5 10merged PDF

Introduction to Information Technology
IT Kolledzh/TT E.Domiczi based on T.Tammet
Lecture overview
1977-1980: reminder, first home computers
Commodore PET, Apple II, Radio Shack
Apple
Microsoft ja BASIC
Games
1981-1982: Home computers in offices
IBM PC
Office software
Workstations: Sun and Apollo
1983-1989: Graphical User Interface (GUI), memory over 64 KB
Apple Lisa
Apple Macintosh
IBM clones
MS Word, Windows planned
Unix: System V, X-Windows, Gnu project
2006
Intro to IT lecture 5
pg
-2-
1977-1980 : Home computers
Apple, Commodore, Radio Shack
Microsoft, more microprocessors, VisiCalc, Sinclair
2006
pg
-3-
1977
2006
The Commodore PET (Personal Electronic Transactor) -- the first of

several personal computers released in 1977 -- came fully assembled and
was straightforward to operate.
pg
-4-
1977
2006
The Apple II became an instant success when released in 1977 with its
printed circuit motherboard, switching power supply, keyboard, case
assembly, manual, game paddles, A/C powercord, and cassette tape with
the computer game "Breakout.
pg
-5-
1977
2006
In the first month after its release, Tandy Radio Shack's first desktop
computer -- the TRS-80 -- sold 10,000 units, well more than the company's
projected sales of 3,000 units for one year.
pg
-6-
1977
2006
The Apple Computer Company is incorporated.

Apple employees move into an office on Stevens
Creek Boulevard in Cupertino, California.
A working model of the first Radio Shack computer is
demonstrated to company president, Charles Tandy.
Commodore first shows a prototype PET computer at
the Winter Consumer Electronics Show.
Apple Computer moves from Jobs' garage to an office
in Cupertino.
Bill Gates and Paul Allen sign a partnership
agreement to officially create the Microsoft company.
pg
-7-
1978
The VAX 11/780 from Digital Equipment Corp. featured the ability to
address up to 4.3 gigabytes of virtual memory, providing hundreds of
times the capacity of most minicomputers. NB! DEC has now two product
lines for minicomp:
2006
PDP
VAX
The 5 1/4-inch floppy disk became the standard medium for personal
computer software after Apple Computer and Tandy Radio Shack
introduced disk drives for this format.
pg
-8-
1978
January
Apple Computer demonstrates its first working prototype Apple II disk drive at
the Consumer Electronics Show, in Las Vegas.
May
Intel begins production of the 8086 microprocessor. It is created by two
engineers in just three weeks. Work on the processor began when it was
realized that the i432 project was in trouble.
June
Intel introduces the 4.77-MHz 8086 microprocessor. It uses 16-bit registers, a
16-bit data bus, and 29,000 transistors, using 3-micron technology. Price is
US$360. It can access 1 MB of memory. Speed is 0.33 MIPS. Later speeds
included 8-MHz (0.66 MIPS) and 10-MHz.
Microsoft ships Microsoft COBOL.
Apple Computer introduces the Disk II, a 5.25 inch floppy disk drive
linked to the Apple II by cable. Price: US$495, including controller card.
Pertec ceases production of the Altair.
2006
pg
-9-
1979
2006
Harvard MBA candidate Daniel Bricklin and programmer Robert

Frankston developed VisiCalc, the program that made a business machine
of the personal computer, for the Apple II.
pg
- 10 -
1979
In development since 1967, the Stanford Cart successfully crossed a

chair-filled room without human intervention in 1979.
January
Xerox president replies to John Ellenby's proposal to market the Alto, turning
down his proposal.
Microsoft moves its offices from Albuquerque, New Mexico to Bellevue,

Washington.
Taito first shows the Space Invaders game, in Japan.

May
Software Arts demonstrates VisiCalc at the 4th West Coast Computer Faire.
Dan Bricklin and Bob Frankston wrote it during 1978-79, under the company
name Software Arts, under contract to Personal Software.
2006
pg
- 11 -
1979
June
Apple Computer introduces the Apple II Plus, with 48KB memory, for
US$1195.
Apple Computer introduces its first printer, the Apple Silentype, for
US$600. It is a Trendcom Model 200, released under the Apple name.
Intel introduces the 4.77-MHz 8088 microprocessor. It was created as a

stepping stone to the 8086, as it operates on 16 bits internally, but supports
an 8-bit data bus, to use existing 8-bit device-controlling chips. It contains
29,000 transistors, using 3-micron technology, and can address 1MB of
memory. Speed is 0.33 MIPS. A later version operates at 8-MHz, for a
speed of 0.75 MIPS.
Bob Metcalfe founds 3Com Corporation.
Texas Instruments introduces the TI-99/4 personal computer, for an

initial price of US$1500. It uses the TI 9940 16-bit microprocessor.
MicroPro releases the WordStar word processor, written by Rob

Barnaby. It is made available for Intel 8080A Zilog Z-80 based CP/M-80
systems. written by Seymour Rubenstein
Microsoft announces Microsoft BASIC 8086 at the National Computer

Conference.
2006
pg
- 12 -
1979
July
CompuServe begins a service to computer hobbyists called MicroNET,

offering bulletin boards, databases, and games.
Clive Sinclair creates Sinclair Research.

August
Microsoft releases its Assembler language for 8080/Z80 microprocessors.
Wayne Ratliff develops the Vulcan database program (Ashton- Tate later
markets it as dBase II).
September
Motorola's 68000 16-bit microprocessor appears. It uses 68,000 transistors,

giving it its name.
October
2.5 years after the introduction of the Apple II, 50,000 units have been
sold.
Personal Software releases VisiCalc for the Apple II, for US$100.
2006
pg
- 13 -
1979
Atari begins shipping the Atari 400 and Atari 800 personal computers.
The 400 comes with 8KB, selling for US$550. The 800 sells for US$1000.
Radio Shack begins shipping the TRS-80 Model II to users.
November
Xerox Office Products Division president, Don Massaro, decides to
champion the Star office system (based on the Alto).
December
A group of Apple Computer engineers and executives is given a demo of Xerox
Palo Alto Research Center's Alto computer system, in exchange for Xerox
buying 100,000 Apple Computer shares for US$1 million.
Atari develops the Asteroids computer game.
Microsoft completes work on BASIC for the Intel 8086 processor.
The first Comdex show is held, in Las Vegas. Approximately 150
companies show products to some 4,000 visitors.
2006
pg
- 14 -
1979
2006
Microsoft begins developing an 8086 version of FORTRAN. [346.72]

Apple Computer's Trip Hawkins negotiates a deal with Dan Fylstra of
Personal Software to buy his company and VisiCalc for US$1 million in
Apple stock. Apple's president refuses to approve the deal.
Ross Perot asks Bill Gates about buying Microsoft. Gates recalls asking
US$6-15 million. Perot recalls Gates asking US$40-60 million.
Alan Shugart founds Seagate Technologies (hard disk maker), in Scotts
Valley,
Apple Computer begins work on "Sara", the code name for what will be
the Apple III.
Apple Computer releases the word processing program AppleWriter 1.0.
Schlumberger Ltd. sells Heath Company to Zenith Radio Corp. for
US$64.5 million.
Automated Simulations releases Temple of Apshai for microcomputers.
Niklaus Wirth invents the Modula-1 programming language.
NEC releases its NEC PC 8001 microcomputer in Japan, the first for that
country.
pg
- 15 -
1979
2006
Xerox shows its Alto personal computer in TV commercials.

After airing a TV commercial for the Alto several times, Xerox decides not
to market the Alto.
pg
- 16 -
79-80: USENET : early web : text(-based) news
2006
USENET is a huge amount of newsgroups. Text moves from

machine to machine.
USENET: Unix Users Network founded late 1979.
Info transfer initially: through UUCP (Unix to Unix communications
protocol, mostly with modem help (dialing-in).
1979: released V7 Unix with UUCP. Two Duke University grad
students in North Carolina, Tom Truscott and Jim Ellis, thought of
hooking computers together to exchange information with the Unix
community. Steve Bellovin, a grad student at the University of
North Carolina, put together the first version of the news software
using shell scripts and installed it on the first two sites: "unc" and
"duke." At the beginning of 1980 the network consisted of those
two sites and "phs" (another machine at Duke), and was described
at the January Usenix conference.
1986 breakthrough: Network News Transfer Protocol (NNTP) . News
move via TCP/IP (internet).
pg
- 17 -
Specialprocessors: birth 1980, death ca 1990
Symbolics founded 1980. Created special hardware for running LISP

programs (mostly AI) efficiently.The whole system written in LISP.
21 founders: mostly from MIT AI lab.
Revenue 35 millions by 1986, then decreases rapidly.
Cost of a Symbolics machine in 1988 was between 36.000$ and
125.000$.
Sun-X computer at that time
started at 14.000$
Another Lisp machine company created
at the same time: LMI LISP machine
died even faster than Symbolics
2006
pg
- 18 -
1980
January
Universal Data Systems announces the 103LP 300 bps modem,

connecting directly into the phone line, requiring no additional power.
Price: US$195.
Sinclair Research announces the ZX80 computer in the North American

market. It uses a 3.25-MHz NEC Technologies 780-1 8-bit microprocessor,
and comes with 1KB RAM and 4KB ROM.
March
Microsoft Corp. announces its first hardware product, the Z-80 SoftCard
for the Apple II. This card gives the Apple II CP/M capability,
contributing greatly to Apple Computer's success. The card includes CP/M
and Microsoft's Disk BASIC, all for US$349.
Satellite Software International ships WordPerfect 1.0 for Data General

minicomputers.
May
Apple Computer introduces the Apple III at the National Computer

Conference, in Anaheim, California. The Apple III uses a 2-MHz 6502A
microprocessor, and includes a 5.25-inch floppy drive. Price ranges from
US$4500 to US$8000.
2006
pg
- 19 -
1980
IBM's Corporate Management Committee gives William Lowe approval to

begin Project Chess, by recruiting 12 engineers, and building a prototype
microcomputer.
IBM representatives meet with Microsoft's Bill Gates and Steve Ballmer
to talk about Microsoft products, and home computers.
IBM asks Bill Gates to write the operating system for their upcoming PC.
IBM's Project Chess task force contacts Digital Research about using
CP/M-86 for IBM's upcoming microcomputer. Gary Kildall is not
interested, for a variety of reasons.
August
IBM meets with Microsoft again, and shows plans for Project Chess, a
personal computer. The code name for the computer is "Acorn". Bill
Gates argues that IBM should use the 16-bit 8086, rather than the 8-bit
8080 processor.
QDOS 0.10 (Quick and Dirty Operating System) is shipped by Seattle

Computer Products. Even though it had been created in only two manmonths, the DOS worked surprisingly well. A week later, the EDLIN line
editor was created. EDLIN was supposed to last only six months, before
being replaced.
2006
pg
- 20 -
1980
Hal Lashlee and George Tate form Software Plus. The company later
changes its name to Ashton-Tate.
Microsoft announces the Microsoft XENIX OS, a portable and

commercial version of the UNIX operating system for the Intel 8086, Zilog
Z8000, Motorola M68000, and Digital Equipment PDP-11.
September
Microsoft decides to propose to IBM that they provide the operating

system for IBM's microcomputer.
William Lowe assembles the members of "Project Chess", known as the

"Dirty Dozen", the 12 engineers assembled to design and build the IBM
PC, in Boca Raton, Florida.
Apple Computer sells over 78,000 Apple II computers during the fiscal
year.
Software Publishing ships the pfs:File database program.
IBM meets with Microsoft again, to formalize plans to work together in

creating a new microcomputer.
2006
pg
- 21 -
1980
October
Microsoft's Paul Allen contacts Seattle Computer Products' Tim

Patterson, asking for the rights to sell SCP's DOS to an unnamed client
(IBM). Microsoft pays less than US$100,000 for the right.
Bill Gates, Paul Allen, and Steve Ballmer meet with IBM in Boca Raton,
Florida, to deliver a report to IBM. They propose that Microsoft be put in
charge of the entire software development process for IBM's new
microcomputer, including converting Seattle Computer Products' SCPDOS to run on the computer.
November
Microsoft and IBM sign a contract for Microsoft to develop certain

software products for IBM's microcomputer.
December
IBM delivers the first PC prototype to Microsoft, so they can begin

developing BASIC and the machine's operating system.
Apple Computer becomes a publicly held company, selling 4.6 million

shares at US$22 per share. More than 40 Apple employees and investors
become instant millionaires.
2006
pg
- 22 -
1980
2006
Seattle Computer Products renames QDOS to 86-DOS, releasing it as

version 0.3. Microsoft then bought non-exclusive rights to market 86-DOS.
Logo Computer Systems is formed in Montreal, Canada, to market the
public domain language LOGO.
Microsoft begins work on its first microcomputer application, a
spreadsheet program initially called Electronic Paper.
Digital Research releases CP/M-86 for Intel 8086- and 8088-based
systems.
Intel announces the iAPX-432 32-bit microprocessor. Intel later builds
the 80286 as a step between the 8086 and the 432.
The term RISC (reduced instruction set computer) is coined by Professor
David Patterson of the University of California in Berkeley. He designs a
microprocessor called RISC I.
Intel introduces the 8087 math coprocessor.
Alan Ashton and Bruce Bastian found Satellite Software International.
Apollo introduces a line of workstations using the Motorola 68000.
pg
- 23 -
1981-1982
1981-1982 Business Takes over
Osborne, IBM, Compaq
2006
Lotus 1-2-3, MultiMate, Dbase II
pg
- 24 -
1981
MAIN HIGHLIGHTS
IBM introduced its PC, igniting a fast growth of the personal computer
market
The MS-DOS, or Microsoft Disk Operating System, the basic software for
the newly released IBM PC, established a long partnership between IBM
and Microsoft, which Bill Gates and Paul Allen had founded only six years
earlier
Apollo and Silicon Graphics: first workstation companies
2006
pg
- 25 -
1981: big portable
2006
Adam Osborne completed the first portable computer, the Osborne

I, which weighed 24 pounds and cost $1,795. Used Z80 (NOT IBMPC clone (yet)!)
pg
- 26 -
1981: Apollo Computer
2006
Apollo Computer unveiled the first workstation, its DN100, offering more
power than some minicomputers at a fraction of the price. Used a
Motorola 68000 microprocessor.
pg
- 27 -
1981: Silicon Graphics
2006
College professor James Clark founded Silicon Graphics,

Incorporated. The 1000 and 1200 computers used a Motorola 68000
microprocessor with 8 Mhz and were sold as diskless systems
intended for use as a terminal.
pg
- 28 -
1981
January
Radio Shack ceases production of the TRS-80 Model I, and recalls units
from the US market, due to failure to meet new FCC radio-frequency
interference regulations.
Commodore announces the VIC-20, with full-size 61-key plus four function
key keyboard, 5KB RAM expandable to 32KB, 6502A CPU, 22 character
by 23 line text display, and color graphics, for US$299. During its life,
production peaks at 9,000 units per day.
February
2006
Steve Wozniak's private plane crashes, leaving him with a temporary loss
of short-term memory, lasting for over a month.
MS-DOS runs for the first time on IBM's prototype microcomputer.
Intel begins shipping evaluation sets of the iAPX432 microprocessor.
Performance is claimed as 2 MIPS.
pg
- 29 -
1981
March
Sinclair unveils the ZX81 in the UK, based on the Z80A microprocessor,
for under US$200.
Mike Markkula takes over as president and chief executive officer at
Apple Computer. Steve Jobs remains as chairman of the board.
April
2006
Tim Patterson quits Seattle Computer Products, and joins Microsoft.

Adam Osborne, of Osborne Computer Corporation, introduces the
Osborne 1 Personal Business Computer at the West Coast Computer
Faire. It features a Z80A CPU, 5-inch display, 64KB RAM, keyboard,
keypad, modem, and two 5.25-inch 100KB disk drives for US$1795.
Weight: 24 pounds. It also includes US$1500 worth of software, including
CP/M, BASIC, WordStar, and SuperCalc. Osborne anticipated selling
10,000 in total, but sales quickly reached 10,000 in a single month.
Mike Scott is forced out as Apple Computer president.
pg
- 30 -
1981
May
Xerox unveils the Star 8010, at the National Computer Conference. Many
features that were developed on the Alto are incorporated. It includes a
bitmapped screen, WYSIWYG word processor, mouse, laser printer,
Smalltalk language, Ethernet, and software for combining text and
graphics in the same document. At a starting price of US$16-17,000, the
computer is not a commercial success. During its lifetime, 100,000 units are
produced.
Atari announces the 8KB Atari 400 is being discontinued.
June
Microsoft reorganizes into Microsoft Incorporated, with Bill Gates as
President and Chairman, and Paul Allen as Executive Vice President.
2006
Microsoft persuades IBM to introduce its microcomputer with a minimum

of 64KB RAM. IBM had planned to only include 16KB.
pg
- 31 -
1981
July
Xerox announces the Xerox 820. During its development, it was codenamed The Worm. It uses the Z80 CPU, CP/M, and BASIC. The price
with a dual disk drive and display is US$3000.
Microsoft buys all rights to DOS from Seattle Computer Products, and the
name MS-DOS is adopted.
IBM introduces its first desktop computer, the Datamaster. It uses a 16-bit
8086, and is a dedicated data processing machine.
August
See next slide ...
2006
pg
- 32 -
1981: IBM PC
2006
IBM announces the IBM 5150 PC Personal Computer, in New York.

