Rules of Thumb for Structural Design

RULES OF THUMB
FOR
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
RULE #1
WHEN IN DOUBT,
MAKE IT STOUT...
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TABLEOFCONTENTS
RULESOFTHUMBFORSTRUCTURALDESIGN
Subject
DesignPractice
Section
...................................................................... A
Joints ........................................................................................
StructuralSizing ...................................................................... C
Presentations
Repairs
...................................................................... D
............................................................................... E
MassProperties
...................................................................... F
DesignwithComposites ............................................................. G
Motherhood,Truisms,andCatchPhrases
CostEstimating
.............................. H
...................................................................... J
TechnicalWriting ...................................................................... K
ComputerProgramming ............................................................. L
CognitiveHumanFactors
................................................... M
SupportedSubsystems.................................................................N
EngineeringLeadership...............................................................P
ReferenceBooksforAerospaceStructuresDesign
Index
RULES OF THUMB
FOR
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Confidence ratings given in parentheses at the end of each rule are based on
a scale running from 1 (dubious at best) to 10 (absolutely reliable). These ratings
are entirely subjective and represent only the opinion of the author.
DESIGN PRACTICE
A1) If a design looks bad, it probably is bad...better find out what your
subconscious is trying to warn you about. (Confidence rating = 8)
A2) Design is an iterative process, and the designer should expect to cycle any
given concept at least three times; first to get the concept out on paper where it can
be studied, the second to clean up the obvious shortcomings of the first iteration,
and the third to transform the crude but workable second iteration into a partially
optimized and somewhat polished design. (Confidence rating = 9)
A3) Flight structure must withstand the entire environment imposed upon it, but
designs are usually driven by a single aspect of that environment which can be
determined by inspection. For example, compact structures, such as brackets, are
usually sized by strength considerations. Large or extended structures, such as
cradles or pallets, tend to be sized to meet a target stiffness. Thin panels may be
sized by acoustic loading, particularly if they are located near an acoustic energy
source, such as a rocket engine. (Confidence rating = 8)
A4) The stiffness and buckling behavior of thin panels tend to be governed more
by the short dimension of the panel than by the panel's long dimension. For this
reason, a stiffener pattern that breaks a large sheet up into long narrow bays is
frequently preferable to a pattern that produces approximately square bays.
(Confidence rating = 7)
A5) When comparing two sections for torsional capability, the section that will
contain the larger inscribed circle will generally be the stiffest. ( This is an
approximate version of the membrane analogy described, for example, in Theory
of Elasticity, by S.P. Timoshenko.) (Confidence rating = 9)
A6) Always double check calculations. An engineering computation is worthless
until it has been done twice. (Confidence rating = 10)
A7) Accurate results can often be obtained from crude calculations by bracketing a
problem with conservative and non-conservative approaches then making a
considered interpolation between the two results. (Confidence rating = 9)
A8) There is at least one bug remaining in all computer programs. All computer
output should be subjected to a sanity check before being put to use. Examples of
check procedures are hand analysis, use of a different piece of software or different
model, or comparison of results to similar existing hardware.
A9) It is generally desirable to separate primary and secondary structural functions,
i.e. don't drill the main spar full of holes to support black boxes. (Confidence rating
= 8)
A10) While it shouldn't need stating, a straight line really is the most efficient load
path between two points. Load paths containing abrupt angles generally indicate
poor design. (Confidence rating = 10)
A11) For a truss or space frame type beam, the optimum orientation for diagonal
members is at about a 45 degree angle from the primary load direction. Greater
angles drive up the load in the members to excessive levels, while smaller angles
require an overly long load path. (Confidence rating = 8)
A12) As an aid in concept generation, form the habit of rotating your point of
perception. For example, when designing a joint that seems to have a "natural"
parting plane in the X-Y plane, new insights might be obtained from considering
solutions with parting planes in the X-Z or Y-Z planes. (Confidence rating = 9)
A13) A space frame is generally the optimum structure for carrying discrete loads
from point to point. Beaming or shearing point loads from place to place should
only be done as a last resort. Beams and shear webs are normally associated with
distributed loads or awkwardly constrained envelopes. (Confidence rating = 9)
A14) Good layout practice is to first make an accurate print or drawing of all given
information for a design problem. This may include interfaces, stay-out envelopes,
geometry of nearby parts, etc. Then use onionskin to overlay this skeletal layout
and sketch in a wide variety of conceptual design solutions far more rapidly than
such ideas could be looked at using Unigraphics or other computer aided drawing
tools. The most promising ideas can then be rendered on Unigraphics to impose
the discipline of scale on the designers thinking. (Confidence rating = 10)
A15) Avoid leaving sharp edges with less than 90 degrees included angle in load
carrying structure. Such edges will become damaged in transit and service and act
as crack starters. (Confidence rating = 10)
A16) Load paths should be continuous. For example, a stringer should not end
abruptly at a door or in the middle of a panel. (Confidence rating = 10)
A17) To gain an understanding of how a structure works and of probable failure
modes, it is helpful to draw deflected geometry sketches. (Confidence rating = 10)
A18) An effective approach for trade studies is:
a) Establish design requirements.
