Preliminary Chemistry Module 1:

The Chemical Earth

The living and non-living components of the Earth contain
mixtures
1.2

Identify the difference between elements, compounds

and mixtures in terms of particle theory:

1.3

Identify that the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere

and atmosphere contain examples of mixtures of
elements and compounds:

1.4

Element a pure substance composed of only one type of

atom (and cannot be further separated)
Compound a substance composed of two or more types
of atoms bonded together in a fixed ratio (and can be
chemically separated into the simpler chemicals)
Mixture Impure substances which contain a variety of
elements and compounds in a variable ratio

Biosphere refers to the part of the Earth where living

things are found, encompasses the lithosphere,
hydrosphere and atmosphere, examples of mixtures
include: air (N2, O2, Ar), soil
Lithosphere is the crust and upper mantle of the Earth
that contains rock mixtures, some elements in these
mixtures include: O, Si, Al, Fe
Hydrosphere is the liquid (water) part of the Earth,
contains mixtures of water such as: salt water, muddy
water, and even dissolved elements such as oxygen
Atmosphere Gaseous layer that encompasses the Earth,
mixtures of air which is a mixture of elements and
compounds (such as CO2)

Identify and describe procedures that can be used to

separate naturally occurring mixtures of: solids of
different sizes, solids and liquids, dissolved solids in
liquids, liquids, gases:

Solids of different sizes sieving, separating based on

solubility
Solids and liquids filtration, sedimentation, decantation
Dissolved solids in liquids evaporating to dryness (like
boiling), evaporation

Liquids distillation, fractional distillation, separating

funnel
Gases differences in boiling points (liquefying, then
fractional distillation), differences in solubilities in liquids
(dissolving in water), eg. LPG is separated into methane
and ethane by a bubbler and 2
U-tubes

1.5

Assess separating techniques for their suitability in

separating examples of earth materials, identifying the
differences in properties which enable these
separations:

1.6

Describe situations in which gravimetric analysis

supplies useful data for chemists and other scientists:

Gravimetric analysis is used to determine the mass and/or

percentage of different components in a sample (usually a
mixture)
Scientists can use gravimetric analysis to determine the
percentage of pollutants in air
Chemists can use gravimetric analysis to determine the
purity and/or composition of different medicines

Although most elements are found in combinations on Earth,

some elements are found uncombined
2.1

Explain the relationship between the reactivity of an

element and the likelihood of its existing as an
uncombined element:

The more reactive the element, the less likely it is of

existing as an uncombined element
This is because more reactive elements need to bond with
other elements in order to be stable
Gold (Au), Platinum (Pt) and the noble gases exist as
uncombined elements

2.2

Classify elements as metals, non-metals and metalloids

according to their physical properties:
Metals
Non-Metals
Metalloids
Usually high MPs Usually low MPs
Usually high to very high MPs and B
and BPs
and BPs
Shiny
Dull
Shiny
Very hard or
Brittle
Brittle
hard
Malleable
Non-malleable
Reactivity depends on properties of
elements in reaction
Ductile
Non-ductile
Unique semi-conductor properties
Fine heat
Bad heat
Act like metals upon reaction with n
conductor
conductor
metals
Fine electricity
Bad electricity
Act like non-metals upon reaction w
conductor
conductor
metals
Solid
Solids, Liquids
Variable chemical properties
and Gases
Generally higher Generally lower density
density

2.3

Account for the uses of metals and non-metals in terms

of their physical properties:

Metals such as copper can be used for electrical wires

because they are generally ductile and good conductors of
electricity
Helium is a gas that can be used in balloons as it is a gas
at room temperature and very light (and is a noble gas
unreactive)

Elements in Earth materials are present mostly as

compounds because of interactions at the atomic level
3.1

Identify that matter is made of particles that are

continuously moving and interacting:

Matter is made up of particles that are continuously

moving and interacting
In solids, the particles are compact and vibrate
In liquids, the particles have more space between them
and have translational and vibrational motion (vibrate
slightly and fill up what its contained in)
In gases, the particles have a lot of energy, dont interact
with each other as much and have rapid translational
motion

3.2 Describe qualitatively the energy levels of electrons in

atoms:

There is less energy in electrons further away from the

nucleus
Energy level: K shell n=1 row 1 2x12=2
L shell n=2 row 2 2x22=8
M shell n=3 row 3 2x32=18
N shell n=4 row 4 2x42=32
3.3 Describe atoms in terms of mass number and atomic
number:

3.4

Describe the formation of ions in terms of atoms

gaining or losing electrons:

3.5

Mass number = protons + neutrons

Atomic number = protons = electrons (in neutral element)

Atoms attempt to fill their outer shells

Cation: Element -> Ion + eAnion: Element + e- -> Ion

Apply the Periodic Table to predict the ions formed by

atoms of metals and non-metals:

The number of valence electrons an atom has determines

whether or not it will form a cation or an anion
Atoms with 3 or less valence electrons (Group 1, 2, 3) are
metals form cations
Atoms with 5 or more valence electrons (Group 5, 6, 7) are
generally gases and form anions
The transition metals (may have more than one ion and)
tend to have a valency of 2 (Cr, Cu, Ag, Au have a valency
of 1), forming cations
The valency of an atom is how many electrons an atom
needs to gain or lose to fill its outer shell
Noble gases dont form ions as they have a full outer shell

3.6

Apply Lewis electron dot structures to: the formation

of ions and the electron sharing in some simple
molecules:

3.7

Describe the formation of ionic compounds in terms of

the attraction of ions of opposite charges:

3.8

Describe molecules as particles that can move

independently of each other:

3.9

When ionic bonding occurs, the newly formed cation and

anion attract each other (due to opposite electrostatic
forces) and form an ionic compound (held together by
strong ionic bonds)

A molecule is the smallest particle of a substance that can

have a separate existence and can move independently of
other molecules

Distinguish between molecules containing one atom

(the noble gases) and molecules containing more than
one atom:

Monatomic molecules (noble gases) one atom in

molecule, eg. Neon
Diatomic molecules two atoms in molecule, eg. Oxygen
(O2)
Triatomic molecules three atoms in molecule, eg, Water

Tetratomic molecules four atoms in molecule, eg.

Phosphorous (P4)

3.10 Describe the formation of covalent molecules in terms

of sharing electrons:

Covalent bonding occurs atoms share one or more pairs of

electrons to attain a stable configuration (full outer shell)
Covalent compounds are formed from covalent bonding
and are typically formed by non-metals
Covalent bonds are strong but the intermolecular forces
between them are weak

3.11 Construct formulae for compounds formed from: ions,

atoms sharing electrons:

Some ionic compounds include: Zinc Oxide ZnO,

Silver Nitrate AgNO3, Ammonium Chloride NH4Cl,
Lead (II) Sulphate PbSO4, Copper Sulphide CuS,
Aluminium Oxide Al2O3
Some common covalent compounds include: Water H2O,
Ammonia NH3, Methane CH4, Nitric Oxide NO, Chlorine
Cl2, Hydrogen H2

Energy is required to extract elements from their naturally

occurring sources
4.1

Identify the differences between physical and chemical

change in terms of rearrangement of particles:

The difference between a physical and a chemical change

is that in a physical change no new substance is formed
whereas in a chemical change a new substance is formed
Physical changes include: change of state, change of
appearance, dissolving a solid in a liquid, separating
mixtures
Signs of a chemical change include: formation of a gas,
formation of a solid (precipitate), change in colour,
significant change in temperature, disappearance of a
solid, an odour is produced

4.2

Summarise the differences between the boiling and

electrolysis of water as an example of the difference
between a physical change and a chemical change:

4.3

Identify light, heat and electricity as the common

forms of energy that may be released or absorbed
during the decomposition or synthesis of substances
and identify examples of these changes occurring in
everyday life:

4.4

Electrolysis is the decomposing of a substance with an

electric current using electrodes in a liquid (or solution)
The differences between boiling water and the electrolysis
of water are: electrolysis produces two new substances
whereas boiling doesnt, electrolysis is difficult to reverse
whereas boiling is easily reversed and electrolysis requires
much more energy than boiling

Light, heat and electricity are the common forms of energy

released or absorbed during a decomposition or synthesis
reaction
Endothermic reactions absorb heat and exothermic
reactions release heat
Example of decomposition reaction in everyday life: when
heat is added to bicarbonate soda in baking, it is
decomposed into sodium carbonate, water and carbon
dioxide. The carbon dioxide causes the dough to rise.
2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
Example of synthesis reaction in everyday life: the
synthesis of limestone from lime and carbon dioxide.
Limestone is also known as carbon carbonate and lime is
also known as carbon oxide.
CaO + CO2 CaCO3

Explain that the amount of energy needed to separate

atoms in a compound is an indication of the strength of
the attraction, or bond, between them:

The stronger the chemical bonding in a compound, the

more energy that is required to break the compound into
atoms
The stronger the chemical bonding in a compound, the
more energy that is released when a compound is formed
from its atoms

Therefore the amount of energy needed to separate atoms

in a compound indicates the strength of the bonds
between the atoms

The properties of elements and compounds are determined

by their bonding and structure
5.1

Identify differences between physical and chemical

properties of elements, compounds and mixtures:

5.2

Some physical properties include: lustre, hardness,

ductility, conductivity, malleability, etc
Some chemical properties include: reactivity, valency, etc

Describe the physical properties used to classify

compounds as ionic or covalent molecular or covalent
network:

5.3 Distinguish between metallic, ionic and covalent

bonds:

Metallic bonding is where a sea of delocalised electrons hold

the metal cations in a 3D array in the solid
Covalent bonding is where electrons are shared between
atoms
Ionic bonding is where atoms give up electrons to each other
to form ions which bond with each other

5.4
Describe metals as 3D lattices of ions in a sea of
electrons:

Metals bond by releasing their outer shell electrons to

move freely around the lattice structure of positive cations
as a sea of delocalised electrons

This bonding makes metals solids (except Hg), with high

melting and boiling points, malleable and ductile,
generally good conductors of electricity and heat (as
liquids and solids) and typically hard.

5.5 Describe ionic compounds in terms of repeating 3D

lattices of ions:

5.6

Explain why the formula for an ionic compound is an

empirical formula:

5.7

Ionic bonding forms crystals with the electrostatic

attraction extending throughout the entre lattice
This strong attraction makes ionic compounds hard but
brittle (as if two opposite charges are forced together they
repel shattering)
This also makes ionic compounds unable to conduct
electricity as the ions are not free to move
When dissolved in water, the ions are broken up, allowing
the ions to move towards an electrode and hence
conducting electricity

In ionic compounds the formulae specify the rations in

which the ions are present, not the composition of discrete
molecules
This means that by definition the formulae for ionic
compounds are empirical formulae (because there are no
molecules, so they tell the ratio by atoms of elements)

Identify common elements that exist as molecules or

as covalent lattices:

Some elements that exist as molecules: H2, O2, N2, Br2

(liquid),
I2 (solid), P4, S8
Some elements that exist as covalent lattices: C (diamond
or graphite), the semi-metals B, Si, Ge, As, Sb and Te form
what is basically consider to be a covalent lattice though
their bonding electrons are not as firmly localised as in
diamond

5.8

Explain the relationship between the properties of

conductivity and hardness and the structure of ionic,
covalent molecular and covalent network structures:
Structural feature in Ionic Lattice

Strong ionic bonds throughout the crystal. A

lot of energy is needed to break these bonds.

Physical property determined b

structure in Ionic Lattice
High melting and boiling points.
Hard.
Crystalline
Good electrical conductors when
molten

Heating makes the ions vibrate. This breaks

the bonds and the ions are then free to move
and carry the current.
Water moves between the ions, pushing them Good electrical conductors when in
apart and breaking the ionic bonds. The ions
solution
are then free to move and carry the electric
charge.
Ions are held in fixed positions by strong ionic Poor electrical conductors when in
bonds that extend throughout the lattice. The solid.
ions can only vibrate, they are not free to
move and carry out the charge.
Structure features in Covalent
Physical property determined by
Molecular
structure in Covalent Molecular
No free electrons, no free ions
Poor conductors of electricity in all
present
states
Weak dispersion forces between
Not hard
molecules result in low boiling
points so usually gases at room
temperature
Structural feature in Covalent
Physical property determined by
Network
structure in Covalent Network
No free electrons, no ions present
Poor conductors electricity in all
states
Strong covalent bonds that extend
Hardness
throughout the lattice
Structural feature in Metallic
Physical property determined by
Lattice
structure in Metallic Lattice
Outer shell electrons are delocalised
Good conductor of electricity
(not held in place by an atom) and
thus they are mobile and free to carry
charge
Strong metallic bonds between the
High melting and boiling
positive metal ions and the sea of
points. Hard
negatively charged delocalised
electrons. A lot of energy is needed to
break these metallic bonds
The mobile, delocalised outer shell
Good conductor of heat
electrons can carry heat

The rows of metallic ions in the lattice

can slide over each other without
coming apart or disrupting the bonds
The sea of delocalised electrons
reflect light

Malleable and ductile

Shiny lustre