The PC features a 4.77-MHz Intel 8088 CPU, 64KB RAM, 40KB ROM,
one 5.25-inch floppy drive (160KB capacity), and PC-DOS 1.0
(Microsoft's MS-DOS), for about US$3000. Also included is
Microsoft BASIC, VisiCalc, UCSD Pascal, CP/M-86, and Easywriter
1.0. A fully loaded version with color graphics costs US$6000.
IBM announces the CGA graphics card for the PC, giving 640x200
resolution with 16 colors.
pg
- 33 -
1981: Microsoft as a main IBM PC software provider
The MS-DOS, or Microsoft Disk Operating System, the basic

software for the newly released IBM PC, established a long
partnership between IBM and Microsoft, which Bill Gates and Paul
Allen had founded only six years earlier
Microsoft buys all rights to DOS from Seattle Computer Products,

and the name MS-DOS is adopted.
2006
pg
- 34 -
1981
September
Novell Data Systems hires SuperSet to create software to link computers

together to share a hard drive.
Microsoft begins work on a graphical user interface for MS-DOS, initially
called Interface Manager, because it would effectively hide the interface
between programs and devices like printers and video cards.
Apple Computer introduces its first hard drive, the 5MB ProFile, for
US$3499.
IBM begins shipping the IBM PC, ahead of schedule, something unheard
of in the microcomputer industry.
October
2006
A senior scientist at Bell Telephone Laboratories declares that video

monitors pose no health hazard due to radiation exposure.
pg
- 35 -
1981
November
Novell Data Systems ships the Novell Data Management Computer, with the
ability to share its hard drive space with other computers through software
control and network cards.
Ashton-Tate ships dBase II, the early industry-standard database program.

December
Intel ships the 8087 math coprocessor. [446.504]
Sinclair Research reports that it has shipped 250,000 ZX81 personal

computers.
National Semiconductor announces the 32000 chip, the first commercial 32-bit
microprocessor. The 32000 family includes CPUs and peripheral chips.
month unknown
David Bunnell starts PC Magazine, in San Francisco.
Hayes Microcomputer Products advertises the Smartmodem 300, which
becomes the industry standard.
2006
pg
- 36 -
1981: Apple marketing ideas, logos etc
2006
Apple Computer signs a secret agreement with Apple Corps

Limited (the record company started by the Beatles), allowing
Apple Computer to use the "Apple" name for its business. Apple
Computer agrees not to market audio/video products with
recording or playback capabilities.
pg
- 37 -
1982
MAIN HIGHLIGHTS
Sun Microsystems founded: most influential workstation company so far
Mitch Kapor developed Lotus 1-2-3, writing the software directly into the
video system of the IBM PC.
The use of computer-generated graphics in movies took a step forward

with Disney's release of "Tron.
2006
pg
- 38 -
1982: SUN Microsystems
Sun Microsystems is founded. "SUN" originally stood for Stanford

University Network. Motto Network is the computer.
Four employees. Khosla, McNealy, Joy, Bechtolsheim.
First workstation introduced. It includes TCP/IP, now known as the Internet
protocol suite (NOT invented by Sun)
The SUN-2 features a Motorola 68010 processor and uses a Multibus. This
one has 4MB of memory installed and a 400MB Fujitsu M2351 Eagle disk.
The SUN-2 can be used diskless when booted from a server. In 1982 the
Network File System (NFS) was a new invention by Sun.
2006
pg
- 39 -
1982
2006
The US Justice Department throws out the antitrust lawsuit filed

against IBM 13 years ago.
Microsoft signs an agreement with Apple Computer, for Microsoft to
develop applications for the Macintosh.
IBM splits its Personal Computer development team into three
groups: one to work on the PC XT, one to develop the PCjr, and
one to start work on the PC AT.
Compaq Computer Corporation is founded by Rod Canion, Jim
Harris, and Bill Murto, all former senior managers of Texas
Instruments.
Intel introduces the 6-MHz 80286 microprocessor. It uses a 16-bit
data bus, 134,000 transistors (1.5 microns), and offers protected
mode operation. Initial price is US$360 each, in quantities of 100. It
can access 16 MB of memory, or 1 GB of virtual memory. Speed is
0.9 MIPS. Later versions operate at 8-MHz, 10-MHz (1.5 MIPS), and
12-MHz (2.66 MIPS).
pg
- 40 -
1982
January
2006
Kazuhiko Nishi, Microsoft's representative in Japan, shows Bill Gates a

drawing of a prototype for a portable computer, using a new liquid crystal
display developed by Hitachi. Gates and Nishi begin designing the details of
the computer, which Kyocera Corporation in Japan had agreed to
manufacture.
In the first 10 months of sale, 250,000 Sinclair ZX81 microcomputers have
been delivered.
Microsoft signs an agreement with Apple Computer, for Microsoft to
develop applications for the Macintosh.
Apple Computer gives Microsoft its first Macintosh prototype, for
Microsoft to develop applications on.
pg
- 41 -
1982
February
The first issue of PC Magazine is released.
IBM splits its Personal Computer development team into three groups:
one to work on the PC XT, one to develop the PCjr, and one to start work
on the PC AT.
Compaq Computer Corporation is founded by Rod Canion, Jim Harris,
and Bill Murto, all former senior managers of Texas Instruments.
Intel introduces the 6-MHz 80286 microprocessor. It uses a 16-bit data
bus, 134,000 transistors (1.5 microns), and offers protected mode
operation. Initial price is US$360 each, in quantities of 100. It can access 16
MB of memory, or 1 GB of virtual memory. Speed is 0.9 MIPS. Later
versions operate at 8-MHz, 10-MHz (1.5 MIPS), and 12-MHz (2.66 MIPS).
Sun Microsystems is founded. "SUN" originally stood for Stanford
University Network.
2006
pg
- 42 -
1982
March
Microsoft releases FORTRAN for MS-DOS. [346.262]
April
Mitch Kapor founds Lotus Development Corporation.
Eight months after the introduction of the IBM PC, 50,000 units have
been sold.
May
Sun Microsystems begins shipping the Sun 1 workstation computer.
Microsoft releases MS-DOS 1.1 to IBM, for the IBM PC. It supports
320KB double-sided floppy disk drives. Microsoft also releases MS-DOS
1.25, similar to 1.1 but for IBM-compatible computers.
June
The first IBM PC clone, the MPC, is released by Columbia Data Products.
July
Apple Computer releases the Apple Dot Matrix Printer, for US$700. It is a
modified C.Itoh printer.
Context MBA is the first integrated software package, with spreadsheet,
graphics, word processing, data management, and communications.
2006
pg
- 43 -
1982
August
IBM ships the 200,000th IBM PC.
Microsoft releases Multiplan for the Apple II and the Osborne I.
Hercules announces the Hercules Graphics Card (HGC or HGA), with
monochrome graphics at 720x348 resolution.
September
October
November
Lotus Development announces the Lotus 1-2-3 spreadsheet program at
Comdex in Las Vegas.
Corporate headhunter Gerry Rocke, of Heidrick & Struggles, calls PepsiCola president John Sculley, asking him to take the position of chief
executive of Apple Computer.
Compaq Computer introduces the Compaq Portable PC: 4.77MHz 8088,
128KB RAM, 9-inch monochrome monitor, one 320KB 5.25-inch disk
drive, price US$3000. It cost Compaq US$1 million to create an IBMcompatible ROM BIOS that did not violate IBM's copyright.
2006
pg
- 44 -
1982
December
Satellite Software International ships WordPerfect 2.0 for DOS, for
US$500.
Digital Research announces CP/M+.
Atari issues a US$55 rebate on the Atari 400, dropping its retail price to
under US$200.
Sales of all Apple II systems to date: 750,000.
Apple Computer becomes the first personal computer company to reach
US$1 billion in annual sales.
month unknown
Microsoft releases GW-BASIC, with advanced graphics capabilities.
[346.262]
Microsoft releases Microsoft COBOL for MS-DOS.
IBM releases Digital Research's CP/M-86 for the IBM PC.
Symantec is formed.
2006
pg
- 45 -
1983 main highlights
Apple introduced its Lisa. The first personal computer with a

graphical user interface, its development was central in the move
to such systems for personal computers.
Compaq Computer Corp. introduced first PC clone that used the

same software as the IBM PC.
Oracle got its name (renamed from Relational Software)
Unix system V version, C++ language, Turbo Pascal, MS Word
The Musical Instrument Digital Interface was introduced at the first

North American Music Manufacturers show in Los Angeles.
2006
pg
- 46 -
1983: LISA
Apple Computer officially unveils the Lisa computer. It features a 5MHz 68000 microprocessor, 1MB RAM, 2MB ROM, a 12-inch B/W
monitor, 720x364 graphics, dual 5.25-inch 860KB floppy drives,
and a 5MB Profile hard drive. It is slow, but innovative. Its initial
price is US$10,000. The Lisa cost Apple Computer US$50 million to
develop. It is the first personal computer with a graphical user
interface (GUI). The software for it cost Apple Computer US$100
million to develop. "Lisa" stands for Local Integrated Software
Architecture. During its lifetime, 100,000 units are produced.
Quote by Steve Jobs, of Apple Computer, "We're prepared to live

with Lisa for the next ten years."
2006
pg
- 47 -
1983: Oracle corporation: SQL databases etc

1974-1979: IBM System/R project gives SQL language for database
manipulation and queries. SQL invented by IBM. Ideas: 70-72 Codd.
1977 Relational Software Inc. (RSI - currently Oracle Corporation)
established: Ellison and Miner.
1978 Oracle V1 ran on PDP-11 under RSX, 128 KB max memory.
Written in assembly language. Implementation separated Oracle
code and user code. Oracle V1 was never officially released.
1980 Oracle V2 released on DEC PDP-11 machine. Still written in
PDP-11 assembly language, but now
ran under Vax/VMS.
1982 Oracle V3 released, Oracle
became the first DBMS to run
on mainframes, minicomputers,
and PC's. Code was written in C.

1983 Relational Software Inc.
changed its name to Oracle
Corporation.
2006
pg
- 48 -
1983: other important software

Big machines:
AT&T announces UNIX System V.

AT&T Bell Labs designs C++.
Small machines:
2006
Lotus Development ships Lotus 1-2-3 Release 1.0 for MS-DOS.

Functions: spreadsheet+database+graphics. US$1 million was spent
on promoting the release. It requires 256KB of RAM, more than any
microcomputer program at the time. Jonathan Sachs was the
programmer, with Mitch Kapor as the software designer.
Borland International is founded by Philippe Kahn. Borland
International releases Turbo Pascal for CP/M and 8086-based
computers.
pg
- 49 -
1983
2006
AT&T announces UNIX System V.

Apple Computer introduces the Apple IIe. It features 64KB RAM,
Applesoft BASIC, upper/lower case keyboard, seven expansion
slots, 40x24 and 80x24 text, 1-MHz 6502 processor, up to 560x192
graphics, 140KB 5.25-inch floppy drive, Apple DOS 3.3, for
US$1400.
Lotus Development ships Lotus 1-2-3 Release 1.0 for MS-DOS.
US$1 million was spent on promoting the release. It requires
256KB of RAM, more than any microcomputer program at the time.
Jonathan Sachs was the programmer, with Mitch Kapor as the
software designer.
IBM announces the IBM PC XT. It adds a 10 MB hard drive, three
more expansion slots, and a serial interface. With 128KB RAM and
a 360KB floppy drive, it costs US$5000.
Microsoft announces MS-DOS 2.0 for PCs. It was written from
scratch, supporting 10 MB hard drives, a tree-structured file
system, and 360 KB floppy disks.
pg
- 50 -
1983
2006
Microsoft introduces XENIX 3.0.

Microsoft introduces Multi-Tool Word for DOS (later renamed
Microsoft Word) word processing program at Spring Comdex in
Atlanta, Georgia.
John Sculley is hired at Apple Computer as Chief Operating
Officer.
Microsoft gives a "smoke-and-mirrors" demonstration of Interface
Manager (later called Windows), which consists entirely of
overlapping windows, appearing to be running programs
simultaneously.
At the NCC, Jerry Pournelle (popular writer in Byte magazine) gives
his predictions about computer technology in the year 1988: RAM
would be 30 cents/KB, all microcomputers would have at least 1MB
RAM, 10 MB hard drives would be common, operating systems
would be in ROM chips, hard drive space would cost under 5
cents/KB, letter quality printers would cost US$1000-1500,
combination laser printer/ copy machines would be US$2000, full
business-quality computers would cost $1000, and all televisions
would include computers.
pg
- 51 -
1983
2006
The one millionth Apple II is made.

Microsoft, SpectraVideo, and 14 Japanese computer companies
announce the MSX specifications for low-end, 8-bit home
computers systems. The standard is Zilog Z80, TI TMS9918A video
processor, General Instruments AY-8910 sound processor, NEC
cassette interface chip, Atari joystick interface, 64 KB RAM,
Microsoft's 32 KB ROM-based extended BASIC.
AT&T Bell Labs designs C++.
Steve Wozniak returns to Apple Computer.
pg
- 52 -
1983
2006
Microsoft formally announces Microsoft Windows, at the Plaza

Hotel in New York. It is promised for release in April, 1984.
Borland International releases Turbo Pascal for CP/M and 8086-based
computers.
IBM announces the IBM PCjr, using Intel's 8088, for US$700 for the
bare configuration. Code name during development was Peanut.
Quote from Spinnaker Software chairman William Bowman: "We're
just sitting here trying to put our PCjrs in a pile and burn them.
And the damn things won't burn. That's the only thing IBM did right
with it - they made it flameproof."
pg
- 53 -
1983
2006
Microsoft officially releases Microsoft Word 1.0, for US$375, or

US$475 with the Microsoft Mouse.
Apple Computer introduces the redesigned Apple III as the Apple
III+, for US$3000.
Apple unveils the new Macintosh to the press.
Microsoft marketeer Rowland Hanson convinces Bill Gates to
change the name of Interface Manager to Windows.
IBM and Microsoft begin co-developing OS/2. [38]
Dan Silva and others leave Xerox, to form Electronic Arts.
Franklin shows an operating Franklin Ace 1200 Apple II compatible
at the CP/M '83 Show. It features an 8-bit processor, 128KB RAM,
color display, upper/lower-case keyboard, 143KB floppy drive,
CP/M card, 80-column text card, for US$2200.
In its first year, Compaq Computer sells 47,000 computers, worth
US$111 million.
George Tate, of Ashton-Tate, buys all rights to dBase II from
Wayne Ratcliff, and hires him as head of development for dBase III.
pg
- 54 -
1983
2006
Borland International is founded by Philippe Kahn.

Microsoft shows IBM a raw version of Windows. IBM is not
interested as they are already developing what would be called
TopView.
Novell introduces the NetWare network operating system for the
IBM PC.
Bjorne Stroustrup creates the C++ extension to the C programming
language.
pg
- 55 -
1984 main highlights
2006
Apple Computer launched the Macintosh, the first successful mousedriven computer with a graphic user interface, with a single $1.5
million commercial during the 1984 Super Bowl.
The 3 1/2-inch "microfloppy" diskette won widespread acceptance,
aided by Apple Computer's decision to integrate its use into the
new Macintosh.
IBM released its PC Jr. and PC-AT. The PC Jr. failed, but the PC-AT,
several times faster than original PC and based on the Intel 80286
chip, claimed success with its notable increases in performance
and storage capacity, all for about $4,000.
In his novel "Neuromancer," William Gibson coined the term
"cyberspace." He also spawned a genre of fiction known as
"cyberpunk" in his book, which described a dark, complex future
filled with intelligent machines, computer viruses, and paranoia.
GNU project launched
X-Window system started in MIT
pg
- 56 -
1984: Apple Macintosh
2006
Apple Computer's Steve Jobs introduces the Apple Macintosh at the

Flint Center of DeAnza College in Cupertino, California. The
Macintosh uses the 8-MHz 32-bit Motorola 68000 CPU, built-in 9inch B/W screen, 512x342 graphics, 400KB 3.5-inch floppy disk
drive, mouse, 128KB RAM, and weighs 20 pounds. Price: US$2500.
pg
- 57 -
1984: Apple Macintosh
Apple Computer launched the Macintosh, the first successful

mouse-driven computer with a graphic user interface, with a single
$1.5 million commercial during the 1984 Super Bowl.
.. On January 24th, Apple Computer will introduce

Macintosh. And you will see why 1984 won't be like "1984."
2006
pg
- 58 -
1984
2006
IBM ships the IBM PCjr. It uses the 8088 CPU, includes 64KB RAM,
a "Freeboard" keyboard, and one 5.25-inch disk drive, no monitor,
for US$1300.
74 days after the introduction of the Macintosh, 50,000 units have
been sold. [218]
Apple Computer unveils the Apple IIc with an intense publicity
extravaganza, at the Moscone Center in San Francisco. Priced at
US$1300, 2,000 dealers place orders for more than 52,000 units on
the day of its introduction. The IIc uses a 65C02A microprocessor,
128KB RAM, weighs 7.5 pounds, includes a 3.5-inch floppy drive,
supports 40- or 80-column screens, and allows both QWERTY and
Dvorak keyboard layouts.
Apple Computer retires the Apple III and Apple III+, with only
65,000 units sold in total.
pg
- 59 -
Apple product lines: overview
Two main lines: Apple II and Macintosh

Develop BOTH hardware and software (operating system and other
important modules used by all external programmers)
Apple I
Apple II
(1976)
(1977-1993)
Apple III
Stopped
Stopped
(1980-1985)
Macintosh (1984 ....)
Lisa
(1983-1986)
Mac OS operating system
Mac Os X
(UNIX-based)
Newton PDA
Stopped
(1990-1993)
2006
Ipod MP3 player
pg
- 60 -
1984
2006
Microsoft's Bill Gates and Steve Ballmer write an internal applications

strategy memo on the company's commitment to the GUI, on the Macintosh
and for Windows.
Ashton-Tate ships dBase III.
Six months after its introduction, 100,000 Macintosh computers have been
sold.
IBM announces the PC AT, a 6MHz 80286 computer using PC-DOS 3.0, a
5.25-inch 1.2MB floppy drive, with 256KB or 512KB RAM, optional 20 MB
hard drive, monochrome or color monitor. Price ranges from US$40006700, depending on configuration.
IBM introduces PC/IX, based on UNIX System III from AT&T, for the PC AT.
IBM announces TopView, a DOS multitasking program.
IBM announces the Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA), supporting up to
640x350 resolution in 16 colors. With 64K, the card costs US$524. For
640x350x16 mode, a US$200 64KB RAM expander is required.
Apple Computer introduces the Macintosh 512K for US$3200. It uses an 8MHz 68000 processor, and comes with 512 KB RAM, and a 400 KB 3.5-inch
floppy drive.
pg
- 61 -
1984
2006
Microsoft gives a demonstration of the final version of Windows

to IBM. For the third time, IBM is not interested.
The number of hosts on the Internet reaches 1000.
Lotus Development officially announces Jazz for the Macintosh,
an all-in-one program incorporating a spreadsheet, database,
graphics, word processing, and communications.
The 2 millionth Apple II computer is sold.
Sierra On-Line releases the game King's Quest.
Apple Computer releases AppleWorks, one of the first integrated
software packages, with modules for word processing, database
management, and spreadsheet calculations. It was written by
Rupert Lissner.
Hewlett-Packard introduces the LaserJet laser printer, featuring
300dpi resolution, for US$3,600.
Foxbase releases Foxbase for MS-DOS.
MIPS Computer Systems is founded (a spinoff from SGI), and
begins developing its RISC architecture.
pg
- 62 -
1984
2006
Sun Microsystems co-founder Vinod Khosla resigns.