b) Find the boundaries of the solution space, i.e. try to identify all possible
design approaches.
c) Select specific configurations representative of all identified approaches.
d) Eliminate all configurations that do not meet design requirements.
e) Compare all remaining configurations on the basis of total system costs.
f) Recommend lowest cost design that meets the customers requirements.
A19) One frequently sees trade studies done by:
a) randomly selecting some group of concepts,
b) ranking these by arbitrarily selected criteria,
c) then subjectively weighting these ranking numbers to produce a numerical
score which is used to select a concept for recommendation.
This approach rarely proves convincing to anyone except the person who did the
study. (Confidence rating = 9)
A20) In performing trade studies, it is often desirable to assign a dollar value to

potential weight savings. Ideally, the customer will establish a value of a pound
number. Lacking this, for expendable upper stages and payloads, it is conventional
to use the launch cost of a pound to the orbit of interest, devalued by 20% to reflect
the difficulty of full utilization of such weight savings. For first stage structures,
divide these value of a pound numbers by five. For reusable spacecraft
structures, the single launch "value of a pound" can be multiplied by the expected
number of missions. For projects with extended lifetimes, allowance needs to be
made for the time varying value of money. Table A1 gives approximate launch
costs per pound for commonly used launch vehicles in 1992 dollars. (Confidence
rating = 7)
TABLE A1 - LAUNCH COSTS PER POUND
TO LOW EARTH ORBIT (LEO):
LAUNCH VEHICLE
LEO PAYLOAD (LBS)
SCOUT
570
PEGASUS
814
DELTA 7920
11100
ATLAS 2A
15700
COMMERCIAL TITAN
30500
TITAN IV/NUS
39000
SPACE SHUTTLE
43000
LAUNCH COST ($M)

16
12
49
92
189
214
390
COST/LB ('92$/LB)
28,500
14,600
4,400
5,900
6,200
5,500
9,100
TO GEOSYNCHRONOUS TRANSFER ORBIT (GTO):

LAUNCH VEHICLE
GTO PAYLOAD (LBS)
LAUNCH COST ($M)
DELTA 6925 / PAM
3190
60
ATLAS G / CENTAUR
5200
78
TITAN IV / CENTAUR G
26400
197
COST/LB ('92$/LB)
18,800
15,000
7,500
TO GEOSTATIONARY ORBIT (GEO):

LAUNCH VEHICLE
GEO PAYLOAD (LBS)
ATLAS G / CENTAUR
2920
TITAN IV / CENTAUR G
10100
SHUTTLE / IUS
5000
COST/LB ('92$/LB)
26,700
19,500
58,400
LAUNCH COST ($M)

78
197
292
A21) Make full scale prints from the design geometric database to calibrate your
designer's eye. Continually working with subscale views on the workstation
monitor can result in poorly proportioned designs; for example, flanges made
overly thick because they look so fragile at quarter scale. (Confidence rating = 10)
A22) Casting may be an appropriate fabrication technique for making parts in

quantity when low ductility can be tolerated. The following table provides a
general comparison of metal casting processes.
Casting Type
Dimensional
Accuracy
Ability to
Reproduce
Fine Detail
Tool
Cost
Suitability for
Volume
Production
Surface
Smoothness
Suitability for
Large sized
Castings
Sand
Die
Investment
Shell Mold
Permanent Mold
Plaster Mold
fair
excellent
excellent
good
good
good
fair
excellent
excellent
good
good
excellent
low
high
high
high
high
low
fair
excellent
good
excellent
excellent
fair
fair
excellent
excellent
good
good
good
excellent
fair
fair
fair
good
fair
A23) Dr. Bollard, of the University of Washington, used to say that nature has only
three numbers; zero, one, and infinity. His point was that when confronted with a
physical problem, simple reasoning can often be used to show that some key
parameter tends toward an extreme such as zero or infinity. In engineering
practice, it is often helpful to identify such parameters or trends before beginning
more elaborate optimization analysis. (Confidence rating = 9)
A24) Perhaps the single most common cause of spacecraft failures is "off-theshelf-syndrome". A solution to an engineering problem is selected because it has
been used successfully for some other application, without due consideration of
whether the current problem is sufficiently similar to the problem solved by the
borrowed solution. If a component has been selected because it is "already space
qualified", or if it is planned to qualify a component "by similarity", the new
environment must be compared to the original solution's environment with care
and a healthy degree of skepticism. (Confidence rating = 9)
A25) Brainstorming is an effective technique for generating many design concepts
in a short period of time. By involving contributors from a variety of different
backgrounds, the probability of obtaining a thorough understanding of the possible
solution space is increased. The optimum number of participants in a
brainstorming session is approximately ten. With too few participants, ideas are
produced too slowly to maintain a chain reaction. With too many participants,
ideas flow too rapidly for the recorder and there is a tendency for the session to
split into multiple meetings, only one of which is preserving results.
