CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
In the last four decades of the 20th century, agricultural production
was all about quantity, which sparked many economic miracles in Asia. This
large-scale, technological approach to agricultural development caused
farmers to give traditional varieties in favor of high-yielding varieties,
monocropping, and use of amounts of inorganic fertilizers and which are
subsidized by the government through its various agricultural programs.1

Eventually, decades of unfavorable trends on the effects of intensive

agriculture on environmental sustainability and on human health have
triggered

shift

from

quantity-driven

to

quality-driven

agricultural

production. The 21st century saw a growing recognition of the "techno-fix"

approach as not the only solution to agricultural problems.2

Thus, concepts like sustainable development, sustainable agriculture, food

safety, and good agricultural practices (GAPs) as well as the international
agreements, protocols, guidelines, and standards to promote positive effects
on the so-called public goods to the environment and human health have
increasingly become the focus of government and nongovernmental efforts.

1 Gicana 2001; Mendoza 1997

2 Food and Agriculture Organization [FAO] n.d.

The World Food Summit Plan of Action has recognized the importance
of appropriate input technologies, farming techniques, and other sustainable
methods such as organic farming to reduce environmental degradation while
making agriculture profitable to small holders. The productivity of a region's
farms is important for many reasons. Increasing the productivity of farms
affect the region's prospects for growth and competitiveness on the
agricultural market likewise to income distribution, savings, and labor
migration. An increase in a region's agricultural productivity implies a more
efficient distribution of scarce resources. As farmers adopt new techniques,
they become more productive and benefit as compared to farmers who are
not productive enough will exit the market and give up farming.

As a region's farms become more productive, its comparative

advantage in agricultural products increases, which means that it can
produce agricultural goods at a lower cost. As a result farmers are more
empowered to till the soil and produce more harvest. If a farmer gets enough
profit from the soil, he will most likely gain satisfaction in cultivating, that
leads to increase in cultivation and means higher food production.

In addition, the same can help

alleviate poverty in poor and

developing countries, where agriculture often employs the greatest portion

of the population. As farms become more productive, the wages earned by
those who work in agriculture increase. At the same time, food prices
decrease and food supplies become more stable. Laborers therefore have
more money to spend on food as well as other products. This also leads to
agricultural growth. People see that there is a greater opportunity to earn a

living by farming and are attracted to agriculture either as owners, laborers,

or farmers themselves.

It is not only the people employed in agriculture benefit from the

increase in agricultural productivity. Those employed in other sectors also
enjoy lower food prices and a more stable food supply. Their wages may also
increase. Agricultural productivity is becoming increasingly important as the
world population continues to grow.

The Philippine Agricultural Industry

Agricultural Geography
In the late 1980s, nearly 8 million hectares over 25 percent of total
land were under cultivation, 4.5 million hectares in field crops, and 3.2
million hectares in tree crops. Population growth reduced the amount of
arable land per person employed in agriculture from about one hectare
during the 1950s to around 0.5 hectare in the early 1980s. Growth in
agricultural output had to come largely from multi-cropping and increasing
yields. In 1988 double-cropping and intercropping resulted in 13.4 million
hectares of harvested areas, a total that was considerably greater than the
area under cultivation. Palay (unhusked rice) and corn, the two cereals
widely grown in the Philippines, accounted for about half of total crop area.
On the other hand, 25 percent of the production areas were utilized for
coconut, sugarcane, pineapple, and banana plantation.3

3 http://countrystudies.us/philippines/60.htm

Rice and the Green Revolution

Rice is the most important food crop, a staple food in most of the country. It
is produced extensively in Luzon, the Western Visayas, Southern Mindanao,
and Central Mindanao. In 1989 nearly 9.5 billion tons of palay were
produced. In 1990 palay accounted for 27

percent of value added in

agriculture and 3.5 percent of GNP. Per hectare yields have generally been
low in comparison with other Asian countries. Since the mid-1960s, however,
yields have increased substantially as a result of the cultivation of highyielding varieties developed in the mid-1960s at the International Rice
Research Institute located in the Philippines. The proportion of "miracle" rice
in total output rose from zero in 1965-66 to 81 percent in 1981-82. Average
productivity increased to 2.3 tons per hectare (2.8 tons on irrigated farms) by
1983. By the late 1970s, the country had changed from a net importer to a
net exporter of rice, albeit on a small scale.

This "green revolution" was accompanied by an expanded use of

chemical inputs. Total fertilizer consumption rose from 668 tons in 1976 to
1,222 tons in 1988, an increase of more than 80 percent. To stimulate
productivity, the government also undertook a major expansion of the
nation's irrigation system. The area under irrigation grew from under 500,000
hectares in the mid-1960s to 1.5 million hectares in 1988, almost half of the
potentially irrigable land.

In the 1980s, however, rice production encountered problems. Average

annual growth for 1980-85 declined to a mere 0.9 percent, as contrasted
with 4.6 percent for the preceding fifteen years. Growth of value added in the
rice industry also fell in the 1980s. Tropical storms and droughts, the general

economic downturn of the 1980s, and the 1983-85 economic crises all
contributed to this decline. Crop loans dried up, prices of agricultural inputs
increased,

and

palay

prices

declined.

Fertilizer

and

plant

nutrient

consumption dropped 15 percent. Farmers were squeezed by rising debts

and declining income. Lands devoted to rice production, leveled during the
latter half of the 1970s, fell an average of 2.4 percent per annum during the
first half of the 1980s, with the decline primarily in marginal, non-irrigated
farms. As a result, in 1985, the last full year of the Marcos regime, the
country imported 538,000 tons of rice. The situation improved somewhat in
the late 1980s, and smaller amounts of rice were imported. However, in
1990 the country experienced a severe drought. Output fell by 1.5 percent,
forcing the importation of an estimated 400,000 tons of rice.4

Coconut Farming in the Philippines

The Philippines is the world's second largest producer of coconut
products, after Indonesia. In 1989 it produced 11.8 million tons. In 1989,
coconut products, coconut oil, copra (dried coconut), and desiccated coconut
accounted for approximately 6.7 percent of Philippine exports. About 25
percent of cultivated land was planted in coconut trees, and it is estimated
that between 25 percent and 33 percent of the population was at least partly
dependent on coconuts for their livelihood. Historically, the Southern Tagalog
and Bicol regions of Luzon and the Eastern Visayas were the centers of
coconut production. In the 1980s, Western Mindanao and Southern Mindanao
also became important coconut-growing regions.

