1 6 1 ,
[7[
free love, 8 5
Goldoni, Carlo, 8,
French language, 7 8 , 7 9 , 8 3 , 8 6 , 9 5
[ [ 7 1 8 , 1 5 3 , 1 5 8 , 1 7 2 , I 8 I n
Brissot in, 1 2 6, 1 3 6 , 1 56 , 1 6 1 , 1 7 1 , 1 7 3
Claviere in, 1 3 8
Gore, Christopher, [ 7 2
,
,
193
I N 0 Ex
gossip,
2 7 , 3 7 , 38-53, 67
about public figures (mauvais propos), 35,
36, 3 7 , 3 8 , , 1 , >9
in spy reports, 38-H
"Three Sisters" story and, 44-49, 50, 5 2 ,
53
see also news
Gouges, Olympe de, ' 9
grand tOUTS, 79, 80
Graves, Robert, 20, 2 I
Gray, John, 1 7
Greek Orthodox Church, I 1 0
Greeks, ancient, 8 I , 89
"Grub Street Style of Revolution, The"
(Darnton),
Gunston Hall,
' 7 2-73
I O- I I
55, >9, 64-66, 65,
1 8 In
Habermas, JUTgen,
63, 1 8 I n
Hallaire, Jacques-Marie, ,8, ,9, 6 1
1 08-9
94
of mentalities, xi,
96, 99, 1 0 3
mixing fact and fiction in, 48-49. 1 78n
mythical dimension of, xv, 1 08
playing God in, '74
subjectivity in, xiii
94-9,
historycooperative.orgl ahr, 4 1 ,
67, 1 78n
Hitler, Adolf,
98
1 04
lOS
Founding Fathers and, xiv, 9 1 , 96-1 0 2 ,
1 04, l OS, 1 06
in historical perspective, 89-9 1
Jefferson's views on, 9 1 , 96-1 0 2 , 1 04,
1 06
libertinism and, 8,
philosophes and, " 7-8 , 90
private vs. public factors in, 90, 1 0,-6
and right of property, 8,-86, 96-98
in U.S. jurisprudence, 1 0 1
Voltaire's views on, 9 1-95, 1 06
westward expansion and, 1 0 I -2, 1 04Hardouin (Parisian printer), 1 , 0
haussiers, 1 4 1 , 146, 149: I S I , 1 5 2
Hebrews, ancient, 8 I
Hegel, G. W F., I ,
Heidegger, Martin, 1 ,-16
Helvetius, -Claude Adrien, '4, 1 8 , 90
Helvetius, Mme . , 1 25
Hemery, Joseph d', ,8
Henri IV; king of France, 69
Henry, Patrick, 98
Histoire philosophique et politique des ttablisse
ments et du commerce des Europeens dans
I ,-1 8 , 76
Hobbes, Thomas, x , 90
Holbach, Paul-Henri-Dietrich, baron d ' ,
1 6, 7 2 , 90
Holland, press in, 34
Homer, I S
Hapital des Enfants Trouves,
Horace,
1 08, I 1 2
89, 100
Horkheimer, Max,
Hotel de Ville,
Hotel-Dieu,
1 S, 1 7
44
61
I 23, I 26
Huguenots,
84
imagined communities, 83
immigrants, 1 0 2 , 1 34
47-48, 1 78n
Independence Hall,
India,
1 2-14, 86-8 7 , 9S
2 1-2 2
' 3 , 87
nationalism in,
20, 2 1
happiness and,
90, 1 0" 1 06
individual:
respect for,
18
individualism, s ,
1 2 , 1 3 , 1 05, 1 06