Scott McNealy is appointed president of Sun Microsystems.
subLogic releases Flight Simulator for the Commodore 64.
pg
- 63 -
1984
2006
Richard Stallman launches the GNU Project, to develop the free

operating system GNU (anacronym for ``GNU's Not Unix''), and
thereby give computer users the freedom that most of them have
lost. GNU is free software: everyone is free to copy it and
redistribute it, as well as to make changes either large or small.
pg
- 64 -
1984
2006
The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) begins

developing the X Window System. X is the basic window system for
almost all UNIX machines nowadays.
pg
- 65 -
1985: Main highlights
The modern Internet gained support when the National Science

foundation formed the NSFNET, linking five supercomputer
centers at Princeton University, Pittsburgh, University of
California at San Diego, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,
and Cornell University.
Able to hold 550 megabytes of prerecorded data, the new CDROMs grew out of regular CDs on which music is recorded.
The C++ programming language emerged as the dominant objectoriented language in the computer industry when Bjarne
Stroustrup published "The C++ Programming Language."
Free GNU Emacs 15.34 released by Richard Stallman
2006
pg
- 66 -
1985
2006
IBM announces that it will cease production and promotion of the

IBM PCjr.
The Macintosh XL (formerly called Lisa) is dropped from Apple
Computer's product line.
Apple Computer's board of directors approves John Sculley's
decision to remove Steve Jobs as head of the Macintosh division.
Apple Computer president John Sculley essentially fires Steve
Jobs at Apple Computer.
Microsoft introduces Microsoft Excel for the Macintosh, in New
York.
Lotus Development releases Lotus Jazz for the Macintosh, for
US$595.
Microsoft demonstrates Microsoft Windows at Spring Comdex.
Release date is set for June, at a price of US$95.
Apple Computer reports its first quarterly loss.
pg
- 67 -
1985
Microsoft and IBM sign a joint-development agreement to work together on

future operating systems and environments.
Apple Computer co-founder Steve Jobs resigns from Apple Computer.
Steve Jobs and five senior managers of Apple Computer Inc. found NeXT
Incorporated.
Microsoft ships Microsoft Windows 1.0, for US$100. It is delivered two
years after the initial announcement of the product
Broderbund releases Karateka for the Commodore 64.
Steve Jobs sells 4 million shares of Apple Computer, netting about
US$70.5 million. If he had held them to the fall of 1987, they would have
brought US$481 million.
U.S. Robotics introduces the Courier 2400 modem.
Intel introduces the 80287 math coprocessor.
Microsoft purchases all rights to DOS from Seattle Computer Products for
US$925,000.
Sun Microsystems begins work on its SPARC processor.
Microsoft releases QuickBASIC 1.0.
2006
pg
- 68 -
Microsoft main product lines: overview
Main lines: progr languages, MS-DOS, Windows, NT/2000/XT, Office

Develop software (hardware: mouse, Xbox, etc are much less
important) for IBM PC clones and (Office, Basic) for Apple
Basic, (Fortran), (Cobol), C, C++, C# etc interpreters and compilers: 1975 ...
MS DOS 1
MS-DOS 2.0 etc (1983 ... 2004?)
(bought)
1981)
Stopped
Windows 1-3
(1985 ... 1996 ?)
Windows 95/98/Me (1995 .... 2004?)
Stopped
OS/2
Together with IBM
Windows NT/2000/XP (1993 ...)
DEC VAX
1987 ... 1990
VMS op system
Office (Word, Excel, etc): 1983...
(1978)
2006
pg
- 69 -
1986
David Miller of AT/T Bell Labs patented the optical transistor, a

component central to digital optical computing.
Daniel Hillis of Thinking Machines Corp. moved artificial

intelligence a step forward when he developed the controversial
concept of massive parallelism in the Connection Machine.
IBM and MIPS released the first RISC-processor-based workstations,

the PC/RT and R2000-based systems.
Compaq beat IBM to the market when it announced the Deskpro

386, the first computer on the market to use Intel's new 80386 chip,
a 32-bit microprocessor with 275,000 transistors on each chip.
2006
pg
- 70 -
1987
Motorola unveiled the 68030 microprocessor.

Sun unveiled the Sparc microprocessor, based on RISC ideas.
IBM introduced its PS/2 machines, which made the 3 1/2-inch floppy
disk drive and video graphics array (VGA) standard for IBM
computers.
Apple engineer William Atkinson designed HyperCard, a software
tool that simplifies development of in-house applications.
HyperCard was one of the inspirations for the web browser, which
came in 1990.
Side note: CISC vs RISC processor architectures

CISC: complex instruction set computer (Intel, motorola 68000
series, ..)
A large number of instructions, most are relatively slow
RISC: reduced instruction set computer (PowerPC, Sparc, ....)
A small number of instructions, all are very fast
In practice, CISC and RISC ideas converge in newer processors
2006
pg
- 71 -
1987: GCC, the main C compiler nowadays
GCC version 1.0 released by Free Software Foundation founder

Richard Stallman.
GCC once stood for GNU C Compiler, since it was used to compile
programs written in the C programming language for Stallman's
"GNU's Not Unix" (GNU) effort to create a clone of Unix. Now,
though, because GCC accepts programs written in many other
languages as well, GCC stands for GNU Compiler Collection.
GCC is the main compiler used on all kinds of UNIX-es, and several
ports of GCC (cygwin, djgpp) are highly popular on MS Windows
as well
Ported to a very large number of processors

Compiles: C, C++, Objective C, Fortran, Java, Ada, (Pascal)
2006
pg
- 72 -
1988
Apple cofounder Steve Jobs, who left Apple to form his own
company, unveiled the NeXT workstation.
Compaq and other PC-clone makers developed enhanced industry

standard architecture -- better than microchannel and retained
compatibility with existing machine (ISA).
Pixar's "Tin Toy" became the first computer-animated film to win an

Academy Award, taking the Oscar for best animated short film.
Pixar was founded by Jobs.
Robert Morris' worm flooded the ARPANET. Then-23-year-old Morris,

the son of a computer security expert for the National Security
Agency, sent a nondestructive worm through the Internet, causing
problems for about 6,000 of the 60,000 hosts linked to the network.
2006
pg
- 73 -
1989
2006
Intel released the 80486 microprocessor and the i860

RISC/coprocessor chip, each of which contained more than 1
million transistors.
Motorola announced the 68040 microprocessor, with about 1.2
million transistors.
Maxis released SimCity, a sophisticated video game that helped
launch a new genre, the simulation.
AOL (America Online) network service launched for Macintosh and
Apple II (MS Windows version appears in 1993). The company Quantum Computer Services was created in 1985, by Steve Case,
initially running internet services (games, email, chat, news) for the
Commodore 64 machines using dial-up.
AOL provided access to the Internet, and, in addition, offered
access to its own online information and services tailored to
average Americans.
NB! In the initial years of AOL there was no WWW or HTML.
pg
- 74 -
Introduction to Information Technology
Overview: great sagas (1980-)1990-2003
2006
Hardware:
The rise and fall of special processors. One exception: 3D graphical processors 1996...
IBM PC
Apple Macintosh
Sun workstations & servers
Palmtops: Apple Newton, Palm. MS Pocket PC opssteem.
Software:
Microsoft becomes the main developer of IBM PC software
Microsoft and IBM quarrel: Windows NT vs OS/2
SQL database (query) language and databases become mainstream
Gnu / Linux and freeware distribution. Linux, Apache jms.
Internet for the masses: html and browsers
Early news-system (80s: USENET). Internet for universities, not the masses.
1990 Tim-Berners Lee invents HTML and the modern browser
Netscape takes the browser to the masses.
WWW changes internet into a mainstream technology.
Microsoft takes Netscapes browserpart, Netscape starts up the Mozilla freeware-project
Dot-com bubble:
in the USA stocks were rising fast from the beginning of the 90s
at the end of the 90s internet- and software shares are over-priced
in 2001(March 10) burst of dot-com bubble: stockmarket deflation till autumn 2002 :
tehnology shares at the 96 level, Dow Jones (classical big company shares) at 97 level.
pg
-2-
1990: HTML, http and the browser are born

The World Wide Web was born when Tim Berners-Lee, a researcher at CERN,
the high-energy physics laboratory in Geneva, developed HyperText
Markup Language.
HTML, as it is commonly known, allowed the Internet to expand into the
World Wide Web, using specifications he developed such as URL (uniform
resource locator) and HTTP (hypertext transfer protocol).
Berners-Lee based the World Wide Web on Enquire, a hypertext system he

had developed for himself, with the aim of allowing people to work together
by combining their knowledge in a global web of hypertext documents.
With this idea in mind, Berners-Lee designed

both the first World Wide Web server and browser
-- available to the general public in 1991.
First web server address: info.cern.ch
Berners-Lee founded the W3 Consortium,
which coordinates World Wide Web development.
www.w3c.org
2006
pg
-4-
1990 :TBL/TimBL browser, runs on NeXT
2006
pg
-5-
1990 WWW background: what it was and

what it wasnt
Was by this time:

internet has already existed for a long while
Email, ftp, gopher and other file-exchange systems on the internet
Applei HyperCard (approximately like html, but in the area of one machine)
And there were earlier ides that were not realized :
ideas of Vannevar Bush from 1945, Doug Engelbarts classical demo from
year 1960 (mouse, windows co-operation over network) and
Ted Nelsoni unfinished project Xanadu (1965)
2006
Ted Nelson is a somewhat controversial figure in the computing world. For thirtysomething years he has been having grand ideas but has never seen them
through to completed projects.
His biggest project, Xanadu, was to be a world-wide electronic publishing
system that would have created a sort universal libary for the people.
He is known for coining the term "hypertext." He is also seen as something of a
radical figure, opposing authority and tradition. He often repeats his four maxims by
which he leads his life: "most people are fools, most authority is malignant,
God does not exist, and everything is wrong." (Wolf, 1995)
Berners Lee practically put together programming ideas and made a very
user-friendly system for end-users; HTML is very easy
pg
-6-
1990: GNU UNIX almost complete
1990, the GNU system was almost complete; the only major
missing component was the kernel.
2006
The GNU Project was launched in 1984 to develop a complete

UNIX-like operating system which is free software: the GNU system.
It was decided to implement the kernel as a collection of server

processes running on top of Mach. Mach is a microkernel
developed at Carnegie Mellon University and then at the
University of Utah. The start of development was delayed as
people waited for Mach to be released as free software, as had
been promised.
pg
-7-
1990: MS and IBM end cooperation
Microsoft shipped Windows 3.0 on May 22.
IBM and Microsoft end cooperative work on operating systems,

dividing up work-to-date between them, in a series of crosslicensing agreements.
Microsoft will work on Windows, DOS, and a portable version of
OS/2.
IBM will continue development of 16-bit and 32-bit versions of OS/2.
2006
pg
-8-
1990: Internet end-point in Estonia: e-mail and

USENET
With help of a borrowed modem from the Tampere university
(Robotics Courier V.32) the scientists of the Cybernetics Institute
(Aleksander Shmundak, Mari Kpp and Leonid Tomberg)
established a regular connection with the computer of the Finnish
Unix-user community (FUUG)
The computer of the Cybernetics Institute called the Finnish
computer every half an hour and downloaded the e-information (b
Mosaic v1.0 basically
is released.email)
For a monthly sum of about 400 rubels per month Estonian clients
could access their own modem the computer of the Cybernetics
Institute and send/receive emails
The ending of the email of the institute was .su, which meant
Soviet Union
2006
pg
-9-
1991
2006
Linus Torvalds, a student at the University of Helsinki in Finland,

starts working as a hobby on Linux. Linus had an interest in Minix, a
small UNIX system created by Tannenbaum, and decided to
develop a system that exceeded the Minix standards. He began his
work in 1991 when he released version 0.02
Linus used both Minix and Gnu for his work: essentially, Linux is a
Minix-inspired kernel for Gnu.
pg
- 10 -
1991
2006
Microsoft changes the name of OS/2 v3.0 to Windows NT.
pg
- 11 -
1992
2006
Microsoft stock reaches US$113/share, making Bill Gates the richest

man in the United States.
In the second year of the RS/6000 line, IBM has sold US$2 billion
worth.
Microsoft launches its first TV advertising campaign, for Windows.
Microsoft buys Fox Software for 1.36 million shares of Microsoft's
common stock, valued at US$17. million.
IBM ships OS/2 2.0. It requires an Intel 386 processor, 4 MB RAM,
and adds WIN-OS/2 3.0 for Windows 3.0 compatibility. Code name
during development was Cruiser.
Microsoft ships Windows 3.1. 1 million copies of the new and
upgrade versions are sold through retail channels within the first
50 days.
IBM and Microsoft sign a "divorce" document, allowing source code
sharing for current versions operating systems up to September
1993.
pg
- 12 -
1992: GSM mobile networks: first providers appear
1982 Nordic Telecom and Netherlands PTT propose to CEPT

(Conference of European Post and Telecommunications) the
development of a new digital cellular standard that would cope
with the ever a burgeoning demands on European mobile
networks.
1982 The European Commission (EC) issues a directive which
requires member states to reserve frequencies in the 900 MHz
band for GSM to allow for roaming.
1987 13 operators and administrators from 12 areas in the CEPT
GSM advisory group sign the charter GSM (Groupe Spciale
Mobile) MoU "Club" agreement, with a launch date of 1 July 1991.
GSM spec drafted.
1990 Phase 1 GSM 900 specifications are frozen. First GSM World
congress in Rome with 650 Participants
1992 January - First GSM network operator is
Oy Radiolinja Ab in Finland.
2006
1992 December - 13 networks on air in 7 areas. GSM World

Congress Berlin - 630 Participants
pg
- 13 -
1992: Real TCP/IP end-points in Estonia
Lippmaa organised the establisment of two expensive (KBFI) satellite

connections for real TCP/IP:
Tallinn(KBFI)-Stockholm(KTH) and
Tartu(Biokeskus)-Stockholm.
Ants Wrk from the Cybernetics Institute organised exernal cable

connection to Helsinki.
the KBFI satellite connection was ready one month earlier than the
Mosaic v1.0 cable
is released.
connection of Cybernetics Institute
Because KBFIs new internet-branch got ready before CIs
(Cybernetica Institute), they acquired the .ee domain, which was
different from the Soviet Union (.su)
They also started administrating Estonias internal internet.
Both CI and KBFI-BioCenter lived on external financing, but were
meant for academic users.
2006
pg
- 14 -
1992: Wolfenstein 3d and what happened next
Wolfenstein 3D was originally released for DOS in 1992 by ID

Software. Main authors: Carmack & Romero. It is the first popular
3D first-person shooter.
Wolfenstein 3D is followed
by Doom, also by ID software.
Quake released 1996 by ID software.

Features support for the 3D graphics
ani- processor called Voodoo by 3dfx,
mation, released same year. Full 3d in real time achieved in Quake!
not After a while, a large number of 3D games appear, assuming
special 3D graphics instruction processors on users computers.
3d
These processors speed graphical programs up incredibly:
hundreds of times
In 2002, Nvidia buys 3dfx. Nvidia and ATI emerge as dominant 3D
graphics processor makers.
sprite
2006
pg
- 15 -
1993
2006
NeXT announces that it will drop its hardware line, to focus on

becoming a larger player in the object-oriented software industry.
Approximately 50,000 NeXT machines were built in total. It will lay
off 330 of its 500 employees.
Digital Equipment announces the 200-MHz Alpha 21064 processor.
Sun Microsystems ships the 50-MHz Sun SuperSPARC processor.
Intel introduces the Pentium processor. It uses 32-bit registers, with
a 64-bit data bus, giving it an address space of 4 GB. It
incorporates 3.1 million transistors, using 0.8-micron BiCMOS
technology. Speeds are 60-MHz (100 MIPS) and 66-MHz (112 MIPS).
Prices are US$878 (60-MHz) and US$964 (66-MHz).
Sun Microsystems, Novell, Hewlett-Packard, IBM and the Santa
Cruz Operation announce that they will work together toward a
unified UNIX operating system standard.
Motorola Corp. ships the first PowerPC 601 chips. The processors
use 2.8 million transistors, with 3 execution units.
Microsoft reports that there are 25 million licensed users of
Microsoft Windows.
pg
- 16 -
1993
2006
Apple Computer introduces the Newton MessagePad 100 personal

digital assistant at Macworld Expo, in Boston's Symphony Hall. It
features 640KB RAM, 3MB of ROM storing applications and the
operating system (Newton Intelligence), a low-voltage 20-MHz 32bit ARM 610 microprocessor, 240x336 resolution (85 dpi) 2.8 x 4inch LCD screen, one PCMCIA Type II expansion socket, data
transfer of 9600bps, and runs on four AAA batteries. 50,000 units
sell in the first 10 weeks, but only 80,000 are sold during the
product's life.
pg
- 17 -
1993: further development of the system of BernersLee at NCSA
First publicly available popular browser, free to download, runs on

several UNIX workstations:
NCSA Mosaic v1.0 is released.
NCSA: National Center for Supercomputing Applications
Mosaic v1.0 is released.
2006
MS Internet Explorer about in 2002 says: Based on NCSA Mosaic.