4 http://countrystudies.us/philippines/65.htm

In the early 1990s, the average coconut farm was a medium-sized unit
of less than four hectares. Owners, often absentee, customarily employed
local

peasants

to

collect

coconuts

rather

than

engage

in

tenancy

relationships. The villagers were paid on a piece-rate basis. Those employed

in the coconut industry tended to be less educated and older than the
average person in the rural labor force and earned lower-than-average
incomes.

Land devoted to cultivation of coconuts increased by about 6 percent

per year during the 1960s and 1970s, a response to devaluations of the peso
in 1962 and 1970 and increasing world demand. Responding to the world
market,

the

Philippine

government

encouraged

processing

of

copra

domestically and provided investment incentives to increase the construction

of coconut oil mills. The number of mills rose from twenty-eight in 1968 to
sixty-two in 1979, creating substantial excess capacity. The situation was
aggravated by declining yields because of the aging of coconut trees in some
regions.

When coconut prices began to fall in the early 1980s, pressure

mounted to alter the structure of the industry. In 1985 the Philippine
government agreed to dismantle the United Coconut Oil Mills as part of an
agreement with the IMF to bail out the Philippine economy. Later 1988 United
States law requiring foods using tropical oils to be labeled indicating the
saturated fat content had a negative impact on an already ailing industry
and gave rise to protests from coconut growers that similar requirements
were not levied on oils produced in temperate climates.5

5 http://countrystudies.us/philippines/63.htm

The Sugar Industry in the Philippines

From the mid-nineteenth century to the mid-1970s, sugar was the most
important agricultural export of the Philippines, not only because of the
foreign exchange earned, but also because sugar was the basis for the
accumulation of wealth of a significant segment of the Filipino elite. The
principal sugarcane-growing region is the Western Visayas, particularly the
island of Negros. In 1980 the region accounted for half the area planted in
cane and two-thirds of the production of sugar. Unlike the cultivation of rice,
corn, and coconuts, sugarcane is typically grown on large farms or
haciendas. In the mid-1980s, more than 60 percent of total production and
about 80 percent of Negros's output came from farms twenty-five hectares or
larger. Countrywide, tenancy arrangements existed for approximately half
the sugarcane farms; however, they were generally the smaller ones,
averaging 2.5 hectares in size and accounting for only slightly more than 20
percent of land planted in the crop. Elsewhere, laborers were employed,
generally at very low wages. A survey undertaken in 1990 by the governor of
Negros Occidental found that only one-third of the island's sugar planters
were paying the then-mandated minimum wage of P72.50 per day. The
contrast between the sumptuous lifestyles of Negros hacenderos and the
poverty of their workers, particularly migrant laborers known as sacadas,
epitomized the vast social and economic gulf separating the elite in the
Philippines from the great mass of the population.

In the 1950s and 1960s, sugar accounted for more than 20 percent of
Philippine exports. Its share declined somewhat in the 1970s and plummeted
in the first half of the 1980s to around 7 percent. The sugar industry was in a

crisis. Part of the problem was a depressed market for sugar. A dramatic
increase in the world price of sugar had occurred in 1974, peaking at
US$0.67 per pound in December of that year.

Historically, the Philippines was protected to a certain degree from

vicissitudes of the world price of sugar by the country's access to a protected
and subsidized United States market. In 1913 the United States Congress
established free trade with its Philippine colony, providing Filipino sugar
producers unlimited access to the American market. Later, in 1934, a quota
system on sugar was enacted and remained in force until 1974. Although
Philippine sugar exports to the United States were restricted during this
period, the country continued to enjoy a relatively privileged position.

The

decline

of

the

sugar

industry

was

complicated

by

the

monopolization that took place during the martial law period, a process not
dissimilar to what occurred in the coconut industry. In 1976, as a reaction to
the precipitous decline in sugar prices, Marcos established the Philippine
Sugar Commission (Philsucom), placing at the head his close associate
Roberto Benedicto. Philsucom was given sole authority to buy and sell sugar,
to set prices paid to planters and millers, and to purchase companies
connected to the sugar industry. A bank was set up in 1978, and the
construction of seven new sugar mills was authorized at a cost of US$40
million per mill.

By the 1980s, considerable resistance to Philsucom and its trading

subsidiary, the National Sugar Trading Corporation (Nasutra) had been

generated. As with the monopoly in the coconut industry, the government

acquiesced in its 1985 agreement with the IMF to dismantle Nasutra. But the
damage had been done. In a study undertaken by a group of University of
the Philippines economists, losses to sugar producers between 1974 and
1983 were estimated to be between P11 billion and P14 billion. Aquino
established the Sugar Regulatory Authority in 1986 to take over the
institutions set up by Benedicto.6

The presented facts above shows a very striking pattern. It shows that the
farmers who till land and cultivates it suffers more especially during the
decline of the agricultural industry. As the world market suffers depression,
the prices of the commodities also suffers. To mitigate the effects, the
farmers take burden of short changes. Injustice is very evident in the
preceeding paragraphs. Such injustice is a challenge for the government to
address, thus the enactment of an Agrarian Reform.

The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program

During the Spanish era, the relationship between landowners and tenants
was governed by the Old Civil Code, particularly by the Special Provisions for
Rural Leases. When the Spaniards came to the Philippines, they introduced
the concept of encomienda also known as the Royal Land Grants. This
concept grants land to Encomienderos who defend the lands they were
granted.