information age:
every age as,
2,
4,
.200
I N
0 E X
Ingres, Jean-Auguste-Dominique,
intellectual tramps,
1 3- 1 4
I 1 0- 1 I
67, I 78n
20, 7 7 , 1 3 8
irrationality, 1 5 , 1 6-1 7
Israel, 2 0
italy, 8 2
Jacksonian politics,
1 00
Jacobin Club, 1 8 , 1 66
Jacobins, 1 8 , 1 36, 1 66
Jansenists, 8, 45, 47-48
Japan, 1 4, 2 2
Jefferson, Thomas, 14, 2 2 , 1 2 1 , 1 3 2-36,
1 75n, 1 84n
Madison's correspondence with, xi
100, 1 0 2
in Paris, 1 2o, I 2. , 1 26, 1 3 2-B
and pursuit of happiness, 9 1 , 96- 1 0 2 ,
1 04, 1 06
Jews, 8
Jobnson, Samuel, 5, 78-79
Jones, Howard Mumford, 1 0 1
Joseph I, king of Portugal, 1 0-1 1
Joseph II, Holy Roman emperor, 1 0-1 I
Jouet, Denis-Louis, 58
jouTnal de Paris, 34, 1 1 9 , 1 20, 1 2 1 , 1 3 1 , 1 34,
143 , 1 64, I B I n
Journal des savants, B
Journal helvetique, 1 6 3
Journal historique de 1a revolution operee . . . par
M. de Maupeou (Mairobert and
d'Angerville), 7 1 , 7 2 , 73
journals and gazettes, 30-35, 6 1 , 1 43
history of, 3 I , I nn
international trade in, 34
manuscript, 30-B , 36, 37
royal privileges and, 3 3
see also specifIc works
Kames, Henry Home, Lord,
14
Kant, Immanuel, 6, 14, 1 5, 76, 7 7
Katz, Elihu, 63
Kim Dae Jung, 87
Kipling, Rudyard, 1 3- 1 4
Kissinger, Henry A . , 77
Korea, South, 87
Kornmann, Guillaume, I 2 7
Kurds, 2 0
8I
Ireland,
at Monticello,
La Barre,
8-9
Lafayette, marquis de, 1 2 I , 1 2 2 , 1 25, 1 35,
1 53
American Indians and, x, xv, I 1 9
Condorcet's tensions with, 1 36, I 8
"La France," use of phrase, 3 7 , 68, I 8 1n
La Harpe, Jean-Fran90is de, 1 3 1 , 165
laissez-faire government, 96
Lally-Tollendal, Thomas Arthur, comte de,
81
La Noue, Widow,
167
4
La Popeliniere, A . -J.-J. Le Riche de, 64
La Rouchefoucauld, duc de, 1 20, 1 25, I B ,
1 35, I 84n
La Rouchefoucauld-Liancourt, marquis de, 1 25
La Selle, Mme . , I I 2
Latin, 83
Lattaignant, Gabriel-Charles, 54
Laurens, H . -J. du, 7 1
Le Bret, 50-5 I
Le Clerc, Jean-Louis, 5 1
Lecouvreur, Adrienne, 93
Lefebvre, Georges, 1 8 2n
Le Grand Thomas, xiv
4, 92
Le Maire (librarian), I 56-57
Le Maitre, Jean-Pierre, 1 60
Lenoir, Jean-Charles-Pierre, 1 58-59, 1 6 7 ,
1 68, 1 70, 1 7 3
Leopold, Archduke ofTuscany, 1 0-1 I
Le Peletier de Forts, Michel-Robert, 41
Les DeIices,
9 2 , 93
8I
letters,
I N D E X
!'