NCSA Mosaic(TM); was developed at the National Center for
Supercomputing Applications at the University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign.
pg
- 18 -
1994: NCSA www-meeskonnast tekib Netscape
Silicon Graphics co-founder James Clark leaves to start Mosaic

Communications. Mosaic soon renamed to Netscape.
Mosaic Communications releases Netscape Navigator 1.0, a worldwide web browser.
Asutajad: Clark ja Andreessen

Clark invested $4 millions.
Andreessen invested source
code and competence and team.
Microsoft offers Netscape US$1 million to license Netscape's
browser code. Netscape refuses.
2006
pg
- 19 -
1994: Netscape message on USENET

From: Marc Andreessen (marca@mcom.com)
Subject: Here it is, world!
View: Complete Thread (30 articles) Original Format
Newsgroups: comp.infosystems.www.users,
comp.infosystems.www.providers, comp.infosystems.www.misc,
comp.infosystems
Date: 1994-10-13 06:51:10 PST
Mosaic Communications Corporation is a making a public version of
Mosaic Netscape 0.9 Beta available for anonymous FTP. Mosaic
Netscape is a built-from-scratch Internet navigator featuring
performance optimized for 14.4 modems, native JPEG support, and
more. You can FTP Mosaic Netscape 0.9 Beta from the following
locations:
.....
2006
pg
- 20 -
Mosaic and Netscape site logos 1994
2006
pg
- 21 -
1994: GNU/Linux version 1.0 and freeware BSD-s
2006
A freeware version of UNIX BSD branch: 4.4 BSD Lite at Berkeley

Linus Torvalds releases version 1.0 of the Linux Kernel.
NB! Freeware BSD-s and Linux are completely separate projects to
create freeware UNIX-es
pg
- 22 -
1994
2006
Dr. Thomas R. Nicely of Lynchburg College notes that the Pentium

processor sometimes produces flawed floating-point results, yielding
only 4-8 decimals of precision.
IBM and Motorola announce the 100-MHz PowerPC 604 processor. The
604 has one floating-point unit, and three integer units. Two of the
integer units perform single clock cycle instruction, while the other
is used for integer multiplication and division.The processor uses
3.6 million transistors. Internally, 64 bits. Based on RISC ideas.
Apple starts using PowerPC instead of older Motorola processors.
First such Macintoshes are called PowerMac-s.
pg
- 23 -
1995: Netscape to stockmarket, WWW mainstream
2006
Netscape: brsile 5 miljonit aktsiat alghinnaga $28. Aktsiahind kasvab he

pevaga $75-le. 1996 lagi: 179$. 1996 lpp on hind ca $40. Enne ostmist
AOL poolt maksab Netscape stock ca 20$.
Microsoft asks Netscape Communications to agree to not develop
Netscape Navigator for Windows 95 and successors. Netscape refuses.
Free Apache web server released, using NCSA httpd 1.3 as a base.
History: first there was the Berners-Lee built server at Cern. Then NCSA
people created their own server.Rob McCool writes:
> How did you first get involved in the NCSA HTTPd project, and who else
> worked on that with you?
It was largely me, Eric Bina did some work on group annotations, and I took
some ideas/code/etc. from a number of people across the Web. If I tried to name
them I'd probably forget a lot of people. I first got involved because Marc wanted
to have a small, simple server that people could use with Mosaic. He felt the
CERN server was too large and complex, and that something small and easy to
understand would facilitate more widespread adoption.
pg
- 24 -
1995: Estonias first newpaper on internet
2006
Eesti pevaleht. http://www.zzz.ee/epl/

First number: 5.Oct. 1995
Participants of the start-up:
Tanel Tammet: pushing & actually daily issuing
Marek Strandberg: one of EPLs owners, actively pro
Ott Kstner: www.zzz.ee one of the owners and basic keeper
Kalle Muuli: main editor, was happy to participate
pg
- 25 -
2006
pg
- 26 -
Postimees on the net: 1 December 1995
2006
pg
- 27 -
2006
pg
- 28 -
2006
pg
- 29 -
2006
pg
- 30 -
2006
pg
- 31 -
1995: Windows 95
2006
Microsoft releases Windows 95. More than 20,000 retail stores

offer copies for sale.
Windows 95 sports a GUI interface somewhat similar to
Apple Macintosh.
Microsoft prepares for support calls, with 1600 people
staffing tech support lines. 1 million copies of the new and
upgrade versions are sold through retail channels within the
first 4 days.
One month after the release of Windows 95, an estimated 7
million copies have been sold to end-users.
Microsoft releases Microsoft Internet Explorer 1.0.
Microsoft introduces Microsoft Office 95.
pg
- 32 -
1995: Pixars Toy Story
2006
First full-length feature film done entirely with 3-D animation.

Pixar was created by Jobs several years before.
pg
- 33 -
1995
Be Inc. introduces the BeBox
1990 saw Jean Louis Gasse and Steve Sakoman leave their
posts at Apple Computer and start working towards their dream of
creating a new kind of computer; one that would inspire both users and
developers. In late 1990, more Apple refugees, including Erich
Ringewald and Bob Herold, joined Gasse and Sakoman at their as yet
un-named company. ......
In January 1997, Be announced that it was ceasing production of

the BeBox, and would instead focus its efforts on further developing the
BeOS. Roughly 1800 BeBoxen had been manufactured.
2006
Borland International ships Borland Delphi.

Sun Microsystems announces sample availability of the 64-bit
UltraSPARC microprocessor.
IBM buys Lotus Development for US$3.5 billion in cash.
Sun brings out the portable Java language and associated libraries.
Java is initially used for writing small applets in HTML web pages,
but after a while focus shifts to ordinary programs without
browsers, especially on servers.
pg
- 34 -
1996
2006
NeXT ends development of the NeXTSTEP operating system.

Intel begins shipping the 200-MHz Pentium Pro processor.
Silicon Graphics buys Cray Research, at a cost of about US$765
million.
America Online agrees to bundle Netscape Navigator 2.0 with AOL's
GNN online service. AOL users will also be able to select Netscape
software to browse the web.
Microsoft agrees to bundle AOL software with Windows 95. AOL
agrees to make Microsoft Internet Explorer its built-in default
browser.
Microsoft releases Microsoft Internet Explorer 3.0.
Microsoft unveils Microsoft Office 97 at Fall Comdex. Prices:
standard edition US$499 (upgrade US$209), professional edition
US$599 (upgrade US$309)
pg
- 35 -
1996: Palm Pilot
2006
U.S. Robotics debuts the Palm Pilot.
pg
- 36 -
1996: Internet Banks in Estonia
Spring Forekspank: first trials.
Summer Hoiupank: full operation.
Hansapank first hesitating.

according to inside rumours someone from management said:
internet is for the sexual minority.
2006
pg
- 37 -
1997: Mac, MS, Gnu/Linux
2006
Microsoft ceases development of Windows NT for systems using

PowerPC processors.
Gilbert Amelio resigns as president, CEO, and chairman of Apple
Computers. His severance package is about US$7.5 million.
Steve Jobs begins designing what would become the iMac.
At Macworld Expo, Steve Jobs announces an alliance with Microsoft,
including an investment of US$150 million
Miguel de Icaza starts writing GNOME for GNU/Linux, developed
with the support of Red Hat Software, GNOME set out to provide
similar desktop facilities to KDE, but using free software
exclusively.
pg
- 38 -
1997: Computer chess finally wins big
2006
Deep Blue wins the reigning Wold Champion in Chess, Garri

Kasparov
pg
- 39 -
1998: Netscape down, Mozilla born
2006
Netscape makes source code for Netscape Communicator 5.0 browser

available for free download on the Internet
Free Mozilla browser project started.
Netscape lays off about 400 employees.
The US Department of Justice and 20 state attorneys general file

antitrust lawsuits against Microsoft, regarding its marketing of
Internet Explorer.
Microsoft applies for, and receives, a stay of the December 1997
court order allowing Windows 98 to ship with Internet Explorer 4.
Microsoft ships Windows 98 to OEMs.
America Online buys Netscape Communications for US$4.2 billion

in stock. Before, Netscape stock was priced around 20$.
pg
- 40 -
1998: iMac, MS super market cap, Red Hat
2006
Steve Jobs introduces the iMac: 233 MHz PowerPC G3 processor,

32 MB RAM, 4 GB hard disk, 24X CD-ROM, 15-inch monitor, 66-MHz
system bus, for US$1299.
Intel announces the Pentium II Xeon processor.
Microsoft becomes the world's most valuable company, at
US$261.1 billion.
Red Hat Linux 5.2 is released. Red Hat emerges as a dominant
Linux packaging-and-support company.
pg
- 41 -
1999-2003: essential things in these 5 years
Freeware (GNU/Linux, Apache etc) changes in servers (not desktops)

into mainstream-tehnology
GNU/Linux is more important than other UNIXs. At the same time it
didnt become a real competitor to Windows on desktops.
3D graphical processors change into essential standard-merchandise.
Apple changed to UNIX-based operating system (OS X).
Microsoft converged Windows 95/98/ME and NT/2000: Windows XP
HTMLs limitations brought along needs for XML-based technologies.
Peer-to-peer (P2P) technology-based file-exchange systems ((Napster),
(Morpheus), Kazaa, eDonkey, etc) appeared and became very popular.
Instant messengers become popular as alternatives/fill-ins to emailile
(AOL, Microsoft etc)
Buzzwords now (Warning! They are only in development phase, not
mainstream technologies!):
2006
Close range perspectives: network services (XML sites and software for
XML transformation).
Longer range perspektives: semantic-web-based technologies.
pg
- 42 -
1990-2002: share-bubble, end of 90s dot-com hype,

crash!
speculators decide to buy in anticipation of further rises,

rather than because the shares are undervalued !!!
1990-1996 grew USAs stockmarket (DOW as well as NASDAQ indexes) much

faster than in the previous decades.
1996 the Feds management Greenspan, guessed that the growth has been too
fast (irrational exuberance speech)
at the end of the 90s interneti became mainstream-technology
Many companies were born, which did not produce any profits, only spent
money, but their shares were bought by huge price.
This did cause rise of the price for those companies which produced profits.
in the beginning of 2000 NASDAQ index was still over 4500.
2002 autumn it was 1139!
2000-2002 NASDQ just like DOW have been constantly coming down
Analogy in Estonia : stockmarket-bubble 1997
General distress 2002 till 2003
2006
Suddenly comes the same downfall, as the big crash and depressioon in the 1930s
What if the same Japanese-like scenario happens, after the 1990 crash share prices go
down continuously afterwards for over 10 years!
pg
- 43 -
Internet Stocks
Example of IPO craze.

- IPOs issued Thursday, 10/12/98
Offering Fridays
theGlobe.com
EarthWeb
Price
Close
$ 9.00
$ 14.00
$ 63.00
$ 67.00
theGlobe Web site now:

In 1995, theglobe.com confirmed the Internet's power to connect
people worlds apart. Unfortunately, after six amazing years,
theglobe.com closed its doors on August 15, 2001, though our
award-winning games properties remain available at the links
below.
Nasdaq:1999-2003 autumn
2006
pg
- 45 -
Nasdaq longer period:1985-2003 autumn
2006
pg
- 46 -
Nasdaq and Dow Jones: 1985-2003 autumn
2006
pg
- 47 -
Nasdaq: 1978-2002, weekly plot, logarithmic
2006
pg
- 48 -
share bubblehistory
Internet-share bubble 1995-2001 is not the first of its kind
Three types of basic bubbles (Kolm phi-mullitpi):
2006
Overvalued investments into assets of low usefullness

(tulip mania in Holland 1630, Japanese real estate stocks in 1980-s)
Over investment into companies with high valued assets

(railroad stocks 1800, internet and IT stocks in 1995-2001)
Overvaluation of shares of generic companies

(before great depression in 1930-s,
stock market in general 1995-2001,
Eesti stock-bubble 1997
An example similar to the widespread-ness of internet, the railway-boom:

Railways changed the economy to much more effective
In the beginning many railway-companies were established
Most of them went bankrupt
A small amount (that was left) became a big company
pg
- 49 -
similar bubbles
of other technology-inspired booms of the past
including railroads in the 1840s,
automobiles and radio in the 1920s,
transistor electronics in the 1950s,
computer time-sharing in the 1960s, and
home computers and biotechnology in the early 1980s.
2006
pg
- 50 -
1929 crash and the great depression: Dow Jones
2006
pg
- 51 -
Talse 1999-2001: stock bubble in Estonia in 1997
IBM announces it will begin distribution and technical support for the Linux operating system on
its systems.
Microsoft releases Internet Explorer 5.0.
2006
pg
- 52 -
Japanese Real Estate,1955-90
Real estate values increased 75 times.
In 1990 real estate was valued at nearly $20 trillion.
20% of worlds wealth.
5 times the value of all US property.
Japanese Stocks,1955-90
Prices increased 100 times.

Japanese stocks accounted for 45% of the value of worlds equity
market.
Japanese stocks were valued at 1.5 times the value of all US
equities.
Market price-to-earnings ratio was 60.
Wide S&P indeks on a logarithmic scale up till 2000
Wide S&P indeks 1996-2002: head & shoulders
Microsoft
2006
Market cap:$ 235.4 B, veidi allpool General electricut.
pg
- 57 -
Sun Microsystems: 1987-2002 autumn.

Aug 2003: ca 3
2006
pg
- 58 -
Red hat: Linux packager and supportprovider
2006
pg
- 59 -
Red hat: 1-7 oct 2002 (in autumn 2003 again ca 9.5)
2006
pg
- 60 -
Kopin corp 3 months 2002:

innovative electronics firm (autumn 2003: ca 7)
2006
KOPN: Brings mh mainstream-microdisplays (in mobiles, etc)
pg
- 61 -
Ericsson: 2002 oct: 0.41, 1980 keskpaiga hinnatase
2006
pg
- 62 -
Old economy: General electric 1960-2002 autumn
2006
Market cap: $ 238.9 B
pg
- 63 -
List of well-known dot-coms
2006
Amazon.com
Boo.com: Now owned by Fashionmall.com
CDNow: Now owned by Amazon.com
eBay
eToys: Went bankrupt in 2000.
Excite@Home
Freeinternet.com - The 5th largest ISP and famous for its mascot "Baby Bob",
the company went bankrupt in 2000. Baby Bob was later sold to Quiznos Sub.
Google
Kozmo.com: Shut down in April 2001
Kibu.com: Shut down in October 2000
Netflix
PayPal: Now a subsidiary of eBay
Pets.com: Bankrupt
Priceline.com
Webvan: Bankrupt
Yahoo!
pg
- 64 -
Next
2006
Read more : Howard Rheingold, Eric Raymond, Richard Stallman, Philip

Greenspun, ... www.jwz.org ....
pg
- 65 -
literature
2006
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dotcom_bubble
http://www.epl.ee/?artikkel=1766 (in Estonian)
www.w3c.org
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee
http://www.gnu.org/
http://anton.felixclub.ee/SissejuhatusIT/all.txt
pg
- 66 -
Introduction into informatics
IT Kolledzh/TT 2003
T.Tammet
IT sissejuhatus loeng 7
lk
-1-
Overview on the lecture

Software (SW) basic working principles and programming language
hierarchy
Hardware (HW):
Components of Hardware
Processor`s working basics
Programming languages hierarchy and mechanics (will continue next

lecture)
Assembler
C
C and assembler
C and memory management
High level languages
Garbage collection
Lists
Languages
IT Kolledzh/TT 2003
T.Tammet
lk
-2-
Structure of next lectures
Lectures start from HW level (transistors) and move towards higher and
higher levels of abstraction:
Hardware
Processor programming, assembler
High-level languages: convenient programming
Assembling big application systems, op(erating)system, usage of
components
Assembling Network applications: mass of computer as components
of the application
Extremly powerful high-level languages, functional and logic
programming
About theory: complexity, solvability: how fast can be smth
calculated, what can be calculated
Artificial Intelligence (AI)
IT business and management: how to get money
IT Kolledzh/TT 2003
T.Tammet
lk
-3-
Basics about abstractions
High-level languages, components, network, etc. is necessary only for

the developer to build applications faster.
Developer thinks on the level of abstraction , finally everything works
on transistors..
Abstractions are leaking: for each abstraction level it is needed to
understand, how does the lower i.e. less abstract level work.
Its always necessary to do something at the bottom level!!!
Read more: The law of leaky abstractions:
http://www.joelonsoftware.com/articles/LeakyAbstractions.html
IT Kolledzh/TT 2003
T.Tammet
lk
-4-
Components
Main idea: transistors as switches with a breaking-motor