The

native

Filipino,

however,

pays

their

tribute

to

the

Encomienderos for the security and their maintenance of peace and order. 7

6 http://countrystudies.us/philippines/64.htm
7 The CARP History by Francis Arvy

This system was abused by the landowners, and thus, in turn, the tribute
soon become land lessee to these powerful landowners, and the natives who
cultivated their land before the Spaniards came in the Philippines in freedom,
were transformed into a mere share tenants, making them sort of a slave to
their own native land. This is what we called the feudal system which was
introduced to the native by the Spaniards, where the Spaniards held their
land in return for promising loyalty, and the natives that provide their
services such as working or fighting for their lord.8

During the American regime, the Rice Share Tenancy Act9 was
promulgated. This law regulated the relationship between the lessee and the
lessor on rice lands. After sometime, a law was passed to regulate the
relationship between the landlords and the tenants on lands planted to sugar
cane, known as the Sugar Tenancy Act. 10 Thereafter, it was commonwealth
period, and Commonwealth Act 53 was passed. The next law that was
passed was Commonwealth Act 178 and then followed by Commonwealth
Act 271 amending Act No. 4113 that was passed during American regime,
and then followed by Commonwealth Act 461 for the security of the
agricultural tenants which was later on, amended by Commonwealth Act
608.

8 The Feudal System

9 Act 4054
10 Act 4113

Republic Act No. 34 was passed after the declaration of the

independence, but was later on amended by Republic Act No. 2263.
Thereafter, Republic Act No. 1400 also known as the Agricultural Land
Reform Code which was passed on August 13, 1963. It was followed by an
amendment through the enactment of Code of Agrarian Reform or Republic
Act No. 6389 which abolished the share tenancy.
In the past 26 years in the Philippines, the Comprehensive Agrarian
Reform Program, which is more commonly known as Comprehensive
Agrarian Reform Law or Republic Act 6657, was passed under the
administration of Corazon C. Aquino through Proclamation 131 and Executive
Order 22911 on June 22, 1987 and was enacted on June 10, 1988. This law is
about the redistribution of private and public agricultural lands or large
estates to help the beneficiaries to own their own lands, so that the farmers,
holders or beneficiaries of this law will become more productive 12, instead of
just being the cultivator of somebody elses land and be a tenant for the rest
of their lives. Its purpose is to help independent farmers to achieve equality
in terms of income and opportunities.

Certain provisions of Republic Act No. 6657 were amended by Republic

Act No. 788113 which became a law on July 25, 1994. It was further amended
by Republic Act No. 790514 to strengthen the implementation of the

11 Proclamation 131 and Executive Order 229

12 Atty. Jennifer Asuncion
13 RA 7881
14 RA 7905

Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program. It was, again, amended further by

Republic Act No. 853215 to strengthen further the Comprehensive Agrarian
Reform Program by providing augmentation fund therefor, and amending for
the purpose of Section 63 of the Republic Act No. 6657, otherwise known as
The CARP Law of 1988.

In the 21st century, July 27, 2009, the law, again, was amended by
Republic Act No. 970016 to strengthen the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform
Program, to extend the acquisition and distribution of all agricultural lands,
and to institute necessary reforms, and to amend the certain provisions of
the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program of 1988.

The agrarian reform program is founded on the right of farmers and

regular farm workers who are landless, to own directly or collectively the
lands they till or, in the case of other farm workers, to receive just share in
the fruits of their suffering.17 Its purpose is also to promote social justice and
industrialization, providing the mechanism for its implementation, and for
other purposes. The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Programs vision is to
have an equitable land ownership with empowered agrarian reform
beneficiaries who can effectively manage their economic and social
development to have a better quality of life.18

15 RA 8532
16 RA 9700
17 DAR AO 02-09

Today, in 2015, the effectivity of this law has ceased to exist. It has
become a part of the history of the Philippines, by helping our farmers and
farm workers to at least own their own lands, to be benefitted by prosperity it
offers to our farmers, and to aid, help, and assist the welfare of our farmers.

CHAPTER II.
METHODOLOGY
Objective of the Study
The researchers aimed to present a study on the different methods to
increase soil productivity in relation to agrarian reform and protection of the
soil integrity ensuring sustainabilty in relation to environmental conservation.

18 Department of Agrarian Reform, Kagawaran ng Repormang

Pansakahan Vision

Research Design and Methodology

In order to come up with the journal, the researcher made use of the Descriptive Method and
Critical Discourse Anlysis Method. Gravetter and Forzano (as cited in Grothkopf, 2009) defined
descriptive method as measuring a variable or set of variable as they exist naturally, with the
purpose of describing the variables as they exist. In this study the situation to be described refers
to the

effects of farming methods that affects the environment. Survey research involves

acquiring information from peer reviewed

literatures, laws, and other references

pertaining to agricultural industry.

Limitations
The findings of the study shall be true only to Philippine setting from
the date of the data gathering to wit November 15, 2015- December 5, 2015.
The study primarily based on available literatures and references.

CHAPTER III
RESULTS, DISCUSSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
A. Soil Degradation

Soil degradation is the decline in soil quality caused by its improper

use, usually for agricultural, pastural, industrial or urban purposes. Soil
degradation is a serious global environmental problem and may be

exacerbated by climate change. It encompasses physical, chemical and

biological deterioration.19

About 6 million hectares of agricultural land worldwide become

unproductive every year due to the various soil degradation processes.
Countries in Asia and Africa that depend upon agriculture as the engine of
economic growth are believed to suffer the greatest impact of soil
degradation. In the Philippines, soil degradation is one of the most serious
ecological problems today. Also, the National Action Plan (NAP) for 2004 to
2010 identified soil degradation as a major threat to food security in the
country. NAP reported that about 5.2 million hectares are seriously degraded
resulting to 30 to 50% reduction in soil productivity.