.2.0f
54-67 , 60, 65
"Three Sisters" story and, 44-53 , 50, 55
Louis XVI, king of France, 34, 74, 145, 1 53
Louvre, 47
Lucretius, 90
Luxembourg Gardens, news in, 2 7 , 32
luxury goods:
consumption of,
trade in,
84, 85
8 1-8 2 , 1 2 8
33
Machiavelli, Niccolo, x
Madison, James, xi,
2 2 , 98, 99, 1 3 3
mail, regulation of, 34
Mailly, Mme. de, 45, 48
36-38 , 1 78n
Anecdotes sur Mme. 1a comtesse du Barry by,
36-3 8 , 68-7 2
arrest of, 3 8 , 54, 66, 1 78n-79n
maltresse en tItre, 57
"Malbrouck s'en va-t-en guerre" (song) , 53
Malesherbes, C . G. de Lamoignon de, 1 0
Mallet du Pan, Jacques, 165
Malplaquet, Battle Of ( 1 709), 78
Mandela, Nelson, 1 6 1
Manuel, Pierre, 3 3 , 1 7 0
manuscript news, 2 7-3 3 , 36, 3 7 , 80-8 1
"Mapping Cafe Talk" (Darnton), 3 9-40, 4 1 ,
42, 43, 1 78n
Marat, Jean-Paul, 1 59-60, 1 7 0-7 I
marches a prime, 14-1
marches a terme, 1 4 1 , 149, I I 2
Maria Leszczyflska, queen of France, 41-45
Marie-Antoinette, queen of France, x, 1 69
Martin, M . , 1 6 8 , 1 70
Marx, Karl, 90
Mason, George, 2 2, 98, 99
Masonic lodges, 5, 80
Massachusetts Historical Society, 1 7 2
Maupeou, Rene de, 70
"Maupeouana," 1 5" 3
,
I N D E X
Medici court,
90
Meister, J.-H., 1 43
Memoires (Brissot), 1 43-44, 1 50, 1 6 2 , 1 66,
1 69, 1 7 2 , 1 73
Memoires de l'abbe Terray (Coquereau), 7 2
Memoires de Louis XV (anon.), 7 2
Memoires secrets pour servir a l'histoire de 1a
Republique des Lettres en France (clan
destine gazette), 3 1 , S I , 7 3 , 1 43 ,
1 54, I 7 7n
Mernoires secrets pour servir a l'histoire de Perse
(roman a clifJ 49, . P , 5 2
Mencius, 87
mentalities, history of, xi, 96, 99, 1 0 3
Mercier, Louis-Sebastien, 5 3 , 7 I
Mercure, 3 3 , 1 30, 1 3 1
Merlet, Franois-Philippe, 5 I
Mesmer, Franz, 79-80
Metz crisis, 46, 47, 48
middle class, 5
in consumer culture, 84-, 85
Milan, 7
"Mirabeau" (pen name), 1 44-46, 1 49-52
Mirabeau, Honore-Gabriel Riqueti, comte
de, x,
1 34, 144-47, I 8 2n
mistresses, royal, 6, I I S
libelles on, 3 7-38 , 68-70
in police and spy reports, 3 8-45, 50-5 I
in songs and poems, 54-S7, 6 2 , 6 3 , I Son
"Three Sisters" story and, 44-53 , 50, 55
Moliere, 85, 95
monarchy:
degradation of,
64, 69-70, 73
literature and, 8-9
sacred power of, 47, 48, 69
see also specific monarchs
Monboddo, James Burnett, Lord,
14
54
9 2 , 9 3 , 95
monde, le:
Rousseau's relationship with,
use of term,
I I 1-16
9
Voltaire and, 9 2 , 9 3
"Monstre dont la nOireJurie" (song), 5"8, 60