Switch B:
power in, 1: interrupt
power out, 0: connect
input A:
power in: 1
power out: 0
output C:
power in: 1
Power out: 0
C = (A and -B)
From smaller components are built bigger ones, out of which even
bigger ones.
Components are like black boxes: we know their output in case of a
certain input, but in most cases not their technical content.
IT Kolledzh/TT 2003
T.Tammet
lk
-5-
components (Eck)
(A and C) or (B and (not C))
IT Kolledzh/TT 2003
T.Tammet
lk
-6-
components (Eck)
(A and (not B)) or (B and (not A))
IT Kolledzh/TT 2003
T.Tammet
lk
-7-
four-bit adder
Eight plus two input wires, four plus one output wires
1011
0110
----10001
IT Kolledzh/TT 2003
1111
0001
----10000
T.Tammet
1111
1111
----11110
1010
0101
----01111
lk
-8-
0111
1010
----10001
0001
0011
----00100
Memory
Feedback
Switchable feedback: trigger
IT Kolledzh/TT 2003
T.Tammet
lk
-9-
One-bit memory chip
Two input and one output wire
IT Kolledzh/TT 2003
T.Tammet
lk
- 10 -
Guarded 1-bit memory chip
Extra switch for turning chip on or off
IT Kolledzh/TT 2003
T.Tammet
lk
- 11 -
RAM
Random-access memory
IT Kolledzh/TT 2003
T.Tammet
lk
- 12 -
Ecks xComputer
Computer`s basic parts (procsessor + memory) simulation with small

Java program.
Command system is very similar to first real-microprotsessors
Easier understandability because of using 2-by (16-bit) memory cells,

not 1-byte as in ordinary computers.
Memory is 1024 cells (1 K), i.e. 2 Kbytes

For addressing we use 10 bits
First home computers had also 4-16 Kbytes (approx same amount of
memory)
IT Kolledzh/TT 2003
T.Tammet
lk
- 13 -
Ecks xComputer ...
Essential: inside processor there is a small amount of special-memorycells (registers)
Operations can only be done with (between) registers.
Impossible to add 2 values that are in memory:

first they have to be copied into registers, so there they are added and
the result register (so-called accumulator) is written into memory.
place, showing which memory location/cell is read/written is shown by

the ADDR register.
place, from where the next operation/command is fetched (taken) is

shown by the PC (program counter) register.
IT Kolledzh/TT 2003
T.Tammet
lk
- 14 -
Execution of operations/commands
Two cycles within each other:
outside cycle increments in the PC (program counter) in each cycle,

which means that in each cycle the operation is taken from the next
memory location.
Inside cycle inside each operation. During the internal cycle

a number of small steps are executed (micro-steps; micro-code).
One small step corresponds to a current/voltage to certain
connector/wire with triggers logical operations in the processor the
result of which goes to multiple registers..
The machines cycle frequency is the frequency of how fast the microsteps are executed. To start each micro-step a machine tick is
necessary, which gives a certain impulse (trigger).
IT Kolledzh/TT 2003
T.Tammet
lk
- 15 -
xComputers basic registers
The X and Y registers hold two sixteen-bit binary numbers that are
used as input by the ALU. For example, when the CPU needs to add
two numbers, it must put them into the X and Y registers so that the
ALU can be used to add them.
The AC register is the accumulator. It is the CPU's "working memory"
for its calculations. When the ALU is used to compute a result, that
result is stored in the AC. For example, if the numbers in the X and Y
registers
are added, then the answer will appear in the AC. Also,
data can be moved from main memory into the AC and from the AC into
main memory.
The FLAG register stores the "carry-out" bit produced when the ALU
adds two binary numbers. Also, when the ALU performs a shift-left or
shift-right operation, the extra bit that is shifted off the end of the number
is stored in the FLAG register.
IT Kolledzh/TT 2003
T.Tammet
lk
- 16 -
... Registers ...
The ADDR register specifies a location in main memory. The CPU often
needs to read values from memory or write values to memory. Only one
location in memory is accessible at any given time. The ADDR register
specifies that location. So, for example, if the CPU needs to read the
value in location 375, it must first store 375 into the ADDR register. (If
you turn on the "Autoscroll" checkbox beneath the memory display, then
the memory will automatically be scrolled to the location indicated by the
ADDR register every time the value in that register changes.)
The PC register is the program counter. The CPU executes a program
by fetching instructions one-by-one from memory and executing them.
(This is called the fetch-and-execute cycle.) The PC specifies the
location in memory that holds the next instruction to be executed.
The IR is the instruction register. When the CPU fetches a program
instruction from main memory, this is where it puts it. The IR holds that
instruction while it is being executed.
IT Kolledzh/TT 2003
T.Tammet
lk
- 17 -
... Registers ...
The COUNT register counts off the steps in a fetch-and-execute cycle. It

takes the CPU several steps to fetch and execute an instruction. When
COUNT is 1, it does step 1; when COUNT is 2, it does step 2; and so
forth. The last step is always to reset COUNT to 0, to get ready to start
the next fetch-and-execute cycle. This is easier to understand after you
see it in action. Remember that as the COUNT register counts 0, 1, 2,...,
just one machine language program is being executed
IT Kolledzh/TT 2003
T.Tammet
lk
- 18 -
Hierarchy of wired assemblerini
First programming method: wires and connectors
Second: von Neumanni arhitektuur, program in memory as binart code:
010111010100101
110101011010100
111010100101001
101010100101001
110101001010010
101001011101010
101010101001
101010010100
110101111010
110011010101
101001000111
110101001001
(number counting 0n)
IT Kolledzh/TT 2003
T.Tammet
lk
- 19 -
Hierarchy...
Less writing:
AB05 E3D5
CD01 032A
4BD0 CDE1
8- bit coding (octa):
0000 = 0
0001 = 1
0010 = 2
0011 = 3
0100 = 4
0101 = 5
0110 = 6
0111 = 7
1000 = 8
1001 = 9
1010 = A
1011 = B
1100 = C
1101 = D
1110 = E
IT Kolledzh/TT 2003
T.Tammet
lk
- 20 -
Sumto in assembler of MIPS-I (SGI spinoff)
Arguments into register $4 ja $8

Result into register $2
sumto:
L5:
L3:
li
li
blt
addu
addu
ble
move
Jr
IT Kolledzh/TT 2003
$3,
$2,
$4,
$3,
$2,
$2,
$2,
$31
T.Tammet
0
0
$0,
$3,
$2,
$4,
$3
L3
$2
1
L5
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
;
Register $4 is n
Register $3 is a sum
Register $2 on i
If n<0 go L3
sum = sum + i
i = i + 1
If i<=n go L5
Sum contains result.
Go to adress in register $31
lk
- 21 -
Sumto and assembler of Sun Sparc

Sparc sends arguments in register %o0 till %o7 and result %o0
Instruction after a jump is always done
_sumto:
; Register %o0 is n.
mov %o0,%g3
; Save n into register %g3.
mov 0, %o0
; Register %o0 is now sum.
cmp %o0,%g3
; If 0>n ...
bg L3
; ... go L3
mov 0, %g2
; ,but before i=0.
add %o0,%g2,%o0 ; sum = sum + i.
L5:
add %g2,1 ,%g2 ; i = i + 1.
cmp %g2,%g3
; If i<=n ...
ble,a L5
; ... go L5
add %o0,%g2,%o0 ; ,but before sum = sum + i.
L3:
retl
; Ready...
nop
; ,but before do nothing!
IT Kolledzh/TT 2003
T.Tammet
lk
- 22 -
Sumto and Intel 386, 486, Pentium, ...

386 has few registers, argument is sent through ordinary memory.
Result is sent to register %edx.
_sumto:
pushl %ebp
; create ''framepointer-i
movl %esp,%ebp
;
movl 8(%ebp),%ecx ; take n.
xorl %eax,%eax
; sum = 0
xorl %edx,%edx
; i = 0
cmpl %ecx,%eax
; if i>n ...
jg L3
; ... go L3
.align 2
L5:
addl %edx,%eax
; sum = sum + i
incl %edx
; i = i+1
cmpl %ecx,%edx
; if i<=n ...
jle L5
; ... go L5
L3:
leave
; recover ebp.
ret
; ready!
IT Kolledzh/TT 2003
T.Tammet
lk
- 23 -
Simpler, Ecks assembler
This program counts. It starts by putting the number 1 into memory

location 12, and then it adds one to the number in that location over and
over, forever.
lod-c 1
sto 12
lod 12
inc
sto 12
jmp 2
IT Kolledzh/TT 2003
T.Tammet
lk
- 24 -
Simpler, Ecks assembler
Loop:
LOD-C 1
STO Count
LOD Count
INC
STO Count
JMP Loop
@12
Count: data
IT Kolledzh/TT 2003
T.Tammet
; Set Count equal to 1

; Add 1 to Count
; Jump back to start of loop
; Location to be used for counting
lk
- 25 -
Subprograms usage
lod-c 13
; Set up to call the subroutine with sto N1

; N1 = 13, N2 = 56, and ret_addr = back.
lod-c 56
sto N2
lod-c back
sto ret_addr
jmp Multiply
back: lod Answer
hlt
IT Kolledzh/TT 2003
; Call the subroutine.

; When the subroutine ends, it returns
;
control to this location, and the
;
product of N1 and N2 is in Answer.
;
This LOD instruction puts the answer
;
in the accumulator.
; Terminate the program by halting the computer
T.Tammet
lk
- 26 -
High-level languages
Automate and make it easier to write masses of ordinary procedures,

which are necessary to do in assembler
Dont give as much control of the machine as assembler
High-level languages are at a different level of abstraction:
Closer to machine level and unconvenient: Fortran, C (portable

assembler)
More absrtact and convenient: Lisp, Ada, ML, Java, .
IT Kolledzh/TT 2003
T.Tammet
lk
- 27 -
Fortran vs LISP: summing numbers 0n

FORTRAN
INTEGER FUNCTI0N sumto(n)
isum = 0
DO i 10 = 0,n
isum = isum + i
10 CONTINUE
sumto = isum
RETURN
END
LISP
(defun sumto (n)

(if (= 0 n)
0
(+ n (sumto ( n 1))) ))
IT Kolledzh/TT 2003
T.Tammet
lk
- 28 -
Sumto and Modula-2

PROCEDURE sumto(n:INTEGER):INTEGER;
VAR sum,i:INTEGER;
BEGIN
sum:=0;
FOR i:=0 TO n DO
sum:=sum+i
END;
RETURN sum
END sumto;
IT Kolledzh/TT 2003
T.Tammet
lk
- 29 -
Sumto and Ada

function sumto(n:
sum : INTEGER
begin
for i in 0..n
sum := sum
end loop;
return sum;
IT Kolledzh/TT 2003
T.Tammet
in INTEGER) return INTEGER is

:= 0;
loop
+ i;
lk
- 30 -
Sumto and C
int sumto(int n) {
int i,sum = 0;
for(i=0; i<=n; i=i+1)
sum = sum + i;
return sum;
}
IT Kolledzh/TT 2003
T.Tammet
lk
- 31 -
literature
David Eck: Labs and Applets for

The Most Complex Machine
http://math.hws.edu/TMCM/java/index.html
IT Kolledzh/TT 2003
T.Tammet
lk
- 32 -
Introduction to Information
Technology
Lecture overview
Languages: basic ideas, examples
Cache memory-hierarchy
Operating systems
2006
Basic goals
Basic technologies
Types
Overview of main Operating Systems (OpSys)
pg
-2-
Assembler: sumto ja Intel 386, 486, Pentium, ...

386 has few registers, argument is sent from ordinary memory.
Result is sent to register %edx.
_sumto:
pushl %ebp
; We create ''framepointer-i
movl %esp,%ebp
;
movl 8(%ebp),%ecx ; Take n.
xorl %eax,%eax
; sum = 0
xorl %edx,%edx
; i = 0
cmpl %ecx,%eax
; If i>n ...
jg L3
; ... goto L3
.align 2
L5:
addl %edx,%eax
; sum = sum + i
incl %edx
; i = i+1
cmpl %ecx,%edx
; If i<=n ...
jle L5
; ... goto L5
L3:
leave
; Restore ebp.
ret
; Ready!
2006
pg
-3-
High-level languages
Automate and make it easier to write masses of ordinary

procedures, which are necessary to do in assembler
Dont give as much control of the machine as assembler
High-level languages are at a different level of abstraction:
2006
Closer to machine level and unconvenient: Fortran, C (portable

assembler)
More absrtact and convenient: Lisp, Ada, ML, Java, .
pg
-4-
How is a program written in language X is executed?

Keep in mind that: the computer can execute only machine-language
programs.
Basically there are two variants of executing a program in language X.
Interpreting: the program called the interpreter reads a file in
language X and executes it line by line. For example: old BASIC.
Compiling: the program called the compiler transforms the program

in language X into a machine code file Y. Afterwards the machinecode program Y is executed. For example: C.
NB!
2006
Interpreting a program is a bout 10-200 times slower than

executing compiled code.
Basically a program in any language can be either interpreted or
compiled..
In practice sometimes interpreting, sometimes compilation is
preferred.
pg
-5-
How to execute a program in language X ?

Compromise variants:
The compiler compiles file X into intermediate code Y, afterwards

the intermediate code Y is interpreted (Python, Java).
Interpreter interprets intermediate code Y, but during execution time

compiles part of Y into machine code, which is afterwards executed
(Java) , so-called just-in-time compilation, or JIT.
2006
pg
-6-
Distinctions in languages: 3 basic issues
Syntax (how to write, e.g. if .. then .. else in one or another language)
Semantics or meaning (what the correctly written program actually

does)
Libraries) (what kind of ready program stubs are easily available for
that language or already come along)
2006
pg
-7-
Languages: typical things offered by almost each language
2006
Primitive data types:

int, char etc (e.g.: 1 and 3 are ints-id, c and a are chars)
string (e.g. aaa123bb)
array (e.g. a[1]=2; a[2]=20; a[3]=15; y=2; x=a[y]+a[1]+3;)
Expressions:
e.g. x = (y*2) (5+x);
Elementary control structures:
choice: if ... then ... else
cycle: while(x<10) x=x+1;
Functions:
definition: int cube(int x) { return x * x * x}
usage: x = cube(1+ cube(3))+ cube(y);
recursive usage:
int fact(int x) { if (x<=0) return 1; else return x*(fact(x-1)); }
pg
-8-
Languages: examples of extra possibilities in various

languages
2006
Fast bit-operations, direct memory access : C

More complex data types: lists, hash tables, etc.: Lisp, Scheme, Python
Special constructs for string operations: Perl, PHP
Objects: C++, Java, C#, Python, Lisp
Modules (mainly connected to objects): C++, Java, C#
Error-processing constructs (exceptions): Python, Java, C#
Garbage collection: unused data thrown out (and collected)

(Java, Python, Lisp, ...)
Built-in support for for parallel-programming: Java, C#
Real-time constructs : Ada
Templates : PHP, JSP, Pyml
Constructing programs while executing: Lisp, Scheme
Logic rules: Prolog
lazy function evaluation method: Miranda, Hope, Haskell
Pattern matching (a way of function definition): ML, Haskell
etc...
pg
-9-
Fortran: summing numbers 0n
FORTRAN
INTEGER FUNCTI0N sumto(n)

isum = 0
DO i 10 = 0,n
isum = isum + i
10 CONTINUE
sumto = isum
RETURN
END
2006
pg
- 10 -
LISP: summing numbers 0n
LISP
(defun sumto (n)

(if (= 0 n)
0
(+ n (sumto ( n 1))) ))
2006
pg
- 11 -
Sumto and Modula-2
Modula-2
PROCEDURE sumto(n:INTEGER):INTEGER;
VAR sum,i:INTEGER;
BEGIN
sum:=0;
FOR i:=0 TO n DO
sum:=sum+i
END;
RETURN sum
END sumto;
2006
pg
- 12 -
Sumto and Ada
Ada
function sumto(n:
sum : INTEGER
begin
for i in 0..n
sum := sum
end loop;
return sum;
2006
in INTEGER) return INTEGER is

:= 0;
loop
+ i;
pg
- 13 -
Sumto and C
C (ja Java)
int sumto(int n) {
int i,sum = 0;
for(i=0; i<=n; i=i+1)
sum = sum + i;
return sum;
}
2006
pg
- 14 -
Cache and memory hierarchy
2006
Picture with explanation on (black)board.

Alternative: read the following additional maerial:
Computer Systems: a programmers perspective
pg
- 15 -
Why Operating System (OpSys) ?

OpSys basic goals:
Offer programmers a ready standardized piece (of software).