In a review paper on the problem of soil degradation in the Philippines

published in the Annals of Tropical Research vol. 31, we (Asio et al) 20 revealed
that soil erosion is the most widespread process of soil degradation and is
also the most studied in the country. Other important but less studied soil
degradation processes include loss of nutrients and organic matter,
salinization, acidification, pollution, compaction, and subsidence. Studies
reviewed have shown that the widespread degraded upland soils possess
chemical and physical constraints for crop growth like acidic or calcareous

19

Soil

degradation,

NSW

Environment

&

Heritage

www.environment.nsw.gov.au/soildegradation/ september, 2015

20 Asio VB, Jahn R, Perez FO, Navarrete IA, and Abit SM Jr. 2009.
A review of soil degradation in the Philippines. Annals of Tropical
Research 31: 69-94

pH, low organic matter and nutrient contents, shallow solum, presence of
toxic substances and compaction.

B. Providing Soil Fertility

Providing soil fertiiity is the basis for sustained crop production. Closely
tied to other services, such as food production and greenhouse gas
mitigation, is soil fertility. Fertility must be enhanced with greater quantities
of external inputs, such as fertilizers, and the system is less able to
withstand extreme events, such as drought. These are extreme intervention
for fully degrade agricultural lands.
That said, soil fertility is not a panacea for reducing the environmental
impacts of agricultural systems; for example, nitrate, production was as high
in our biologically based system as it was in the less fertile conventional
system (Robertson et al. 2000).
Soil fertility has many components. Physically, fertility is related to soil
structureporosity, aggregate stability, waterholding capacity, and erosivity.
Its chemical constituents include soil organic matter, pH, base saturation,
cation exchange, and nutrient pools. Biologically, soil fertility is related to
food web complexity, pest and pathogen suppression, and the delivery of
mineralizable nutrients. Most of these components are interrelated, which
frustrates attempts at a comprehensive definition of soil fertility or soil
quality.
At heart, however, soil fertility is the capacity of a soil to meet plant
growth needs; all else equal, more-fertile soils support higher rates of
primary production. Building soil fertility is closely tied to building soil
organic matter: A century of work at Rothamsted and other longterm

agricultural research sites (Rasmussen et al. 1998) has shown positive

associations with mostif not allof the indicators noted above. Relative to
the conventional system, soil organic matter increased in the no-till,
reduced-input, and biologically based systems (Syswerda et al. 2011).
A major reason for soil carbon gain in these systems is slower
decomposition rates as a result of organic matter protection within soil
aggregates, particularly within larger size classes. Grandy and Robertson
(2007) found greater soil carbon accumulation in KBS LTER ecosystems with
higher rates of large (2-8 millimeters) aggregate formation. The formation of
large aggregates and carbon accumulation was greatest in the successional
and mature forest systems and lowest in the conventional system; the
biologically based, no-till, and perennial systems were intermediate.
Aggregates in smaller size classes (up to 0.25 millimeters) expressed
the opposite trend. That the no-till system accumulated carbon and primarily
in larger, more vulnerable aggregates is no surprise (West and Post 2002, Six
et al. 2004); however, carbon and large aggregate accumulation in the
heavily tilled reduced-input and biologically based systems was unexpected
and likely related to the inclusion of leguminous cover crops in these
rotations. Legumes may increase aggregate stability through greater
polysaccharide production and different microbial communities (Haynes and
Beare 1997). That the no-tl system better withstood the 2012 US drought
than did the other systems (no-tl system, mean = 1.9 Mg per ha of soybean
grain, standard error of the mean [SEM] =0.12; conventional system, mean
=1.3 Mg of soybean grain per ha, SEM = 0.05) suggests a clear no-till benefit
to soil fertility even when external inputs are high. Greater moisture stores in
the better-structured no-tl sous foowing the last significant rainfall before
the drought (figure 6), equivalent to approximately 4 centimeters of stored
water in the root zone, underscores the value of no-till agriculture to the

2012 soybean production. This enhanced water storage capacity may also
help explain greater no-tl productivity in more normal years; on average,
yields in the no-tl system were 9%-21% higher than they were in the
conventional system (figure 1). In the reduced-input system, sou fertity
allowed competitive yields (figure 1 ) with only a fraction of the nitrogen and
other inputs.

C. Providing clean water. The quality of water draining from

agricultural watersheds is a longstanding environmental problem. Sediment,
phosphorus, and nitrate are important pollutants that leave crop land and
lead

to

compromised

groundwater,

surface freshwaters,

and marine

ecosystems worldwide.
D. Providing greenhouse gas mitigation. Agriculture is directly
responsible for approximately 10%-14% of total annual global anthropogenic
greenhouse gas emissions (Smith P et al. 2007). This is largely the result of
N2O emitted from soil and manure and from methane emitted by ruminant
animals and burned crop residues. Including the greenhouse gas costs of
agricultural expansion, agronomic inputs, such as fertilizers and pesticides,
and

postharvest

activities,

such

as

food

processing,

transport,

and

refrigeration, bring agriculture's footprint to 26%-36% of all anthropogenic

greenhouse gas emissions (Barker et al. 2007). Mitigating some portion of
this footprint could therefore significantly contribute to climate stabilization
(Caldeira et al. 2004), as might the production of cellulosic biofuels if they
were used to offset fossil fuel use (Robertson et al. 2008). Global warming
impact analyses can reveal the source of all significant greenhouse gas costs
in any given cropping system and, therefore, the full potential for
management to mitigate emissions.

In response to the green house effect of agriculture, the Philippines

enacted a law supporting organic farming. In fact, the government has
mandated the Department of Agriculture to allot at least P1 billion this year
to exclusively promote the organic agriculture programs in the country.
President Benigno Aquino III believes that organic agriculture is the way of
the future not only to address hunger but also to sustain health and
environment.

21

As chemical farming destroys the environment, OPTA says beneficial

micronutrients in the soil that are needed by a human body are also killed
such as calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc, copper, selenium, manganese and
many others. The absence of these essential health elements in the planting
grounds may cause malnutrition as the soil can no longer produce foods that
are adequately supplied with important nutrients.