Montagne, Fleur de, 5 I
Montaigne, Michel de, 1 14
Montange, Inguimbert de, 5 8 , 6 I
Montbailli case, 8 I
Montbrun, Fougeret de, 7 2
1 0, 1 3 , 1 5 , 1 14
Monticello, 1 00, 1 0 2
Montmorency, 1 1 6
morality, see ethics and morals
Mornet, Daniel, 1 6 1
Morris, Edmund, 1 7 8n
Moscow, 8 2
Mount Vernon, x 2 3
Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 85
Musee of Pilotre de Rozier, 1 64, 1 68
myths:
of Europe's origins,
history and,
76
XV,
I 08
of Rousseau's life, 1 0 8-9
Naples,
8, 83
76
145
nationalism, 1 9-2 2 , 76-78, 86
in England, 78-79
in France, 20, 78
in India, 20, 2 1
natural law, 7-8, 14, 96-97
natural rights, 96, 97, 98, 1 2 1
nature, American closeness to, 1 2 2 , I 24
nature, state of, 4-5, 7-8, 90, 1 3 2-3 3
Necker, Jacques, 1 5 3
N egatif party, 1 43
Nesle, marqUis de, 45, 55, 1 78n
Neuchatel, 143
see also Societe typographique de Neuchatel
Neveu de Rameau (Diderot), 1 6
Neville, Le Camus de, 1 6 7
New Deal, 1 0 5
news, 2 5"-75, I 7 6n-8 1 n
in cafes, 2 7 , 36, 3 7-44, 50-5 I , 54, 66, 7 3
censorship of, 3 1-3 3 , 34, 3 8 , 7 3 , 1 77n
defined, 2 5
at Doublet salon, 2 7-3 I , I nn
foreign diplomats and, 2 7
manuscript, 2 7-33, 36, 37, 80-8 1
oral, 26-27 , 28, 32, 36, 3 7-53, 54, 67 ; see
also gossip; songs and poems
private lives of public figures in, xii,
36-75
"public noises"
9,
newsmongers
2 1-24, 9 I ,
14
66
Old Regime,
77, 1 35
finance in, 1 3 7-55, I 84n-87n
floating population of, I 1 0- I I
news lll , see news
political folklore in, 70
popular and elite culture in, 68
prerevolution of 1 787-1 7 8 8 in, 74-, 1 20,
1 35-36, 1 44-55, 1 84D
Rousseau's break with, 1 1 4- 1 7
oral communication:
38
3 7-5 3 ,
54, 67
see also gossip; songs and poems
Orientalism, 1 3-14
Orleans, due de, I 27
Ostervald, Frederic-Samuel, 1 60, 1 6 3 , 165,
1 73
othering, in anthropology, xiii, 1 3
Ottoman Empire, 14
pain, and pursuit of happiness,
Palestinians,
20
I 20, 1 3 2
see news
police in, see police; police reports
Rousseau in, I 1 0-1 6
salons of, xv, 3 , 2 7-3 1 , 5 1-5 2 , 56, 8 1 ,
8 3 , 9 2 , I I I , 1 14, 1 1 5, 1 25-26,
1 77n, 1 8 I n
Voltaire's withdrawal from, 93
"parish, the" (Doublet salon), 2 7-3 I , 5 I , 56,
1 77n, 1 8 In
Paris Ie modele des nations etrangeres, ou l'Europe
fran,aise (Caraccioli), 83
67
Pascal, Blaise,
passeISme,
'.
Xlll
. . .
past:
of Europe,
77
Paine, Thomas,
46-47, 1 48n
news In,
101
accidentalism,
1 6 5 , 1 66, 1 69-70
OpInIOn
.