A26) An effective technique for dealing with concerns about risk in trade studies is
to divide risk into the three basic criteria categories (performance risk, cost risk
and schedule risk) and then dollarize each item. For example, if there is concern
about costs getting out of hand due to use of a new technology, the risk is a cost
risk. There exists some development program which can reduce the uncertainties
about using the new technology to an acceptable level. That development program
can be planned and its costs estimated. This approach allows any risk concern to
be converted from a subjective hand-wringing exercise into an objective,
quantifiable item to be placed on the scales with other tradable criteria.
JOINTS
B1) In thin sheet metal, allow a minimum fastener edge distance of 2D + .06 inch,
where D is the diameter of the fastener. For unreinforced quasi-isotropic
graphite/epoxy sheets, a 3D edge distance is recommended. (Confidence rating =
8)
B2) In thin sheet metal, space fasteners at least 4D apart, where D is the fastener
diameter. (Confidence rating = 8)
B3) Design joints to carry their full design load with any one fastener of the pattern
out. (Confidence rating = 8)
B4) When designing joints, allow adequate space and edge distance for the
installation of fasteners one size larger than specified. (Confidence rating = 8)
B5) Fasteners should be no smaller in diameter than the thickness of the thickest
material being joined. Fastener diameter should be no larger than three times the
thickness of the thinnest material being joined. (Confidence rating = 7)
B6) Avoid using rivets in tension applications. The tensile strength of a rivet is
only about ten percent of its shear strength. (Confidence rating = 7)
B7) Try to keep joints between parts planar. Two dimensional interfaces are far
easier to design and fabricate than three dimensional interfaces.
B8) A commonly used value for joint stiffness ratio ( compressive stiffness of joint
material compared to that of the joining fastener) is 3. This is appropriate for a
typical joint geometry, aluminum structure, and steel fasteners.
B9) For structural applications, use at least a #10 (.190 dia.) bolt. Do not use #8
(.164 dia.) bolts due to the danger of them being mistakenly used for #10's and
threaded into a #10 nut. (Confidence rating = 9)
B10) Preloaded joints should be compressed to a value equal to at least 1.25 times
the ultimate joint tensile load. Gapping joints are prone to failure.
B11) Bonded joints should be sized to provide an adhesive shear capability which
exceeds the adherend strength by at least fifty percent. (Confidence rating = 9)
B12) Bolted joints should initially be designed to use 160 KSI (or lower) heat treat
bolts. The higher heat treat bolts are more brittle and should be kept as a last resort
to bail out a design that has suffered "load creep". (Confidence rating = 9)
B13) When designing a joint with a seal, the bolt spacing should be less than six
times the bolt diameter. Flange thickness should be at least equal to the bolt
diameter for steel structure or 1.5 times the bolt diameter for aluminum or
magnesium structure. (Confidence rating = 9)
B14) In general, avoid threading steel bolts directly into aluminum parts. Use
inserts for a stronger joint that is less susceptible to damage. When special
circumstances (such as inadequate edge distance for insert installation) lead to
considering threaded aluminum holes, the thread engagement in the aluminum part
should be greater than 1.5 times the bolt diameter to develop the load capability of
the bolt. (Confidence rating = 8)
B15) Joints with a conical faying surface, such as shear cone or clampband joints,
having an included angle of 30 or greater can be expected to separate easily.
Surfaces with an included angle of 16 or less can be expected to frictionally lock
up after loading. Included angles as low as 20 have been used for clampband
joints where a clean separation was not critical. (Confidence rating = 8)
B16) Faying surfaces in structural joints near shock sensitive components should
not be allowed to chatter under flight loads. Typically, joints near electronic
components have fasteners spaced less than 15 fastener diameters apart over the
contacting length of the joint. (Confidence rating = 7)
B17) For adhesively bonded joints in applications with cyclic loads, keep limit
shear stresses in the adhesive below one quarter of the ultimate static shear strength
of the adhesive for untoughened epoxies. Toughened epoxies may be cyclically
loaded to half the ultimate static strength of the joint.