Although the Philippines has not resorted to completely ban the use of
synthetic chemicals in animal farming, the country is set to go all natural in
agriculture through Republic Act 10068 that aims to strengthen the states
policy to promote, propagate, develop further and implement the practice of
organic agriculture. Through the law, the farming community are hoped to
ensure and cumulatively condition and enrich the fertility of the soil, increase
farm productivity, reduce pollution and destruction of the environment,
prevent depletion of natural resources and protect the health of the farmers
and of the general public. Moreover, going organic agriculture is an

21

hvcdp.da.gov.ph/vegetables

opportunity for the country for the organically grown commodities in the
world market which would cost US$40 billion to US$70 billion in 2012. 22

C. Farming Innovations to Increase Soil Productivity

The Philippines rely heavily on agricultre, sadly multiple methods on farming

have caused soil degradation. While agrarian reform has paved way to equal
distribution of agricultural lands, the following farming methods are
reccomendations in the cultivation of the land to increase soil productivity.

a. Organic Farming
A news report (Philippine Star 13 January 2005) estimated the share of
organic farming in Philippine agriculture at one percent, as no official data
exist at present. NGOs have been leading the promotion of organic farming
in the Philippines. In Negros Occidental, central Philippines, the NGO Broad
Initiatives for Negros Development, Inc. (BIND) has been helping farmers use
vermicomposting as fertilizer and herbal plants to ward off farm pests to
produce organic rice and vegetables. They also produce organic livestock.
In the cold highlands of Benguet, organic Arabica coffee is being grown
through the partnership of a private firm, Figaro Foundation Corp., and the
Benguet State University. The country's organically produced muscovado
sugar, fresh banana, banana chips, desiccated coconut, and coconut oil,
among other products, are already being exported to Europe, Japan, the
United States, and Canada (Philippine Star 13 January 2005). The OCCP has
certified a number of farms growing organic chicken, herbals, rice,

22

mypilipinas.com/philippines-agriculture

vegetables, and vinegar around the country. The organic market in the
Philippines is estimated at P250 million and its demand is growing at 20
percent annually (Philippine Star 13 January 2005).
The following are some of the practices which support organic farming:
Use of new disease-free planting materials of banana. Since 2002,
smallholder banana growers in selected provinces in Luzon have been
planting tissue-cultured banana planting materials that are disease-resistant,
courtesy of a project collaboration of PCARRD, International Network for the
Improvement of Banana and Plantain (INIBAP), and the International Plant
Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI). The project has distributed 77,500
tissue-cultured planting materials and most of these plants are now bearing
fruits, much bigger than those borne by the farmers' previous plants grown
from suckers. Very minimal incidence of BBTV was observed in the test
locations. However, grower acceptability of the produce, especially the
introduced disease-resistant varieties, will still be determined.
Trichoderma-based compost and organic fertilizer production. The
national program on rapid composting and the use of compost as fertilizer,
which began in 1997, has been sustained even after it officially ended. There
are now 22 more centers to the original 23 nationwide, producing the
compost fungus activator and compost, and selling these to farmers.
Supporting the drive to promote organic farming is a good number of
small and medium enterprises producing organic fertilizers using the
technology of the above-mentioned program that have been recorded.
Moreover, the scientist who developed the technology discovered that the
Trichoderma-processed compost not only improved the soil's physical and
chemical properties but also was an effective control agent for clubroot
disease in cabbage.

b. Integrated plant nutrient management (IPNM)

Various studies on IPNM in the country showed sustainable high yields

and improvement in fertilizer use efficiency, leading to an improved benefitcost ratio, specifically for rice, corn, The researches included testing the
effects of mixing inorganic fertilizers with fresh rice straw, chicken manure,
green manure like azolla and sesbania for rice; with a combination of organic
materials, lime, rock phosphate for corn; and with chicken manure and
household waste compost for vegetables.
An example of IPNS is the balanced fertilization strategy (BFS),
developed by DA, FPA, and the Bureau of Soils and Water Management
(BSWM), which provides location-specific recommendation for organic and
inorganic fertilizers to sustain high crop yields over long cropping seasons
without depleting the natural resource base; provides guidelines for the
judicious use of pesticides; and promotes low-water use crops, among other
things (Merilo 2001). BFS proved to be economically viable on rice farms that
were half-hectare in size (Concepcion et al.1999).
c. Watershed Management
Because

agriculture

has

encroached

upon

the forestlands, the

watersheds have been consequently degraded. To help stop the further

decline, PCARRD, in collaboration with DENR, LGUs, nongovernmental
organizations (NGOs), and the National Agriculture and Resources Research
System, has been working on projects to sustain the watersheds. Through
participatory and interdisciplinary collaborations, innovative conservation
practices evolved for the sustainable development of the fragile Manupali
watershed in the area. Experiments were done on multicropping, planting

fast-growing timber species, intercropping trees with vegetables, and using

other cultural practices like fallowing, periodic pruning, and contour farming
to assess the sustainability of the agricultural production systems in the
watershed area.
d. Pest Control Methods
Crop Rotation
Pests are any kind of insect, plant disease, or weed that hurt the profits
and health of the vegetable. Insects, plant diseases, and weeds that are not
harmful to your crops are not considered pests. Plants will be better able to
withstand pests if you grow different crops in your field, or wait four years
before growing the same crop on the same field. This kind of farming is
called crop rotation.
Crops that are healthy and well fed from the beginning have less
chance of being ruined by pests. Keep wide spaces between plants to help
the leaves dry. Plant diseases are less likely to spread this way. Once the
growing season begins, the best way to prevent pests is to look carefully and
regularly at the crops. Check the fields often for insects, weeds, and plant
disease. When the crops are young, and when they are bearing fruit, are the
times there is a need to be especially careful to check them.
Natural Methods to Get Rid of Pests
There are natural methods on getting rid of pests which are advocated
by the Department of Agriculture. Surrounding the crops with plants that
naturally keep the pest out. Burning diseased crops so the pest won't spread
to healthy crops. If the pest is an insect, use a natural enemy--an insect that
eats the pest but does not hurt your crop, to remove the pest.

e. Vermicast,

Vermiculture

and

African

Nightcrawler

Worm

Farming
This vermicast is a healthy compost produced from farming ANC or
African Nightcrawler worms. The worm castings or poop were collected to
come up with a high-moisture-retaining soil that is best for planting and
farming both small container gardening, backyard gardening and big lot
farming in the Philippines. It is also being practiced now around the world.
f. Hydroponics
Hydroponics is a subset of hydroculture and is a method of growing
plants using mineral nutrient solutions, in water, without soil. Terrestrial
plants may be grown with their roots in the mineral solution only, or in an
inert medium, such as perlite or gravel.