pamphlets,
.203
N 0 E X
1 7 5n
Patriotejranrais, Le, I S 8, I 7 2
Paul, Saint, 1 08, 1 6 2
Peale, Charles Willson, ix,
x,
xii
peasants,
1 69-70
pessimism, U.S. tradition of,
Petition of Right, English,
1 04-
96
6 1-62
Philadelphien a Geneve, Le (Brissot), 143, 1 48 ,
1 65
Philosope, Le, 9-I 0
2.M
I N D E X
folklore and,
143, 1 6 2-63,
1 6,-66
commitment of,
4-l l
24-2,
as elite,
5-6
foreign, 6, 7-8, 99
media mastery of, 7 , 1 0
as men of letters, 4-" 9-1 0
persecution of, s, 9 , 1 0
politeness as viewed by, 8 I
postmodernist attack on, 1 2-1 9
Rousseau's break. with, 1 1 6- 1 7
Picasso, Pablo, 1 9
Piron, Alexis, H-H
Plan Turgot, 40
Plato, 89, 97
pleasure:
90
and pursuit of happiness, 89, 90, 97, 1 0 2-3
poems, see songs and poems
Poland, War of Succession in ( 1 7 3 3- 1 73,),
26, 28, 70
police, 3 8-43 , 1 77n
Bonafon questioned by, , 2 , 1 79n
book trade and, 3 3 , 34, 1 6 7 , 1 7 0
Brissot's relationship with, 1 ,8->9,
1 6 7-7 1 , 1 74
eighteenth-century notion of, 39, 94
prisoners frisked by, ,4, H , 64-66, 6S
public opinion and, 39, 47, 48
police reports, 38-43
"Affair of the Fourteen" and, 58-66, 60,
fifteenth-century idea of,
6S
on Mairobert,
3 8 , ,4-,6
,0-, I
Mme. de Vieuxmaison in, 5 1-,2
of Mme. Doublet's servant, 2 7-28
public opinion and, 39, 47, 48
see also spy reports
politeness, 8 1 , 93-95, 1 1 4, 1 1 6
political culture, 1 7 , 94-9,
Mme. de Pompadour in,
36-H
republican,
17
political theory, 1 7 , 1 8
pursuit of happiness in,
Rousseau's views on,
politics:
culture and,
94-9,
96-99
I 1 7- 1 8
2 2, 70, H
Pompadour, Mme. de, 4>, 48, H, 69, 71
in police reports, ,0-, I
in songs and poems, 57, 6 2 , 63, 1 80n
Pont-Neuf, 2 7 , H
popular culture, 68, 1 0 3
Portugal, 1 0-l l
postmodernism, I 1-19
cultural imperialism and, 1 2- 1 4
ethical issues and, 14- 1 6
linguistic terms of, I 2
reason as viewed in, 1 6- 1 7
totalitarianism and, 1 8
Pot Pourri, Le (Brissot), 1 69
power:
balance of,
fascist,
78-79
14- 1 6
18
18
94, 95
pralines, 8 2
Praslin, duc de,
82
Priface to Narcissus (Rousseau), I 1 5
prerevolution of 1 787-1 788, 74, 1 20,
1 3>-36, 1 44-H, 1 8
presentism, xii
prime (premium), 1 4 1
progress, 1 6, 2 3 , 90
Condorcet's theory of,
property,
1 2 1-2 2
77
8,-86, 96-98
Protestant ethic, 10,
Protestants, 8 , 1 2 5, 1 44, 1 57
see also specific denominations
Prussia, I O-l l
78
psychoanalysis, 1 0 7 , 1 ] 2
psychobiography, 1 7 2-73
public gardens, news in, 2 7 , 32, 3 8 , 66
Tree of Cracow and, 26-27 , 28, 31, H,
I 76n-77n
"public noises" (brUits publics), 2 7 , H, 36, 3 7 ,
,0-,1
public opinion, 28, H , 3 7 , 6 2 , 84-8,, 1 26,