B18) Bolted joints in an aluminum structure will attenuate shock transmitted across
the joint by approximately 40% (60% of peak amplitude is transmitted). This rule
should be applied to a maximum of three joints in series. This joint attenuation
factor is not applied after the peak amplitude remaining drops below 2000 G's.
Lockbolted, bonded, or welded joints will not attenuate shock as well as a bolted
joint. (Confidence rating = 7)
B19) Helicoil inserts should not be used for structural applications. Because this
type of insert is made from a coil of wire, it is more susceptible to failure due to
improper preparation of its threaded mounting hole than a conventional insert with
a solid wall that can carry load away from an imperfection. (Confidence rating =
9)
B20) Spherical or "Monoball" bearings are often used at the end of column
members in an attempt to get "pin-ended" boundary conditions. This design
approach has often failed for the following reasons:
a) The loose fit of bolt to bearing produces a high frequency chatter on
launch that can fail adjacent electronics. An expanding sleeve bolt can be used
through the Monoball to eliminate this problem if free rotation is not required
about the bolt axis.
b) When the column member is carrying load, friction tends to lock up the
bearing, resulting in significant moment being carried across the joint and imposed
on the column. If this loading has not been planned for when sizing the column,
the column may buckle in use.
c) The bearing assembly itself is weak normal to the plane of the housing.
Sufficient friction loads may be developed in this direction to pop the bearing out
of its race.
To avoid these problems, consider using a flexure (a short rod or web) built
into the end of a column to limit the moment that can be applied. (Confidence
rating = 8)
B21) The effects of moisture, temperature, and fatigue on the peel and shear
strengths of adhesive in a bonded joint can be accounted for by the following
approximate relation:
Sa/Sao = ((Tgw-T)/(Tgd-To))0.5 - 0.1 log N
Where:
Sa = adhesive strength corrected for environment
Sao = adhesive strength at reference conditions, usually room temperature/dry
Tgw = glass transition temperature of adhesive when wet, given by:
Tgw = (0.005 M2 - 0.1 M + 1.0) Tgd
M = moisture in adhesive in percent by weight
T = temperature of the loading environment
Tgd = glass transition temperature of adhesive when dry
To = reference temperature at which Sao was determined
N = number of loading cycles joint must sustain (Confidence rating = 6)
STRUCTURAL SIZING
C1) As an aid in estimating the ability of a structure to distribute a point loading,
visualize the load path as fanning out from the concentrated load at an angle no
greater than 45 degrees from the centerline of the load path. Treat only the material
within this fan as being effective in carrying the load.
C2) Flanges with a free edge should be no wider than ten times their thickness.
C3) There is an optimum depth to length ratio for any beam type member, with
shallow beams being inefficient due to inadequate separation of the caps and
extremely deep beams being dominated by web weight. For uniformly loaded
aluminum I beams, simply supported at each end, this optimum length to depth
ratio is commonly around 9. For truss construction beams, simply supported at
each end, the optimum span to depth ratio is in the vicinity of 7.
C4) For columns, there will also be an optimum geometry which, for aluminum
structure, will generally be found in the vicinity of L*SQR(A/I) = 80, where L is
column length, A is cross sectional area, and I is minimum section moment of
inertia. For circular cross sections this works out to an optimal length to diameter
ratio of about 28. Beam columns, such as a typical space frame member, should
have a length to depth ratio that is intermediate between the pure beam of Rule C3
and the pure column discussed above. (Confidence rating = 7)
C5) Panel stiffeners should be sized to provide simple support along their length.
This can be accomplished by making the stiffener at least an order of magnitude
stiffer than that portion of the skin that would be considered as effectively working
with the stiffener. (Confidence rating = 8)
C6) There are practical minimums to the gauge of sheet metals that can be used in
a real world environment. For aluminum sheet, .020 is about the minimum that
can be successfully formed and fastened into bracket type structures. For clips and
stiffeners in a workspace environment, where they will likely be bumped, snagged
with sleeves, and so forth, .062 is the minimum recommended thickness.
C7) When designing doublers, (reinforcements around openings in a shell) an
approximate sizing guide is to replace the removed material. In highly loaded
structures or where fatigue is a concern, more reinforcement may be required. I've
been told that replacing three times the removed material is the norm for
commercial aircraft.