23

Soilless Culture
Gericke originally defined hydroponics as crop growth in mineral
nutrient solutions. Hydroponics is a subset of soilless culture. Many types of
soilless culture do not use the mineral nutrient solutions required for
hydroponics. Plants that are not traditionally grown in a climate would be
possible to grow using a controlled environment system like hydroponics.
NASA has also looked to utilize hydroponics in the space program. Ray
Wheeler, a plant physiologist at Kennedy Space Centers Space Life Science
Lab, believes that hydroponics will create advances within space travel. He
terms this as a bioregenerative life support system.

24

23 Anna Heiney, "Farming for the Future", nasa.gov, 8-27-04

24 Manila Bulletin, Myka Basco January 7, 2015

D. Rice Farming Innovations

Rice production in the country of Philippines is important to the food
supply in the country and economy. The Philippines is the 8th largest rice
producer in the world, accounting for 2.8% of global rice production 25. The
Philippines was also the world's largest rice importer in 2010. Recent trend
analyses indicate that the growth of the rice sector has become completely
dependent on yield improvements (David and Balisacan, 1995 and Gonzales,
1998). Yield improvement can come in either of two ways: a) by shifting the
yield frontier, i.e., breeding varieties that have significantly higher yield
potential than our current varieties, e.g., New Plant Type; and b) by
developing and promoting yield-enhancing technologies such as the use of
high quality seeds and efficient fertilizers. The first option is not attainable in
the immediate future considering that the yield potential of the majority of
the newly-released varieties have not yet surpassed the yield of IR8, which
was bred in the late 1960s. The second alternative is more plausible
because there are available yield-enhancing technologies.

26

A system of planting rice without synthetic chemical inputs but uses

only organic farming methods promises a better yield, said representatives
of nonprofit organization SRI (system of rice intensification) Pilipinas. 27 SRI
Pilipinas, which is composed of researchers and scientists, encourages
farmers to leave behind rice planting methods that use agrichemical inputs

25
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rice_production_in_the_Philippines
26 http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x6905e/x6905e0b.htm
27

http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/423435/rice-planting-technique-

promises-better-yield

and instead adopt the SRI system, a planting method developed by French
Jesuit Fr. Henri Laulanie in the 1990s.

a. Reduced seeds
Among the strategies adopted by SRI are the nonburning of rice straw,
non use of agrichemicals, reduced seeds and use of farm-produced seeds to
help increase production and protect the environment. Teodoro Mendoza,
crop science professor at the University of the Philippines, said SRI uses only
7 kilograms of seeds per hectare compared to 80 kg of seeds per hectare in
the conventional practice. In the SRI system, he said the rice plants are
planted singularly in a recommended distance of 25 x 25 centimeters while
the traditional practice is to plant several plants in every hill.

b. Singular planting
Roberto Verzola, national coordinator of SRI Pilipinas, said since the
seeds are singularly planted, they tend to grow better because there is no
competition with other plants, so the results are healthier plants capable of
producing more grains. In 2006, because of concerted efforts to adopt
organic agriculture and the SRI method, the farmers yield increased to an
average of 5 tons per hectare compared to 3.6 tons per hectare without the
SRI system, Verzola said.
The system was also found to be cost-effective, since production per
hectare was reduced and net income increased from P17,200 to P37,636,
SRI Pilipinas said in its brochure. The group also cited increased employment
in the rural areas with the adoption of SRI, as well as enhancement of the
ecosystem and protection of peoples health.

c. Training programs

Lucy Fisher, researcher from Cornell University and advocate of SRI,

warned, however, that the beneficial results of SRI could be achieved only if
the ways and methods are all executed right. SRI is being promoted by
Central Bicol State University of Agriculture (CBSUA) in Pili, Camarines Sur, in
partnership with SRI Pilipinas and other civil society groups. CBSUA, in a
statement, said that amid intensive chemical farming and the use of highyielding varieties all over Bicol, SRI provides a better option for rice growers
through the use of organic farming. CBSUA has 16 trainers, with more than
500 farmers trained on organic rice farming through the SRI system. CBSUA
and SRI Pilipinas have established 22 demonstration and trial farms while
research is underway to come up with technologies and information to
improve the system, the statement added.

d. Production Constraints and Issues in the Rice Industry

Despite technological breakthroughs in rice research, farm yield levels

are still way below their maximum potential due to biological, technical,
physical, socio-economic and policy constraints.

1. Biological-technical-physical constraints
Technology plateau: After the introduction of IR 8 in the late 1960s,
which triggered the green revolution in Asia, no genetic material introduction
with the same magnitude of technological innovation has taken place. It is

generally agreed among rice scientists that the technology plateau in rice
took place in the late 1980s.

Emergence of biotype: Rice production declined after the mid 1980s

due to the emergence of new biological problems. The development of new
strains and biotypes of rice pests were compounded by the regular
occurrences of natural calamities such as floods and drought. Reduced
hectarage, poor maintenance of irrigation facilities, urbanization, and post
harvest losses contributed to this decline.

Low technical efficiency: PhilRice studies show that farmers have low
technical efficiency relative to the best farmer performance. Also, first
generation varieties are still used by nearly half of the farmers. Moreover,
these varieties produce relatively low yield, poor grain quality, low milling
recovery, and poor tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses. Seeding rates are
still high at 120 to 200 kg/ha.