1 77n
Bourse and, 143, 1 53
police and, 39, 47, 48
"Three Sisters" story and, 4648
U.S. pessimism expressed in, 1 04
.205
I N D E X
80-8 [
Bourse and,
1 43
6, 80
Paris as capital of, 6, 7 ,
Revol, Jacques, [ 67
80, 86
III
revolution:
attempted in Geneva,
as right,
1 27 , 1 38 , 143, 1 57
97, [ 2 8-29
2 7 , 54
Quakers, 1 20, 1 2 3 , 1 24, 1 30, 1 3 2 , 1 34
"Quand Ie peril est agreable" (song), 56
"Quand mon amant me fait la cour" (song),
63
"Quel est Ie triste sort des malheureux
franl'ais" (poem),
60, 6 [
Quesnay, Franl'ois,
[6
Qyestians sur L'Encyclapedie (Voltaire), 7 2
Quietists, 8
"Qu'une batarde de catin" (song), 54, 60,
63-67, 65
raCIsm,
14, 1 9
Rameau's Nephew (Diderot), [ [ 2-[ 3
Ranke, Leopold von, xii, [ 7 5n
Rastadt, Treaty of ( [ 7 [ 4), 83
Rawalpindi, 2 [
Raynal, abbe G.-T.-F., 1 2, 7 1 , 8 7 , 1 20, 1 2 3 ,
[33
reason, 4-5, 1 3 , 1 5- 1 8 , 7 7 , 80, 8 1 ,
[ 2 5-26
Condorcet's passion for, 1 2 1-2 3, 1 36
Rousseauism vs. , I 3 I , 1 3 2
Recherches historiques et poiitiques sur ies Etats
Unis de l'Amerique septentrionale
(Mazzei), [ 3 2 , [ 3 3 , [ 34, [ 84n
Reims, Cathedral of, 48
religion, 8-9, 14, 44-45, 79, 1 00, 1 2 3 ,
[ 24-25
civil, 1 1 7- 1 8 , 1 29
"natural," 1 24
see aiso specific religions
Repanse de jacqueS-Pierre Brissat a taus Ies Iibel
iistes qui ont attaque et attaquent sa vie
passee (Brissot), [44
Representants, [43
republicanism, 1 1 7, 1 36, 143, 1 48, 1 50,
[ 7 [-7 2 , 1 84n
Republic of Letters, xi-xii, 1 9, I 1 2 , I 3 8
Revolutionary Tribunal,
[7[
RicheHeu, due de, 45, 46, 5" I , 64, 8 2
rights, 76-77, 85-86, [ 24, [ 54
human, 1 6 , 2 3-24, 8 7 , 88
to liberty, 76, 85, 86, 96, 97, 98, 1 06,
1 30, 1 3 1
to life, 8S, 96, 97, 98, 1 06
natural, 96, 97, 98, 1 2 1
revolution as, 97, 1 28-29
to security, 7 7 , 86, 98
of women, 1 8, 1 9 , 1 35
Robespierre, Maximilien de, 1 7 1 8
Robespierrists, [ 38
Robin, abbe Charles-Cesar, 1 20, 1 3 2
Rohan-Chabot, chevalier de, 9
Roman Catholic Church, 9, 46-48, 80, 9 3 ,
1 09, 1 24, 1 6 2
Roman law, 76
Romans, ancient, 89, 99
romans a ely:
keys for, 49, 50, 5 2 , [ 7 8n-79n
"Three Sisters" story in, 45-46, 49, 50,
5 2 , 53
Romantics, 1 3, I 8
Rome, 90, 99
Roosevelt, Franklin D. , 2 2 , 1 05
Rossbach, French defeat at ( [ 757), 78
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, x, 1 0 , 1 5, 1 9 , 8 1 ,
[ 07-1 8, 1 3 1 , 143, 148, 1 55
Americanized, 1 26-2 7
anthropology and , [ 07-8, [ 09 , [ [4
background of, [ 09-[ [
Brissot compared with, 1 6 2 , 1 6 5 , 1 73
cosmopolitanism condemned by, 80
creation of, 1 07
happiness as viewed by, 90, [06