To give possibility for the computer user to act homogeneously and as has
been used to independently of the programming environment or the
computer.
Why OpSys ?
Computers can also be programmed without an OpSys. In that case:
the creation of every program would be much more difficult.

for users different programs would look very different.
An operating system (OS):
2006
is a computer program that manages the hardware and software resources of a

computer.
performs basic tasks such as
controlling and allocating memory,
prioritizing system requests,
controlling input and output devices,
facilitating networking, and
managing files.
may provide a graphical user interface for higher level functions.
pg
- 16 -
What OpSys mostly does?
Can read programs from disk and make them run (execute; XEQ).
Can stop programs (finally or for just a short pause)
Can write files and catalogs on a disk and read them from there.
Can communicate with devices (printer, monitor, keyboard). Can
communicate with network.
and so on
if there would not be opsystems, each program would have to be able to do
these things itself!
An operating system (OS):
2006
is a computer program that manages the hardware and software resources of a

computer.
performs basic tasks such as
controlling and allocating memory,
prioritizing system requests,
controlling input and output devices,
facilitating networking, and
managing files.
may provide a graphical user interface for higher level functions.
pg
- 17 -
Naked machine
What is there in the naked machine (unclothed by an OS)?
2006
CPU (registers, opcodes),

Memory (may be several chunks),
Devices (mapped to memory locations, able to transfer data to
and from memory).
pg
- 18 -
Definitions of OS!?
2006
Extended machine, or virtual machine. Takes the basic hardware,

and provides additional layers of functionality. The virtual machine
is usually simpler and more consistent than the real machine.
Practically, additional layers will build on the lowest-level ones,
providing a rich programming model for the applications software
(which in turn provides a 'virtual machine' to the user).
Resource manager. Allocates scarce resources, like disk space,
memory, processor between competing processes and users.
Each process thinks that it has its own machine (its own files, its
own printer, whatever). In a way, this is also extending the machine
(in order to appear to be many machines).
Anything which runs in the computer's privileged mode, or supervisor
mode. Typically most modern processors have two or more
operating modes, user and supervisor. In supervisor mode, able to
access all of memory and all hardware.
pg
- 19 -
Definitions of OS!?
The software which is supplied with the machine. Often includes many
things not traditionally considered part of the operating system,
like GUIs, editors, Web browsers, and stuff.
A platform on which other software can run. Lots of platforms are not
operating systems (like Netscape Navigator, or Microsoft Word).
Java is almost an operating system. Provides many services
commonly associated with Operating Systems, like managing
multiple concurrent processes, and providing access to files.
2006
pg
- 20 -
Development History of Operating Systems
2006
Computers without OpSys

Batch processing systems
Multiprocessing and terminals - UNIX
Personal computers - IBM, Xerox, Apple, DOS, Windows
pg
- 21 -
The Role of the Opsys
Programs
Services
Virtual
Interface
OS Core
Physical
Interface
HardWare
2006
pg
- 22 -
OS layers
2006
pg
- 23 -
Characteristics of Operating Systems
2006
Functionality
Process administration
Memory administration
File systems
Network protocols
User administration
pg
- 24 -
Interrupts
The interrupt handler must save the machine state, do some

processing, then call the process scheduler and dispatcher.
When an interrupt occurs

1.the processor hardware makes a quick copy of the program counter and
CPU registers
2.the hardware switches to kernel mode and jumps to the interrupt service
routine
3.the ISR is usually very short. It may inform a device driver that it received the
interrupt; it may just increment some clock counters.
4.next the ISR calls the scheduler, which decides which process to run
5.the scheduler calls the dispatcher, and new process (or maybe the same
process) resumes where it left off
2006
An important goal of the OS is to hide interrupts from the user--and from user-level processes.
pg
- 25 -
Processes have their own memory areas
2006
pg
- 26 -
Processes wait and run when chance comes
2006
pg
- 27 -
Overview of main OS-es: main Microsoft OS-es
MS-DOS is a text-based desktop operating system made by

Microsoft that runs on Intel 80x86. Only low end servers can run on
this operating system.
Windows 98, Windows 95, and Windows 3.1 are desktop operating
systems made by Microsoft that run on Intel Pentium and Intel
80x86. Only low end servers can run on these operating systems.
Windows NT, Windows NT Server, and Windows NT Server

Enterprise Edition are server and workstation operating systems
made by Microsoft that run on Intel Pentium, Intel 80x86, and DEC
Alpha.
Windows 2000 Professional, Windows 2000 Server, and Windows

2000 Advanced Server are server and workstation operating
systems made by Microsoft that run on the Intel Pentium.
Windows XP is a server and workstation operating system made by

Microsoft that run on the Intel Pentium. Converges 95 and NT/2000.
2006
pg
- 28 -
OS-es: IBM PC os-s
PC-DOS-2000 is a text-based desktop operating system made by

IBM as an update of the older MS-DOS. It runs on Intel 80x86. Only
low end servers can run on this operating system.
OS/2 is a high performance desktop and high end operating

system made by IBM that runs on Intel Pentium and Intel 80x86.
2006
pg
- 29 -
OS-es: Apple
Macintosh OS 9, OS 8, OS 7, and OS 6 are desktop operating

systems made by Apple Computers that run on Motorola/IBM
PowerPC and Motorola 680x0.
Rhapsody is a UNIX-based operating system that includes

capabilities from the NeXT and Macintosh operating systems.
Rhapsody was a foundation for OS X of the Macintosh.
Macintosh OS X (ten) is a desktop operating system based on

Rhapsody. Macintosh OS X is made by Apple Computers and runs
on Motorola/IBM PowerPC.
2006
pg
- 30 -
OS-es: main free UNIXes
LINUX is a free version of UNIX that runs on Intel Pentium, Intel

80x86, Motorola/IBM PowerPC, Motorola 680x0, Sun SPARC, SGI
MIPS, DEC Alpha, HP PA-RISC, DEC VAX, ARM, API 1000+, and
CL-PS7110.
FreeBSD is a free version of UNIX that runs on Intel Pentium and

Intel 80486.
NetBSD is a free version of UNIX that runs on Intel Pentium, Intel

80486, Intel 80386, Motorola/IBM PowerPC, Motorola 680x0, Sun
SPARC, HP PA-RISC, DEC VAX, and ARM.
OpenBSD is a free version of UNIX that runs on Intel Pentium, Intel

80486, Intel 80386, Motorola/IBM PowerPC, Motorola 680x0, Sun
SPARC, HP PA-RISC, DEC VAX, and ARM.
GNU Hurd is a free UNIX-based operating system.
2006
pg
- 31 -
OS-es: main common commercial UNIXes
Solaris is a UNIX-based operating system made by Sun Computers

that runs on Sun SPARC and Intel Pentium.
Sun-OS is an older text-based UNIX that runs on Sun SPARC.

Solaris is an enhancement of Sun-OS that includes a graphic user
interface.
AIX is IBMs version of UNIX.
HP-UX is a UNIX-based operating system made by Hewlett-Packard

that runs on HP PA RISC.
ULTRIX is a UNIX-based operating system made by DEC. ULTRIX

has been replaced by Digital UNIX.
2006
pg
- 32 -
Major handheld operating systems
2006
Palm OS
Windows CE
Symbian
pg
- 33 -
OS-es: less common
2006
IRIX is a UNIX-based operating system made by SGI that runs on

SGI MIPS.
NeXT is a UNIX-based operating system made by NeXT that runs
on Intel Pentium, Intel 80486, and Motorola 68040. OpenSTEP runs
on Intel Pentium, Intel 80486, Motorola 68040, Sun SPARC, and HP
PA RISC.
MVS is a mainframe operating system made by IBM
VMS is a high performance operating system made by DEC that
runs on DEC VAX. OpenVMS is an updated version of VMS.
NetWare is a dedicated network operating system that runs on
Intel Pentium, Intel 80486, and Intel 80386.
BeOS is a high performance desktop operating system made by Be
that runs on Motorola/IBM PowerPC and Intel Pentium. Only low
end servers can run on this operating system.
AmigaOS is an old but popular operating system that is being
resurrected. Only low end servers can run on this operating
system.
pg
- 34 -
How Unix spread
After AT&T was forced to abandon commercial computing as part

of an antitrust settlement, AT&Ts UNIX was made available for free
to the academic community. Because UNIX had been designed in a
way that made it easy to port (move) to new hardware, colleges
and universities that switched to UNIX were able to run a single
operating system on all of their computers, even if their computers
came from multiple manufacturers.
Eventually UNIX spread into the business community, and

pushed aside almost all proprietary mainframe and minicomputer
operating systems. Only IBMs MVS and DECs OpenVMS survived
in common use (MVS because of the sheer number of installations
using it and OpenVMS in the banking and financial community
because of its high reliability, security, and preservation of data).
Even IBM and DEC ended up offering their own versions of UNIX
as well as their proprietary operating systems.
2006
pg
- 35 -
UNIX families till 1993
2006
pg
- 36 -
Linux & FreeBSD comparison
2006
Linux
Distributed development
Different editions
More modern
Wider hardware support
SysV origin
User friendlier
FreeBSD
Tuumikmeeskond
One edition at a time
More Stabil
Small hardware support
BSD origin
Technically better integrated
pg
- 37 -
Compatibility of Operating Systems
Distributing resources with SMB protocol
X-Windows
Windows emulators in UNIX: Wine, Wabi
Support of foreign/alien file systems
Compatibility with Macintosh computers
netatalk pacakage in UNIX
Example and instructions on Replacing Windows NT Server with

Linux:
2006
Samba package in UNIX
http://citnews.unl.edu/linux/LinuxPresentation.html
pg
- 38 -
Samba
http://fi.samba.org/samba/
Realization of SMB and CIFS protocols in UNIX
Enables replacing of NT and OS/2 Warp servers
2006
SMB file and printing services

NetBIOS type nameserver, also Master Browser
can participate in NT domain
supports authentication with (non-)encrypted passwords
PDC functionality is still partial
SWAT: The Samba Web Administration Tool /
Configuration tool with web GUI
http://samba.org/samba/docs/man/Samba-HOWTO-Collection/SWAT.html
pg
- 39 -
Introduction to Information
Technology
Software architecture and paradigms
2006
pg
-2-
Components of Software packages: 1
In principle software is built of many components. These components

can be classified as follows:
Complete end-user applications (word-processing, bookkeeping, chess,

etc.), which often (not always) can be connected/integrated into other
SWs via programming.
For instance Microsoft Office applications (Word, Excel, etc) can
be bound via the programmable VisualBasic development
package. One has to take into account that these programs have to
be bought and installed on the computer.
This scheme is more often used on the Windows OpSystem.
Many database systems are analogous, e.g. Oracle, Sybase, etc.
Whereby sometimes the one database system can be changed to
another similar one. osseisus.
2006
pg
-5-
Big ready-components (database-server, www-server, mail-server components,

graphic servers (like X11), OpSystems themselves, etc.
These programs can be used stand-alone, but typically are customized for
the end-users as special separate applications, a la:
.....
cursor=con.cursor()
sqlstr=select clientid, clientname
from clientbase
where clientname like %Jaan%
cur.execute(sqlstr)
results=cur.fetchall()
for i in results
print id: ,i[0],name: ,i[1]
......
2006
pg
-6-
Concrete, bounded functions (graphical drawing to screen, arithmetics,

file reading and writing, build up an internet connection to a certain
address, etc.) are realised by small components and their sets, socalled libraries.
For the distribution of such components a set of compilers and

other SW-development tools are used and they can be used only
with those programming language and development environment
setup. komplektis kompilaatorite ja muude tarkvaraarendusvahenditega ning nad on enamasti kasutatavad ainult selle
konkreetse programmeerimiskeel
2006
pg
-7-
Closed and open systems
2006
Network of open and closed systems.
Many SW components serve many users in server computers,

which are connected to a network.
For private users they basically offer siervices. Primary is the easy
connectivity into a network and with other software components.
For such an approach the main basic platform is a Unix-based

server, with big databases and search-applications.
The end user pc communicates through net (mainly internet) with
the server and can have any operating system.
Often the user communicates via an ordinary Browser, which can
execute Java-language programs.
pg
-9-
Libraries
View 3: application libraries
Most languages do NOT have standard libraries or they are very limited
E.g.: ANSI C. ANSI C library contains string-processing, file-processing,

printing, and a couple of analog categories.
As a rule there are powerful application-libraries (graphics, windows,

mouse-handling, network connections, parallel processing, etc)
non-standard, limited HardWare with OpSystem
(Windows 95, Windows NT, X windows, Linux, ...)
2006
Almost the only exception: Java
pg
- 15 -
Practical application domains
Universal, except for applications
requiring high speed or

for operating systems:
Java
Applicatioins requiring maximum speed,

UNIX system-programming: C, C++
Windows application programming: VisualBasic, Java, Delphi, C
Network-client programming: Java + Javascript
Server programming: Java, Perl, PHP, Python, C, ..
Specific applications: as per requirements
2006
pg
- 16 -
Development environments
2006
Programming languages, compiler
As a rule to create SW one has to be able to write in a specific

language, which is possible via special education and long practical
experience.
In the world there are thousands of programming languages, more

widespread are about ten languages.
Programs written in a specific programming language are

transformed into a program executable on a computer by a so-called
compiler.
pg
- 17 -
2006
visual development environments
To make programmers work easier, so-called visual development

environments have been created. Thanks to them in simpler cases one can
reduce the work amount and time to create a program.
These are especially suited to create data-input forms,

based on the input form they create the needed program
automatically.
In case of non-trivial problems its indispensable to combine visual

drawing-methods with classical programming.
pg
- 18 -
module, plug-in
2006
The majority of modern programming languages are layered,

containing a small and relatively simple core and a big amount of
small SW components (so-called modules, plug-ins) for several
standard tasks.
pg
- 19 -
Development of IT system paradigms

Historical views:
systems
organizing production
software
2006
pg
- 20 -
architectural phases
1945-1970
1970-1995
1995-2020?
A) Systems architectural phases

Mainframes
Microcomputers
Network systems
B) SoftWare Platform architectural phases:

assembler, pure languages libraries, development environments, components component binding
C) Organizing production architectural phases:
big company, open -
2006
small company, closed free components, binding, maintenance
pg
- 21 -
Network applications: basic terminology

FIREWALL
Present technological division
Wide are network - mostly TCP/IP
Local area network - mostly

Ethernet
2006
pg
- 22 -
Network applications: client-server architectures
2-layer
3-layer
N-layer
Few connected clients,

adjustment distributed
2006
Does part of the work,

doesnt need constant
adjustment
Does all the work,

needs
constant
adjustment
pg
- 23 -
Example: server-side technology of one system
Operating systems: Linux, Solaris, ...

Free, open components
Linux
Zope
python
Qmail
own code
WWW
server
bsddb
SQL
server
2006
pg
- 28 -
Network software current architecture
Server
HTML
CSS, XML
DOM
Javascript
VBscript
Java
ActiveX
OS
Client
2006
pg
- 29 -

Protocols
Basic protocols
IP
TCP
HTTP
CGI
Layout protocols
HTML - hypertext markup language
CSS - cascading style sheets
DOM - document object model
XML - extended markup language
Further developed, distributed object protocols
RMI
CORBA
DCOM
JINI
XML-RPC
SOAP applications
2006
pg
- 30 -

Application platforms
Server side
Script languages together with libraries: Perl, Python, Javascript,
VBScript
Servlets: Java
Databases
Application servers
Client side
Scripting languages: Javascript, VBScript,
Applets, etc. Java, Flash
Applications: Java, ActiveX
2006
pg
- 31 -
Network applications: why?

A) Needs of individual user:
2006
Accessing own documents and materials and programs anytime,

anywhere:
documents, notes
calendar
contact database
bank account
e-mail
familiar software
pg
- 33 -

B) Groupwork and management needs:
Distributed groupwork : access to the common documents and materials

of the group anythime, anywhere
common calendar, time planning, group discussion in real time
documents and databases the group is working on
Access to documents and databases based on access rights anytime,

anywhere:
bookkeeping
companys bank account
companys databases
workers reports and documents
2006
pg
- 34 -

C) Automatic data storage and retrieval:
Automatic archiving and enabling convenient archive searching
Erinevates osakondades ja ettevtetes olevate eriostarbeliste

andmebaaside andmete hendamine, hispringute sooritamine
(Semi-)Automatic Info search from the network
2006
pg
- 35 -
Intelligent network !?
In the middle of the century:
Every computer
is 1000 times
more powerful
The network
has 1000 times
more information
and services
2006
pg
- 37 -
Internet 0:
human <--> few humans, radio, TV
Radiochannel 1
Radiochannel 2
TV-channel 1
TV- channel 2
2006
pg
- 38 -
Internet 1:
human <--> many people
1
0
0
E-mail
M
I
L
L
I
O
N
S
2006
pg
- 39 -
Internet 2:
human <--> many computers
1
0
0
WWW
M
I
L
L
I
O
N
S
2006
pg
- 40 -
Internet 3:
computer <--> many computers
1
0
0
XML + Semantic web
M
I
L
L
I
O
N
S
2006
pg
- 41 -
Internet 3:
2006
human ??
pg
- 42 -
Internet 4: Skynet?
2006
pg
- 43 -
HTML and XML
Info is put between tags
HTML:
tag has visual semantics
Here is bold text

Here is text in italics
2006
XML: tag has no semantics

<author>An Author</author>
<myadress>Astreet 5</myadress>
pg
- 44 -
Network services
Problem: very difficult to make a program that reads an

HTML-page from another server.
Idea: we make a network page in XML so that a program in

another computer can read it
XML
HTML
XML
Kuvamis-teenus
Baasteenused
2006
pg
- 45 -
Network services and .NET
Ballmer:
".NET is at the core of what we're trying to do as a
company.
.NET: platform for creating network services
SOAP:
2006
Programming platform (C#, CLR, )

XML-applications in XML language SOAP, WSDL, UDDI
Server support for applications
XML-RPC further development: XML-communication language over

http
TOETUS: MSFT, IBM, SUN,
pg
- 46 -
Applications ...
2006
Intelligent search from the network

Business-to-business solutions:
Wholesales put their prices on the net, retailer search deal with
proper price and conditions
Connecting different info-systems (2 banks merge, data has to be

merged, there are many small systems in a bank)
Meeting planning: finding common times

Access right system: who can access what
catalog/information
Intelligent assistant: searches itself information, prices Im
interested in; tells if something is found
pg
- 47 -
Procedural vs declarative
Procedural info presentation:

info is coded into the program.
Declarative info presentation:
info as separate rules (in files), which is built by an

algorithm that uses algorithm-rules
2006
pg
- 48 -
Whats missing ?
One program should understand the XML CONTENT given by

another program
Beer-shipment searching server:
Wholesale A gives info:
Wholesale b gives info:
<beer>
<name>Guinness</name>
<price>100</price>
</beer>
<olu>
Guinness
<hind>100</hind>
</olu>
Wholesale C gives info:

<porter>
<name>Guinness</name>
<price>100</price>
</porter>
2006
pg
- 49 -
Differing languages
We should know that:

BEER
=
LU
PORTER is also BEER
There is no hope to prepare for all languages
There are sub-languages (general product language, beer

language in Estonia, Czech, China, etc.)
Language has to be interpreted by ourselves
To translate you need rules and elementary understanding
2006
pg
- 50 -
Same problem in XML database in ONE MACHINE
we have tables in SQL language:
ID Name
-----------------1 Jaan Tamm
2 Ants Raud
3 Jaan Tamm
PID
Profession
------------------1
Taster
2
Doorman
1
Salesman
3
Director
Rules:
IDs in the first table are not allowed to repeat
PID in the second table has to exist in the first table
Needed: connection of names, rules for structures
2006
pg
- 51 -
What Are Information

Systems?
Based on Chapter 1 of Bennett, McRobb and
Farmer:
Object Oriented Systems Analysis and Design

Using UML, (3rd Edition), McGraw Hill, 2005.
03/12/2001
Bennett, McRobb and Farmer 2005
In This Lecture You Will Learn:

How to define an Information System
(IS)
Some examples and types of IS
How to apply basic concepts of systems
theory to IS
How IS are related to organizations
16 June 2005
McGregor On-Line Retail Site
A typical modern IS with:

Online catalogue display and shopping cart
Back-office systems store stock details,
orders, payment transactions, and more
Communications link to credit-card
processing centre
Robot warehouse control system
Delivery scheduling
16 June 2005
Elements of an IS
Every IS has:
A human activity that needs information
Some stored data
An input method for entering data
Some process that turns the data into
information
An output method for representing
information
16 June 2005
The Role of the Computer
Computers carry out tasks also done by

people and by other technologies
Storage: signalmans memory / hard disk
Display: Battle of Britain map / PC screen
Calculation: mental arithmetic / program
Communication: telephone line / LAN
Typical advantages of computers:

high speed, low cost, reliability
16 June 2005
System Transformation
All useful systems transform their inputs
into useful outputs
For IS, both inputs and outputs are
typically information
This transformation is the whole reason
for building and operating the system
16 June 2005
Transformation Example
McGregors Delivery Scheduling System

may have inputs:
Information about orders, available stock,
customer addresses, vehicle capacities
And may have outputs:

Which orders to load on each vehicle, what
route the vehicle should follow
How does this benefit McGregor?
16 June 2005
Characteristics of Systems
IS are like any other kind of system
Every system has:
Inputs and outputs

A purpose (related to transformation)
A boundary and an environment
Subsystems and interfaces
Control using feedback and feed-forward
Some emergent property
16 June 2005
Are Systems Real?

Maybe, maybe not!
Systems thinking is useful because it
helps to analyse and understand
problems
What matters is the understanding you
achieve
You can choose to see anything as a
system, whether or not it really is one
16 June 2005
Systems and the Real World

A system that helps to understand the
real-world situation
Makes
comparisons
Thinks
about
16 June 2005
A real-world
situation or
problem
10
Types of IS
Information Systems are used to

support peoples activities
Store and retrieve information
Carry out calculations
Aid communication
Control and schedule work
Other support ?
16 June 2005
11
Types of IS (contd)
Operational Systems assist or control

business operations
An Accounting System replaces costly and
error-prone human clerks
Management Support Systems help

managers to decide or to communicate
A Delivery Scheduling System helps decide
how to load and route the delivery trucks
16 June 2005
12
Types of IS (contd)
Real-time Control Systems typically

operate physical equipment, often in
safety-critical settings
Some cars have an Engine Management
System to control fuel supply and ignition
16 June 2005
13
How Do IS Relate to the Human

Activity System?
We can view an organization as a
system, perhaps with many subsystems
Ideally, each subsystem helps the
overall system fulfil its purpose
IS are also subsystems and should help
to meet goals of people in the
organization
16 June 2005
14
Strategy and Planning for IS

Informs and enables
Drives and sets goals

Business Strategy
Where IS can help
What must be done
Information Systems Strategy
Hardware capabilities
System requirements
Information Technology Strategy
16 June 2005
15
Summary
In this lecture you have learned about:
What an IS is
Some examples and types of IS
Some basic concepts of systems theory
and how to apply them to IS
How IS are related to organizations
16 June 2005
16
References
Bennett, McRobb and Farmer (2005)
Checkland and Scholes (1990)
(For full bibliographic details, see Bennett,

McRobb and Farmer)
16 June 2005
17
Problems in Information
Systems Development
Farmer:

03/12/2001
18

The main players in an IS project
The problems in IS development
The underlying causes of these
problems
How the stakeholder concept helps
identify ethical issues in IS development
The costs of problems and ethical
issues
June 2005
19
The Main Players
Three main types of player are involved

in an IS development project:
Those who will benefit from the systems
outputs, directly or indirectly (end-users)
Those who commission the project, pay for
it or have the power to halt it (owners or
sponsors)
Those who will produce the software
(developers)
June 2005
20
What Do We Mean by Problem?
An IS project may fail before delivery

The LSE Taurus project was cancelled
An IS may fail after delivery

The LAS system was withdrawn after
implementation
An IS may be continue to be used,

despite causing problems to its users,
its owners or its developers
June 2005
21
End-user View
End-users may directly operate the
software, or may be more remote, e.g.
a manager who receives printed reports
Typical concerns include:
A system that is promised but not delivered

A system that is difficult to use
A system that doesnt meet its users needs
June 2005
22
Owner View
Owners care about meeting business
needs and about value for money
Typical concerns include:
Projects that overspend their budget (may

no longer have a net benefit)
Systems that are delivered too late
Badly managed projects
Systems that are rendered irrelevant by
events
June 2005
23
Developer View
IS developers sometimes have a

difficult time
Budget and time constraints often conflict
with doing the job properly
Users and owners may not know how to
ask for what they really want
Technologies, development approaches
and business needs all constantly change
June 2005
24
Why Things Go Wrong

Whether a system is delivered or not,
many things can go wrong
Flynn (1998) categorizes the main
causes as:
Quality problems
Productivity problems
June 2005
25
Quality Problems
The wrong problem is addressed

Failure to align the project with business strategy
Wider influences are neglected

Project team or business managers dont take
account of the system environment
Incorrect analysis of requirements

Poor skills or not enough time allowed
Project undertaken for wrong reason

Technology pull or political push
June 2005
26
Productivity Problems
Users change their minds
External events
E.g. introduction of the Euro currency
Implementation not feasible

May not be known at start of the project
Poor project control

Inexperienced management or political
difficulties
June 2005
27
Ethics Issues and

Stakeholder Problems
Some IS may affect people far beyond

obvious users and owners of the system
Cellphone companies collect data about
subscribers calls and physical movements
This data can be passed to police and
many other government agencies
Do you know what data is stored about
you? Who by? And what it is used for?
June 2005
28
Stakeholder Analysis
This approach tries to identify everyone

affected by a proposed IS
Who are the stakeholders?
How does the system affect each group?
What are their legitimate concerns?
Are there any legal implications, e.g. Data
Protection Act in the UK?
June 2005
29
Summary
The main players in an IS project, and
how they perceive the potential
problems
The origins of the main types of
problem
How stakeholder analysis can help
identify ethical impacts of an IS
June 2005
30
References
Flynn (1998)

McRobb and Farmer)
See also www.ccsr.cse.dmu.ac.uk
June 2005
31
Avoiding the Problems

Farmer:

32

the stages in the waterfall life cycle;
about prototyping and incremental life
cycles;
the importance of project management;
how users may be involved in a project;
the role of CASE tools in systems
development.
33
Problem Solving Model
Main phases are

Data gathering
Problem redefinition
These focus on understanding what the problem is about
Finding ideas
Concerned with understanding more about the nature of

the problem and possible solutions
Finding solutions
Implementation
34
Problem Solving Model

Problem
definition
Data
gathering
Problem
redefinition
Finding
ideas
Finding
solutions
Implementation
General problem solving model (adapted from Hicks, 1991).
35
Project Life Cycles
A distinction should be made between

Systems development, which incorporates
human, software and hardware elements
Software development, which is primarily
concerned with software systems
Two important phases are

Strategic Information Systems Planning
Business Modelling
36
Waterfall Life Cycle
The traditional life cycle (TLC) for information

systems development is also known as the
waterfall life cycle model.
So called because of the difficulty of returning to
an earlier phase.
The model shown here is one of several more

or less equivalent alternatives.
Typical deliverables are shown for each phase.
37
Traditional Life Cycle

System
System
Engineering
Engineering
Requirements
Analysis
Analy sis
Design
Design
Construction
Testing
Code
Installation
Code
Maintenance
Maintenance
38
TLC Deliverables
Systems Engineering
High level architectural specification
Requirements Analysis
Requirements specification
Functional specification
Acceptance test specifications
Life cycle deliverables (adapted from Sommerville, 1992).
39
TLC Deliverables
Design
Software architecture specification
System test specification
Design specification
Sub-system test specification
Unit test specification
40
TLC Deliverables
Construction
Program code
Testing
Unit test report
Sub-system test report
System test report
Acceptance test report
Completed system Life cycle deliverables (adapted from Sommerville, 1992).
41
TLC Deliverables
Installation
Installed system
Maintenance
Change requests
Change request report

42
Problems with TLC
Real projects rarely follow such a simple

sequential life cycle
Lapsed time between systems engineering
and the final installation is long
Iterations are almost inevitable in real
projects but are expensive & problematic with
the TLC
Unresponsive to changes during project as
iteration is difficult
43
TLC with Iteration

The cost of
this form of
iteration
increases as
the project
progresses
making it
impractical
and not
effective
System
System
Engineering
Engineering
Requirements
Analy sis
Design
Design
Construction
Code
Testing
Code
Installation
Maintenance
Maintenance
44
Strengths of TLC
Tasks in phases may be assigned to
specialized teams.
Project progress evaluated at the end of
each phase.
Can be used to manage projects with
high levels of risks.
45
Prototyping Life Cycle

Initial
analysis
Define
objectives
Specify
Prototyping
completed
Evaluate
Construct
46
Prototyping Advantages:
Early demonstrations of system functionality

help identify any misunderstandings between
developer and client
Client requirements that have been missed
are identified
Difficulties in the interface can be identified
The feasibility and usefulness of the system
can be tested, even though, by its very
nature, the prototype is incomplete
47
Prototyping Problems:
The client may perceive the prototype
as part of the final system
The prototype may divert attention
from functional to solely interface issues
Prototyping requires significant user
involvement
Managing the prototyping life cycle
requires careful decision making
48
Spiral Model & Incremental Development

Initial
requirements
gathering and
project planning
Planning
Risk analysis
Risk analysis
based on user
reaction to plan
Further planning
based on user
comments
User
evaluation
of
increments
Risk analysis
based on initial
requirements
Go, no-go decision

Risk assessment
Progress towards
final system
User evaluation
Software development
Develop first
increment
Develop next
increment
49
Unified Software Development Process
Captures many elements of best practice

The phases are:
Inception is concerned with determining the scope
and purpose of the project;
Elaboration focuses requirements capture and
determining the structure of the system;
Construction's main aim is to build the software
system;
Transition deals with product installation and
rollout.
50
Project
Phases
Inception
Elaboration
Transition
Construction
Requirements
Iterations within
each phase
Analysis
Design
Implementation
Test
Workflows
Size of square
relative to time
spent on
workflows
51
User Involvement
Users can be involved at various levels

As part of the development team (DSDM)
Via a consultative approach
In fact gathering
52
Agile Approaches
Iterative lightweight approach
Accepts that user requirements will
change during development
XP and DSDM are considered agile
Non-agile approaches can be viewed as
plan-based
53
Agile Approaches
Manifesto for Agile Software Development
We are uncovering better ways of developing software
by doing and helping others do it.
Through this work we have come to value:
Individuals and interactions over processes and tools
Working software over comprehensive documentation
Customer collaboration over contract negotiation
Responding to change over following a plan
That is, while there is value in the items on the right, we value
the items on the left more.
The Manifesto for Agile Software Development

54
Computer Aided Software

Engineering
CASE tools typically provide a range of

features including:
checks for syntactic correctness;

repository support;
checks for consistency and completeness;
navigation to linked diagrams;
55
Computer Aided Software

Engineering
Features of CASE tools continued
layering;
traceability;
report generation;
system simulation;
performance analysis;
code generation.
56
Summary
the stages in the waterfall life cycle;
about prototyping and incremental life
cycles;
the importance of project management;
how users may be involved in a project;
the role of CASE tools in systems
development.
57
References
Hicks (1991)
Sommerville (1992, 2004) and Pressman
(2004)
Jacobson, Booch and Rumbaugh (1999)
Chapters 5 and 21 of Bennett, McRobb and
Farmer include more detail about the Unified
Process
(For full bibliographic details, see Bennett, McRobb and

Farmer)
58
What Is Object-Orientation?
Farmer:

03/12/2001

The fundamental concepts of objectorientation
The justifications for an object-oriented
approach
July 2005
Basic Concepts
The main concepts introduced here are:

Objects, Classes and Instances
Object State
Generalization and Specialization
Message-passing and Encapsulation
Polymorphism
July 2005
Objects
An object is:
an abstraction of something in a
problem domain, reflecting the
capabilities of the system to
keep information about it,
interact with it,
or both.
Coad and Yourdon (1990)
July 2005
Objects
Objects have state, behaviour and
identity.
Booch (1994)
State: the condition of an object at any
moment, affecting how it can behave

Behaviour: what an object can do, how
it can respond to events and stimuli
Identity: each object is unique
July 2005
Examples of Objects
Object
Identity
Behaviour State
A person.
Hussain Pervez.
Speak, walk, read.
Studying, resting,
qualified.
A shirt.
My favourite button
white denim shirt.
Shrink, stain, rip.
Pressed, dirty,
worn.
A sale.
Sale no #0015,
18/05/05.
Earn loyalty points.
Invoiced,
cancelled.
A bottle of
ketchup.
This bottle of
ketchup.
Spill in transit.
Unsold, opened,
empty.
July 2005
Class and Instance

All objects are instances of some class
Class:
a description of a set of objects with
similar
features (attributes, operations, links);

semantics;
constraints (e.g. when and whether an
object can be instantiated).
OMG (2004)
July 2005
Class and Instance

An object is an instance of some class
So, instance = object
but also carries connotations of the class to

which the object belongs
Instances of a class are similar in their:

Structure: what it knows, what information
it holds, what links it has to other objects
Behaviour: what an object can do
July 2005
Generalization and
Specialization
Classification is hierarchic in nature
For example, a person may be an
employee, a customer, a supplier of a
service
An employee may be paid monthly,
weekly or hourly
An hourly paid employee may be a
driver, a cleaner, a sales assistant
July 2005
Specialization Hierarchy
More general
(superclasses)
Person
Employee
monthly
paid
Customer
weekly
paid
Driver
July 2005
Supplier
hourly
paid
Cleaner
Sales More specialized

assistant
(subclasses)
10
Generalization and
Specialization
More general bits of description are

abstracted out from specialized classes:
General (superclass)
Person
name
date of birth
gender
title
July 2005
Specialized (subclass)
HourlyPaidDriver
startDate
standardRate
overtimeRate
licenceType
11
Inheritance
The whole description of a superclass applies

to all its subclasses, including:
Information structure (including associations)
Behaviour
Often known loosely as inheritance

(But actually inheritance is how an O-O
programming language implements
generalization / specialization)
July 2005
12
Message-passing
Several objects may collaborate to fulfil
each system action
Record CD sale could involve:
A CD stock item object

A sales transaction object
A sales assistant object
These objects communicate by sending

each other messages
July 2005
13
Message-passing and
Encapsulation
Layers of an onion
model of an object:
Message from another object

requests a service.
Operation called only via valid

operation signature.
An outer layer of
operation signatures
gives access to middle
layer of operations
which can access
inner core of data
July 2005
Data accessed only by

objects own operations.
An objects data
is hidden
(encapsulated).
14
Polymorphism
Polymorphism allows one message to
be sent to objects of different classes
Sending object need not know what
kind of object will receive the message
Each receiving object knows how to
respond appropriately
For example, a resize operation in a
graphics package
July 2005
15
Polymorphism in Resize
Operations
<<entity>>
Campaign
title
campaignStartDate
campaignFinishDate
getCampaignAdverts()
addNewAdvert()
<<entity>>
Campaign
title
campaignStartDate
campaignFinishDate
getCampaignAdverts()
addNewAdvert()
July 2005
16
Advantages of O-O
Can save effort

Reuse of generalized components cuts
work, cost and time
Can improve software quality

Encapsulation increases modularity
Sub-systems less coupled to each other
Better translations between analysis and
design models and working code
July 2005
17
Summary
The fundamental concepts of O-O
Object, class, instance
Generalization and specialization
Message-passing and polymorphism
Some of the advantages and

justifications of O-O
July 2005
18
References
Coad and Yourdon (1990)
Booch (1994)
OMG (2004)

McRobb and Farmer)
July 2005
19
Modelling Concepts
Farmer:

20

What is meant by a model
The distinction between a model and a
diagram
The UML concept of a model
21
What is a Model
Like a map, a model represents
something else
A useful model has the right level of
detail and represents only what is
important for the task in hand
Many things can be modelled: bridges,
traffic flow, buildings, economic policy
22
Why Use a Model?