Problem soils and declining soil fertility: An estimated 1.2 million ha

which is about one half of the national rice hectarage, are classified as
problem soils. Of the total hectarage of problem soils, 600,000 ha have
adverse water and nutrient conditions; 100,000 ha are saline-prone; 10,000
ha are alkaline; 15,000 ha are peat soils; and 500,000 ha are acid sulphate
soils.

2. Socio-economic constraints

Socio-Economic

constraints

are

composed

of

farmers

limited

management capabilities to make correct decisions to increase their yield

levels (hence profit) and the unfavorable policy environment which inhibits
them from fully optimizing their decision making process.

Limited

management skills of farmers: On average, there are more rice farmers in

the Philippines who have limited skills in making rice farming an agribusiness
venture. The relatively low fertilizer use and proper timing of application,
accompanied by poor cultural management practices are major sources of
inefficiency.
Deteriorating terms of trade: Although nominal protection of domestic
rice production has been positive over the years, net effective protection has
been declining due to higher protection on tradable inputs and overvaluation
of exchange rates. This declining incentive implies bias against the rice
sector in macro level resource allocation, and loss of benefits to farmers at
the micro level.

Lack of appropriate and adequate infrastructure: Because of limited

access to credit for processing and storage facilities, farmers are forced to
sell their marketable surplus during harvest months when prices are low.
Farmers cannot wait for a good price because they do not have a place to dry
or store their rice. As a result, wholesalers dictate prices to retailers and
consumers.
Another problem is the lack of effective irrigation systems, which is
primarily constrained by: a) the substantial increase in costs for irrigation
development; and b) management problems for large scale irrigation
projects.
3. Yield Potential of Released Varieties

There are different varieties of Rice. The yeild potential of the varieties
depending on their breeds. Among the three recommended hybrids, PSB
Rc72H has the highest maximum yield of 9.9 t/ha. These hybrids have a
relatively lower maximum yield than the national record because they are
recommended only for specific areas in the country where they have out
yielded the inbred check by at least 12 percent.28
E. Fuit Farming Innovations

The subject of fruit and nut production deals with intensive culture of
perennial plants, the fruits of which have economic significance. It is one part
of the broad subject of horticulture, which also encompasses vegetable
growing and production of ornamentals and flowers. This article places
further arbitrary limitations in that it does not encompass a number of very
important perennial fruit crops covered elsewhere, including vanilla, coffee,
and the oil-producing tung tree and oil palm.
a. Natural farming technique for the benefits of man and soil.
Seeds and fruits are the chief, sometimes the only, food of many forestinhabiting rodents, birds, other mammals, even carnivores are said to eat
fruits. A very large proportion of rain forest trees have fruits or seeds
attractive to mammals and birds.
1. Using birds.
Piles of ripe fruit and/or seed pods from indigenous plants placed
randomly in an area that needs revegetating may possibly be eaten (and the
seeds dispersed) by wildlife, especially if this is done on the edge of an
existing forest. This could work for some Passiflora spp., figs, guavas,

28

http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x6905e/x6905e0b.htm

Opuntia, some Solanaceae, some Cucurbitaceae, some Rosaceae, some

Lauraceae, some palms, some legumes e.g. rain trees, Inga spp., etc. It may
be important to avoid getting human smells on the fruit or seed pods, so it is
advisable to rub topsoil or leaflitter on hands prior to collecting and placing
fruit.
Even more wildlife may be attracted to the fruit/seed pod piles if
additional attractants are added. In areas that are far from the sea, salt may
be deficient, and a strong natural seasalt solution poured on the piles may
result in more animals being attracted to, and eating and dispersing the
seeds. Also, the smell and taste of diluted molasses should attract many
animals, and perhaps also diluted malt, and perhaps brewers or bakers
yeast. Different attractants could be added to different piles to see what
works best.

Providing artificial perches and homes/nesting sites will bring in birds

etc., which will deposit seeds below and near the perches (birds often
defecate beneath their roosting perches, and as they take off). See the AID
article for more on this technique.
2. Using livestock
Livestock fed with seeds (seeds mixed in with supplementary fodder)
will later disperse and deposit some of the seeds in their manure. Up to 90%
of the seeds fed to livestock may be destroyed by chewing etc., so large
numbers of small seeds fed to larger animals e.g. horses, cattle, are likely to
work best (e.g. probably many species of small-seeded legumes such as
Acacia spp., Sesbania spp., grasses, herbs etc.). Livestock can also disperse
soil improvers (again, mixed in with supplementary fodder), such as
beneficial micro-organisms, deficient nutrients, clay for sandy soils, etc.,

which are then deposited in their improved manure. In most places this
improved manure will be mixed into the soil by earthworms and/or dung
beetles, and in some places, termites.
Seeds can also be broadcast by hand or machine (but this is more
labour and energy intensive), and then trodden into the soil by the animals,
to enhance the germination and establishment of many plant species (this
technique provides an opportunity to establish plant species that have large
seeds e.g. Erythrina, but also small poisonous seeds). Or, a combination of
the above, plus follow-up planting of potted plants and/or quickstick cuttings
in bare/failed areas. See the Animal Improved dung plus seeds treatment
on the page Animal Improved Dung
F. Advantages of using thses techniques
a. Plant Growth
Organic fertilizers provide nutrients necessary for plant growth, with
the benefit of being slower-acting and gentler than chemical fertilizers, so
that you are less likely to overfeed and chemically burn your plants. Organic
fertilizers are not in a form that is immediately absorbed by plants, but
rather must be first broken down by soil bacteria and fungi into forms that
plants can absorb. This means that, unlike chemical fertilizers, organic
fertilizers are not easily washed away in a heavy rainstorm or irrigation
session, and that the plants get the benefit of nutrients for growth more
evenly over a longer period of time rather than all at once.
b. Soil Improvement
Organic fertilizers help improve soil structure and nutrient content over
time. While chemical fertilizers simply add water-soluble chemicals which are
either absorbed by the plant roots or leach away, potentially polluting water
resources, organic fertilizers add organic matter that helps the soil to retain