illegitimate children abandoned by, [ 0 8 ,
1 12, 1 15
Japanese reception of, [ 4
ie monde's relationship with, I I 1 - [ 6
J
206
I N D E X
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques
myth of,
in Paris,
(continued)
08-9
I 1 0- 1 6 , 1 26
8 I , I 14, I 1 6
Rameau's nephew compared with, I I 2 - 1 3
royal pension of, I 1 5" , I 1 6
Vincennes walk of, 1 0 8-9, I I 2 , 1 1 4, 1 1 6
Rousseauism:
reason
VS.,
I B , 1 54--55
131, 132
4-7, 4-8, 70
1 0- 1 1 , 2 2 , 7 7 , 83
80, 83
15
1 23
8-9
5", 6, 9, 80
2 7-3 1 , 5 1 , 56,
1 7 7n, I B I n
in Paris, xv, 3 , 2 7-3 1 , 5 1-5 2 , 56, 8 1 , 8 3 ,
92, I I I , 1 14, 1 1 5, 1 25-26, 1 77n,
IBIn
Rousseau's attack on, 1 14
Rousseau's reception in, I I I , I 1 5" , 1 26
Savonarola, Girolamo, 90
science, 1 5" , 1 03, I 2 I
screen memory, I 7 2-73
scrofula (King's Evil), 4-7, 4-8
Second Treatise on Civil Government (Locke), 97
secret du roi, ie, 3 I , 49-50, 70
secular culture, 76
security, right to, 77, 86, 98
self, cult of, 1 05
self-development, 97, 1 05
self-interest:
enlightened,
rational,
89
Seneca,
99
Sentimental Journey (Sterne), 78
Serbia, 20, 64
serfs, 77
servants, I I I
dresses of, 84literary work of, 5 2 , 53
news copying services of, 27-3 I
seventeenth century,
96
Seven Years War ( 1 756-1 763), 78, 9 2
Short, William, 1 35
Siecle de Louis XlV, Le (Voltaire), 94--95, 1 8 w
Siecle de Louis Xv, Le (Voltaire), 1 8 I n
Sigorgne, Pierre, 55, 6 I
SinBer ifTales, The (Lord), 1 8 In
Singh , Ajit, 2 I
Sinnzusammenhang, 99
sixteenth century, 8 5"
conqUistadors in, I 2
Gelehrtenrepublik of, 80
radicals and humanists in, 5
slavery, 8, 99
abolition of, I 2, I 7, 8 7 , I 2 3 , 1 3 S , 1 5"8
Voltaire IS denunciation of, 14Smith, Adam, 6, 2 2 , 1 36
social classes, 90
intermingling of, 68, 84-, I I I-I 2
Social Contract, The (Rousseau), 1 0 , 80, 1 1 6,
1 1 7- 1 8 , 143, I55, I 8sn
socialism, 1 2 , 86, 90, 96
social welfare, 96
Societe economique de Berne, 1 64, 165
Societe typographique de Neucbatel (STN),
2 2 , 90
83
Qaioteurs, 1 4 2 , 147, 1 5 1 , 1 5 2
baissiers, 1 4 1 , 142, 144, 145, 1 47, 149,
1 53
haussiers, 1 4 1 , 146, 1 49 , 1 5 1 , 1 5 2
Spinoza, Baruch, 85
spy reports, 3 8-4-5, 4-7-4-8
of Brissot, 1 58-59, 1 70-7 1 , 1 74
on Mairobert, 3 8
royal mistresses in, 38-4-5
Stalin, Joseph, I 8
Stalinism, 1 7
Stamp Act, 98
state constitutions, 1 0 1
,
,
I N 0 E
state power:
in poems, SS
fascist,
1 4-16
totalitarian, 1 5, 1 8
stereotyping, 1 3-14
Sterne, Laurence, 78
46-48
in romans a clif, 45-46 , 49, 50, 5 2 , 53
Thucydides, xii
Stoics,
1 06
stock market,
see Bourse
89
62
22
1 0 2 , lOS