A model is quicker and easier to build
A model can be used in a simulation
A model can evolve as we learn
We can choose which details to include
in a model
A model can represent real or imaginary
things from any domain
23
Modelling Organizations
Organizations are human activity systems.
The situation is complex
Stakeholders have different views
We have to model requirements
accurately, completely and
unambiguously
The model must not prejudge the
solution
24
What is a Diagram?
Abstract shapes are used to represent
things or actions from the real world
Diagrams follow rules or standards
The standards make sure that different
people will interpret the diagram in the
same way
40
25
An Example
of a Diagram
Author
Reviewer
Typesetter
Printer
Write Chapter
Review Chapter
An activity
diagram of the
tasks involved
in producing a
book.
Revise Chapter
[book not
complete]
[book complete]
Typeset Book
Correct Proofs
Reset Book
Print Book
26
Hiding
Detail
Author
Reviewer
Typesetter
Printer
Write Chapter
Plan Chapter
Write Chapter
Produce
First Draft
Review Chapter
Revise Draft
Revise Chapter
[book
not
[not
satisfied]
complete]
[satisfied]
[book complete]
Add Exercises
Typeset Book
Add References
to Bibliography
Correct Proofs
Reset Book
Print Book
27
Diagrams in UML
UML diagrams consist of:

icons
two-dimensional symbols
paths
Strings
UML diagrams are defined in

the UML specification.
Plan Chapter
Produce
First Draft
Revise Draft
[not satisfied]
[satisfied]
Add Exercises
Add References
to Bibliography
28
Diagrams vs Models
A diagram illustrates some aspect of a

system.
A model provides a complete view of a
system at a particular stage and from a
particular perspective.
A model may consist of a single diagram, but
most consist of many related diagrams and
supporting data and documentation.
29
Examples of Models
Requirements Model
complete view of requirements
may include other models, such as a Use
Case Model
includes textual description as well as sets
of diagrams
30
Examples of Models
Behavioural Model
shows how the system responds to events
in the outside world and the passage of
time
an initial model may just use
Communication Diagrams
a later model will include Sequence
Diagrams and State Machines
31
Models in UML
A system is the overall thing that is
being modelled
A subsystem is a part of a system
consisting of related elements
A model is an abstraction of a system or
subsystem from a particular perspective
A model is complete and consistent at
the chosen level of abstraction
32
Models in UML
Different models present different views

of the system, for example:
use case view
design view
process view
implementation view
deployment view
(Booch et al., 1999)
33
Packages, Sub-systems and

Models
UML has notation for showing

subsystems and models, and also for
packages, which are a mechanism for
organising models (e.g. in CASE tools)
Use Cases
subsystem
Campaign
Management
Package
Sub-system
Use Case
Model
Model
34
Developing Models
During the life of a project using an

iterative life cycle, models change along
the dimensions of:
abstractionthey become more concrete
formalitythey become more formally
specified
level of detailadditional detail is added as
understanding improves
35
Development of the Use Case

Model
Staff Management
Iteration 1
Obvious use cases.
Simple use case descriptions.
Add a new staff

member
Staff Management
Add a new staff

member
Add a new staff
grade
Add a new staff

grade
Change the
rate for a
staff grade
Accountant
Change the
rate for a
staff grade
Change the
grade for a
staff member
Accountant
Change the
grade for a
staff member
Calculate staff
bonuses
Calculate staff
bonuses
Staff Management
Add a new staff

member
Staff Management
Iteration 2
Additional use cases.
Simple use case descriptions.
Prototypes.
Add a new staff

member
Staff Management
Add a new staff
grade
Campaign Selection
Add a new staff

member
Add a new staff
grade
Campaign Selection
Change the
rate for a
staff grade
Add a new staff
grade
Accountant
Accountant
Change the
rate for a
staff grade
Change the
rate for a
staff grade
Holborn Motors
Lynch Properties
Holborn
Motors
Yellow
Partridge
Yellow
Partridge
LynchZeta
Properties
Systems
Holborn
Motors
Yellow
Partridge
Yellow
Partridge
Spring Jewellery Campaign 1997
Properties
Systems
Campaign: LynchZeta
Yellow Partridge
Spring
Jewellery
Campaign
1997 2002
Spring
Jewellery
Campaign
Zeta Systems
Campaign:
Spring
Jewellery
Campaign
2001
Summer
Collection
1998
Spring
SpringJewellery
JewelleryCampaign
Campaign 2002
Campaign:
2002
Summer Collection 1998
OK
Quit
Client:
Campaign Selection
Client:
Change the
grade for a
staff member
Client:
Change the
grade for a
staff member
Accountant
Calculate staff
bonuses
Change the
grade for a
staff member
Calculate staff
bonuses
OK
Calculate staff
bonuses
OK
Quit
Quit
Campaign Management
Iteration 3
Structured use cases.
Structured use case descriptions.
Prototypes.
Assign staff
to work on
a campaign
include
Campaign Management
Add a new
advert to
include
a campaign
Campaign Management
Assign staff
to work on
a campaign
Campaign
Manager
Find campaign
include
Assign staff
to work on
a campaign
Campaign
Manager
Campaign Selection
Find campaigninclude
Campaign Selection
include
Add a new
advert to
include
a campaign
Check campaign
Holborn Motors
Lynch Properties
Holborn
Motors
Yellow
Partridge
Yellow
Partridge
LynchZeta
Properties
Systems
Client:
Campaign Selection
budget
Find campaigninclude
include
Add a new
advert to
a campaign
extend
Print campaign
summary
extend
Print campaign
invoice
extend
Accountant
Print campaign
summary
extend
Client:
Check campaign
include
budget
Campaign
Manager
Check campaign
budget
extend
Print campaign
invoice
extend
Accountant
Print campaign
summary
Print campaign
invoice
Accountant
Holborn
Motors
Yellow
Partridge
Yellow
Partridge
Properties
Systems
Campaign: LynchZeta
Yellow Partridge
Spring
Jewellery
Campaign
1997 2002
Spring
Jewellery
Campaign
Zeta Systems
Campaign:
Spring
Jewellery
Campaign
2001
Summer
Collection
1998
Spring
SpringJewellery
JewelleryCampaign
Campaign 2002
Campaign:
2002
Summer Collection 1998
OK
Quit
Client:
OK
OK
Quit
Quit
36
Summary
What is meant by a model
The distinction between a model and a
diagram
The UML concept of a model
37
References
Booch, Rumbaugh and Jacobson (1999)
Bennett, Skelton and Lunn (2005)

McRobb and Farmer)
38
Activity Diagrams
Farmer:

39

The purpose of activity diagrams
The notation of activity diagrams
How to draw activity diagrams
40
Drawing Activity Diagrams
Purpose
to model a task (for example in business
modelling)
to describe a function of a system
represented by a use case
to describe the logic of an operation
to model the activities that make up the
life cycle in the Unified Process
41
Notation of Activity Diagrams
Actions
rectangle with rounded corners
meaningful name
Control flows
Add a New
Client
Assign Staff
Contact
arrows with open

arrowheads
42
Initial node
Add a New
Client
black circle
Decision nodes
(and merge nodes)
diamond
[no campaign to add]
Guard conditions
in square brackets
Assign Staff
Contact
Final node
[campaign to add]
Add New
Campaign
black circle in white circle

43
Fork nodes
and join nodes
Add a New
Client
thick bar
Actions carried
out in parallel
Add New
Campaign
Assign Staff
Contact
44
In UML 1.X multiple flows from an action

were implicitly ORed
In UML 2.0 they are implicitly ANDed
Guard conditions do not have to be mutually
exclusive, but it is advisable that they should
be
Decisions should be strictly nested, but
a merge point can be combined with a
following decision point
45

:Campaign
Object flows
[Active]
open arrow
Record completion
of a campaign
Objects
rectangle
optionally shows the
state of the object in
square brackets
:Campaign
[Completed]
46
Activity Partitions
(Swimlanes)
vertical columns
labelled with the
person, organisation,
department or
system responsible
for the activities in
that column
Campaign
Manager
Accountant
Client
Record Completion
of a campaign
Issue invoice
Pay invoice
Record client
payment
47
What is the purpose?

This will influence the kind of activities that
are shown
What is being shown in the diagram?

What is the name of the business process,
use case or operation?
What level of detail is required?

Is it high level or more detailed?
48
Identify actions
What happens when a new client is added
in the Agate system?
Add a New Client

Assign Staff Contact
Add New Campaign
Assign Staff to Campaign
Organise the actions in order with flows

49
Drawing Activity
Diagrams
Add a New
Client
Assign Staff
Contact
Add New
Campaign
Assign Staff
to Campaign
50
Identify any alternative flows and the

conditions on them
sometimes there is a new campaign to add
for a new client, sometimes not
sometimes they will want to assign staff to
the campaign, sometimes not
Add decision and merge nodes, flows

and guard conditions to the diagram
51
Drawing Activity
Diagrams
Add a New
Client
Assign Staff
Contact
[campaign to add]
Add New
Campaign
[no staff to assign]
[staff to assign]
Assign Staff
to Campaign
52
Identify any actions that are carried out

in parallel
there are none in this example
Add fork and join nodes and flows to

the diagram
53
Identify any processes that are

repeated
they will want to assign staff to the
campaign until there are no more staff to
add
Add decision and merge nodes, flows

and guard conditions to the diagram
54
Drawing Activity
Diagrams
Add a New
Client
Assign Staff
Contact
[campaign to add]
Add New
Campaign
[staff to assign]
Assign Staff
to Campaign
[more staff to assign]
[no more staff to assign]
55

Are all the activities carried out by the
same person, organisation or
department?
If not, then add swimlanes to show the
responsibilities
Name the swimlanes
Show each activity in the appropriate
swimlane
56
Administrator
Add a New
Client
Campaign Manager
Assign Staff
Contact
[campaign to add]
Add New
Campaign
[staff to assign]
Assign Staff
to Campaign
57
Are there any object flows and objects

to show?
these can be documents that are created
or updated in a business activity diagram
these can be object instances that change
state in an operation or a use case
Add the object flows and objects

58
Administrator
Add a New
Client
Campaign Manager
Assign Staff
Contact
Client
[New]
[campaign to add]
:Campaign
[Commissioned]
Add New
Campaign

[staff to assign]
Assign Staff
to Campaign
59
Summary
The purpose of activity diagrams
The notation of activity diagrams
How to draw activity diagrams
60
References
The notation and semantics of activity
diagrams have changed significantly
since UML was first released. The
original UML books are now out of date
on the subject.
Bennett, Skelton and Lunn (2005)

McRobb and Farmer)
61
Development Process
Farmer:

62

About the Unified Software Development Process
How phases relate to workflows in an
iterative life cycle
An approach to system development
Major activities in the development
process
63
Unified Software
Development Process
Developed by the team that created
UML
Embodies best practice in system
development
Adopts an iterative approach with four
main phases
Different tasks are captured in a series
of workflows
64
Best Practice
Iterative and incremental development
Component-based development
Requirements-driven development
Configurability
Architecture-centrism
Visual modelling techniques
65
Four Phases
Inception
Elaboration
Construction
Transition
66
Phases, Workflows
and Iterations
Within each phase activities are
grouped into workflows
The balance of effort spent in each
workflow varies from phase to phase
Within phases there may be more than
one iteration
67
Project
Phases
Inception
Elaboration
Transition
Construction
Requirements
Iterations within
each phase
Analysis
Design
Implementation
Test
Workflows
Size of square
relative to time
spent on
workflowh
68
Difference from
Waterfall Life Cycle
In a waterfall life cycle project the phases

and the workflows are linked together
In the Requirements phase, only
Requirements workflow activities are carried
out
All Requirements activity should be completed
before work starts on Analysis
In an iterative life cycle project it is
recognised that some Requirements work will
be happening alongside Analysis work
69
Requirements
Design
Analysis
Test
Implementation
Requirements
Analysis
Design
Implementation
Test
70
Major Activities of the

Development Process
Activity
Techniques
Key Deliverables
Requirements
Capture and
Modelling
Requirements
Elicitation
Use Case
Modelling
Architectural
Modelling
Prototyping
Use Case Model

Requirements List
Initial Architecture
Prototypes
Glossary
71

Development Process
Activity
Techniques
Requirements
Analysis
Communication
Analysis Models
Diagrams
Class and Object
Modelling
Analysis Modelling
Key Deliverables
72

Development Process
Activity
Techniques
System Design Deployment

Modelling
Component
Modelling
Package Modelling
Architectural
Modelling
Design Patterns
Key Deliverables
Overview Design
and
Implementation
Architecture
73

Development Process
Activity
Techniques
Class Design
Class and Object Design Models

Modelling
Interaction
Modelling
State Modelling
Design Patterns
Key Deliverables
74

Development Process
Activity
Techniques
Key Deliverables
User
Interface
Design
Class and Object

Modelling
Interaction Modelling
State Modelling
Package Modelling
Prototyping
Design Patterns
Design Models
with Interface
Specification
75

Development Process
Activity
Techniques
Key Deliverables
Data
Management
Design
Class and Object

Modelling
Interaction
Modelling
State Modelling
Package Modelling
Design Patterns
Design Models
with Database
Specification
76

Development Process
Activity
Techniques
Key Deliverables
Construction
Programming
Component Reuse
Database DDL
Programming
Idioms
Manual Writing
Constructed
System
Documentation
77

Development Process
Activity
Techniques
Testing
Programming
Test Plans
Test Planning and Test Cases
Design
Tested System
Testing
Key Deliverables
78

Development Process
Activity
Techniques
Implementation
Planning
Installed System
Training
Data Conversion
Key Deliverables
79
Summary
The Unified Software Development
Process
How phases relate to workflows in an
iterative life cycle
An approach to system development
Major activities in the development
process
80
References
Jacobson, Booch and Rumbaugh (1999)
Kruchten (2004)
Chapter 21 of Bennett, McRobb and
Farmer includes more detail about the
Unified Process

McRobb and Farmer)
81

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Introduction to Information Technology

IT Kolledzh/TT E.Domiczi based on T.Tammet

IT Kolledzh/TT E.Domiczi based on T.Tammet

1977-1980 : Home computers

Apple, Commodore, Radio Shack

Microsoft, more microprocessors, VisiCalc, Sinclair

IT Kolledzh/TT E.Domiczi based on T.Tammet

The Commodore PET (Personal Electronic Transactor) -- the first of

IT Kolledzh/TT E.Domiczi based on T.Tammet

IT Kolledzh/TT E.Domiczi based on T.Tammet

IT Kolledzh/TT E.Domiczi based on T.Tammet

The Apple Computer Company is incorporated.

IT Kolledzh/TT E.Domiczi based on T.Tammet

IT Kolledzh/TT E.Domiczi based on T.Tammet

Harvard MBA candidate Daniel Bricklin and programmer Robert

IT Kolledzh/TT E.Domiczi based on T.Tammet

In development since 1967, the Stanford Cart successfully crossed a

Microsoft moves its offices from Albuquerque, New Mexico to Bellevue,

Taito first shows the Space Invaders game, in Japan.

IT Kolledzh/TT E.Domiczi based on T.Tammet

Intel introduces the 4.77-MHz 8088 microprocessor. It was created as a

Bob Metcalfe founds 3Com Corporation.

Texas Instruments introduces the TI-99/4 personal computer, for an

MicroPro releases the WordStar word processor, written by Rob

Microsoft announces Microsoft BASIC 8086 at the National Computer

IT Kolledzh/TT E.Domiczi based on T.Tammet

CompuServe begins a service to computer hobbyists called MicroNET,

Clive Sinclair creates Sinclair Research.

Microsoft releases its Assembler language for 8080/Z80 microprocessors.

Motorola's 68000 16-bit microprocessor appears. It uses 68,000 transistors,

IT Kolledzh/TT E.Domiczi based on T.Tammet

IT Kolledzh/TT E.Domiczi based on T.Tammet

Microsoft begins developing an 8086 version of FORTRAN. [346.72]

IT Kolledzh/TT E.Domiczi based on T.Tammet

Xerox shows its Alto personal computer in TV commercials.

IT Kolledzh/TT E.Domiczi based on T.Tammet

79-80: USENET : early web : text(-based) news

USENET is a huge amount of newsgroups. Text moves from

IT Kolledzh/TT E.Domiczi based on T.Tammet

Specialprocessors: birth 1980, death ca 1990

Symbolics founded 1980. Created special hardware for running LISP

IT Kolledzh/TT E.Domiczi based on T.Tammet

Universal Data Systems announces the 103LP 300 bps modem,

Sinclair Research announces the ZX80 computer in the North American

Satellite Software International ships WordPerfect 1.0 for Data General

Apple Computer introduces the Apple III at the National Computer

IT Kolledzh/TT E.Domiczi based on T.Tammet

IBM's Corporate Management Committee gives William Lowe approval to

QDOS 0.10 (Quick and Dirty Operating System) is shipped by Seattle

IT Kolledzh/TT E.Domiczi based on T.Tammet

Microsoft announces the Microsoft XENIX OS, a portable and

Microsoft decides to propose to IBM that they provide the operating

William Lowe assembles the members of "Project Chess", known as the

Software Publishing ships the pfs:File database program.

IBM meets with Microsoft again, to formalize plans to work together in

IT Kolledzh/TT E.Domiczi based on T.Tammet

Microsoft's Paul Allen contacts Seattle Computer Products' Tim

Microsoft and IBM sign a contract for Microsoft to develop certain

IBM delivers the first PC prototype to Microsoft, so they can begin

Apple Computer becomes a publicly held company, selling 4.6 million

IT Kolledzh/TT E.Domiczi based on T.Tammet

Seattle Computer Products renames QDOS to 86-DOS, releasing it as