moisture and nutrients. Sandy soils in particular can benefit from the
addition of organic fertilizers, or from the use of organic matter like wellrotted compost and manure used as a soil fertility additive or mulch. These
latter organic matter fertilizers have the added advantage of often being free
from livestock farms, poultry farms or wood-processing facilities which
compost their discarded bedding and wood chips.
3. Some Additional Benefits
a. Slow Release of Nutrients
When fertilizers are mixed into the soil, the nutrients are absorbed
from the soil by the roots of the plant. In synthetic fertilizers, these nutrients
are in ready to use form and when mixed into the soil, can be immediately
absorbed by the roots and hence, the plant. There is however a real danger
that the roots absorb more nutrients than necessary, causing the roots and
plant to burn up. On the other hand, organic fertilizers do not contain
nutrients in an easily usable form. When they are mixed into the soil, the
microorganisms like bacteria that are in the soil, have to work on the
fertilizer, break it up and release the nutrients. This is a slow process and so
there is no danger that too many nutrients are ever available to the plant. As
such there is low chance for a plant burn when organic fertilizers are used.

b. Long-term Benefits to the Soil

Chemical fertilizers are manufactured with the sole purpose of helping
the growth of a plant. As a result while they may contain a better balance of
all the major nutrients that a plant needs, they also contain certain harmful
elements that can cause acidity in the soil. This can kill the helpful microbes
that live in the soil and studies indicate that long-term use of chemical
fertilizers can cause great damageto the soil. On the other hand, since

organic fertilizers need these microbes to work on them to release the

nutrients, they end up stimulating the growth of these microorganisms,
ensuring long-term fertility of the soil.
c. Long-term Benefits to the Environment
Synthetic fertilizers also tend to release many chemicals into the soil
that contain nutrients helpful to soil but may also contain elements that are
not easily biodegradable. These may go on to contaminate our lands and our
water. On the other hand, by definition, organic fertilizers almost always
have only biodegradable contents.
d. Cheap and Cost-Effective
Organic Fertilizers can be produced at home or on farms by using a mix
of cow, sheep, chicken, and horse manure along with wastes like leaves and
dead plants. This is a great way of getting rid of waste from your garden or
farm and certainly a cheaper alternative to purchasing chemical fertilizers.
e. Safe

When lawns and gardens are sprayed with chemical fertilizers, one has
to be careful that the family members, especially kids and pets who often
play on lawns, do not ingest the harmful chemicals. However, there is no
preventing from local wildlife from being affected. Organic fertilizers can be a
safer alternative.As with all things, there is no one size fits all, and in many
instances the use of a synthetic fertilizer may prove to be more effective.
However, if you take the time to learn about your specific needs and truly
understand the needs of your lawn, turf, garden or management zone you
will have a healthy, safe, water and energy efficient landscape in no time.

Conclusion
The land has a social function, while the land owners has a social
responsibility. Owners of agricultural land have the obligation to cultivate
directly or administer the lands they owned and make it productive. 29 The
land is the very life of every farmer. The land is the backbone of agriculture,
the source of our basic human needs. Throughout history, it shows ups and
down of the food market. Attributed to different circumstances which leads to
decreased food production.
These

circusmstances

includes,

drought,

cyclones,

and

other

calamities. The land being an integral part of our environment and natural
resources, it cannot be excempted from the degrading effects of human
activities. Farming has evolved from simple planting to different complicated
methods of cultivating the soil. some methods like use of pesticides even
damages the soil and lowers productivity. It is a fact that for once the soil
turn stale and barren. Logic will respond, when the soil gets barren, what
then will happen to its social function?

Agrarian reform basically talks of land, the land as a natural resources

which cradles life must also be maintained as healthy as possible. The 1987
Constitution has provided that it is a state policy to maintain a balanced and
healthful ecology. This is one reason that the soil needs to be protected.
The care of the soil is also a care of for humanity. The effects of soil
degradation is already evident in the present. There is no justification that
we should ignore the situation when its already apparent. Food shortage is a

29 Sec2 par 14 RA 6657 or The comprehensive Agrarian Reform

Law of 1998

an immenet danger when we let this situation go on. While agrarian reform
adresses

injustice

to

farmers,

environmental

conservation

addresses

injustice to the soil.

The above cited farming mnethods and thecniques show that
are

effective

methods

of

farming

that

increases

sustainabillity and decreases soil degradation.

soil

there

productivity,

We conclude that these

methods shoulkd be advocated by the government and incorporate it in the

agrarian reform program

Recommendations
This bird Technique is used in Australia wherein this can also be used in
the Philippines, especially in mountainous areas like the Mt. Province. While
the livestock technique can easily be used here in the Philippines.
There is a considerable yield gap between experiment station yields
and farmers yields, which can be narrowed by increasing productivity.
Although we have already developed technologies for increased productivity,
some policy measures need to be initiated to maximize the potential of these
technologies. Researchers should continue generating new technologies and
fine tune existing ones to suit the needs of resource-poor and resource-rich
farmers in the different environments. Policy and decision makers should
ensure the timely delivery of the required inputs of production, e.g., quality
seeds, fertilizer, irrigation and water to the farmers. Lastly, there is a need to
strengthen further the existing extension systems in the country. Without an
efficient extension system, technologies generated will not find their own
way to the farmers.

There are differnet farming methods proven effective to increase soil

productivity. Most are cost effective, most farmers are still following
traditional amidst the advent of these innovations. The number one
consideration is that because not all farmers or tillers if the soil have a
degreein agriculture, the Department of Agriculture should be the one to
disseminate these innovations. Intensive information drive with use of the
media like televisions and radio is a good avenue. Sponsoring farmers in
piloting the farming methods would also encourage the application of these
new innovations to increase soil productivity.