SuppJement au Voyaee de Boueainville (Diderot),
13
Sur Ies actions de la CompaBnie des eaux de Paris
("Mirabeau"), 146
Sweden, 1 0- 1 1
Switzerland, 143, 1 S9-60
Rousseau in, 1 09- I 0, I I I
see also Geneva, republic of; Societe
typographique de NeucMtel
B-54
Tanastes, conte alleeorique (Bonafon), 49, S 2 ,
B
Tarde, Gabriel, 63
Target, G.-J.-B., 1 2 3
Toland, John,
6
tolerance, 4-5, 8, I 29
religious, 1 24-2S
toothaches, ix, xiv, 2 3 , 1 0 3
totalitarianism, 1 5 , 1 8
trade, 1 2 , I 25, I 2 7 , I 3 3 , 1 54
in books, see book trade
in luxury goods, 8 1 -8 2 , 1 2 8
Tree of Cracow, 2 6-27, 28, ]S, 1 76n-77n
Tuileries, 2 7
Turgot, Anne-Robert-Jacques, 1 2 1 , 1 24,
1 25, 1 26
Turin, 1 09
Turks, 2 0
in Candide, 9 2 , 94
Tuscany, I 0-1 1
Twain, Mark, I 1 0
twentieth century:
fascism in,
14--16
happiness in, 90, 1 0 2-6
immigrants in, 1 0 2
reason in, 1 6
totalitarianism in, I 5, I 8
United Nations,
Brissot in,
death in,
teeth:
2 3 , 1 03
23
Terror,
1 7, 1 8 , 1 6 1
theater, 93, 1 1 9
Rousseau's views on,
I 6- 1 7
77
United States:
taste:
44-B
.2.07
1 58, 1 7 1-72
l OS
16, 19,
2 1-24, 9 I ,
Vade, Jean-Joseph,
53-54
Vauban, marquis de, 8-9
I N D EX
20S
vaudeville, .5" 3 , I 1 9
venereal disease, 57, I Son
Verdi, Giuseppe, 1 3- 1 4
Versailles, x, xi, 2 7, 3 8 , 46, 56-58, 95, 1 14,
151, 167
Viala, Alain, 1 6 2
Vieo, Giambattista, s
I S , 1 7, 2 3-24, 86, 1 24
Jefferson compared with, 1 0 0
Lecouvreur's death and, 93
Nietzsche and, 1 6- 1 7
positive stereotyping by, 1 3
9 1 -95,
1 06
Rousseau's views on,
1 1 6-1 7
slavery denounced by, I 4
wit of, 9, 8 I
writings of, 7 , 8, 9, 1 4, 7 2 , 9 1 -96, 1 1 0,
r 8 In
Voyaae a Amatonthe (roman a &j), 49
109, I I I
War Ministry, French, 1 .5" 2
Warens, Mme. de,
( 1 740-1 748),
78
War of the Polish Succession
( 1 7 3 3- 1 7 3 5),
26, 28, 78
War of the Spanish Succession
wars,
( 1 7 1 - 1 7 14),
78
1 9 , 20, 8 I , 1 2 3
78-79
79, 90
75
2 1-24, 98, J 06,
1 1 9-20, 1 3 1
false teeth of, ix, xii-xv,
portraits of, ix,
x,
xii,
23
22, 23
Weber, Max,
99
welfare state, 1 03 , 1 05, 1 06
"We must cultivate our garden" (in
Candide),
9 1 -96
West, Raymond,
106
79
westward expansion, 1 0 1- 2 , 1 04
"white flowers" !Jleurs blanches), 56-57
Wilkes, John, 79
Williamsburg, Va. , 98
Winckelmann, Johann Joachim, 6
Wintzenried (itinerant coiffeur), I I 1
wit, 9, 8 1 , 9 2 , 1 30
Wolff, Christian, baron von, 9 2
Wollstonecraft, Mary, 1 9
women:
appeal to taste of,
8 1-82
Condorcet's views on, 8, 1 7
rights of, 1 8 , 1 9 , I 35
salons of, 27-3 1 , 5 1-52, 56, 1 7 7n,
I B ln
World War I, 2 0
World War II, 20
World Wide Web, xv, 25
see also Internet