C8) For a cylinder of skin and stringer construction, optimum frame spacing is
around L/D = 0.12 where L = frame spacing and D = cylinder diameter.
C9) For aluminum skin and stringer construction, the effective width of skin, of
thickness T, working with a single flanged stiffener is approximately 20T.
C10) Hollow aluminum tubes of circular cross section should have a wall thickness
no less than 1/50 of the tube diameter. Below this thickness the tube wall will tend
to fail by crippling. (Confidence rating = 7)
C11) When designing unpressurized semi-monocoque shells, a conservative first
cut at sizing can be made by designing the stringers (with effective skin) to carry
the full axial load on the shell and selecting a skin thickness that will carry the
shear load. To a first approximation, the weight of the skin will equal the weight of
the stringers. If the shell is pressurized, the optimized structure will have a lower
percentage of weight in stiffeners. (Confidence rating = 8)
C12) When selecting an end fixity for column calculations, it is generally advisable
to use C = 1 for conservatism. In practice, aerospace structures are rarely able to
provide end fixities greater than 2. (Confidence rating = 9)
C13) Structures often fail due to secondary loadings such as: kick loads, prying
loads, and friction loads. These loadings must be considered in the design and
sizing effort. (Confidence rating = 10)
C14) Be alert for material anisotropies. Commonly encountered examples are poor
short transverse properties in composite laminates and forgings.
C15) While a 0% margin is acceptable for simple load paths and well understood
failure mechanisms, the prudent designer will allow additional margin on complex
or poorly understood structures. Recommended "designer's factors":
Joints ....................................................... 1.50
Buckling critical structure ............. 1.30
C16) A well proportioned beam will have roughly two thirds of its mass in tension
and compression members and one third in the connecting shear structure.
C17) Given a ring of centroidal diameter D, axially loaded at n hard points equally
spaced around one edge of the ring, the minimum ring height required to evenly
distribute the load over the opposite face of the ring is 1.6 D/n.
C18) When computing the vibration response of structures to transient and cyclical
disturbances, an estimate must be made of the damping coefficient (as a percentage
of critical damping). 1% to 2 % of critical damping is often used for predicting
launch induced dynamic response of typical bolted aluminum aerospace structures.
Structures with less energy dissipation, such as welded structures, will have
lower damping coefficients. Damping coefficients will also be lower for low
amplitude and low frequency vibrations. Damping measured during modal survey
testing normally indicates low damping due to the low vibration levels used for
testing - normally 1/10 - 1/100 of the maximum predicted flight response. The
Payload Assist Module - S (PAM-S) structure modal test indicated 0.27% damping
at the first fundamental frequency of 9.1 Hz. The same structure had 0.58 %
damping for an axial vibration mode at 24 Hz. The Delta II Graphite Epoxy
Motorcase (GEM) structure supported on high dissipation mechanical links had
0.47% damping associated with a 4.5 Hz lateral bending mode and 2.1% damping
associated with a 46.5 Hz lateral bending mode at modal survey excitation levels.
C19) Hollow shear pins should have a wall thickness greater than 1/7 of the pin
diameter to avoid local bearing failures. (Confidence rating = 7)
C20) An estimate of effective bearing stress in material around a pin may be made
by dividing the shear load in the pin, P, by an area corresponding to the chord of a
ninety degree included angle on the pin. Effective bearing stress = approximately
P/(0.707Dt) where D is the pin diameter and t the thickness of the material on
which the pin bears. (Confidence rating = 8)
C21) When designing a conventional forced vibration isolation system, the first
natural frequency of the isolated system should be less than 70% of the lowest
forcing frequency, with lower isolated system natural frequencies providing
increasingly more effective isolation. (Confidence rating = 9)
PRESENTATIONS
D1) Begin planning a viewfoil presentation by listing the points you wish to make.
Next prepare a storyboard to work out how many foils and what art are needed to
make these points. Make the viewfoils as the last step. (Confidence rating = 9)
D2) A viewfoil should contain no more than five "bullets" of no more than five
words each. (Confidence rating = 8)
D3) When preparing a viewfoil presentation, allow three minutes per viewfoil for
the pitch, less for a high level overview, and more for a presentation to a
technically oriented audience. (Confidence rating = 7)
D4) Viewfoils should be "pleasing to the eye" to avoid making a bad impression on
the audience. (Confidence rating = 10)
D5) On your own copy of your pitch, highlight a path across each foil. This will
remind you of points to discuss and help you identify entrance and exit points to
insure a smooth flow of ideas from foil to foil. (Confidence rating = 10)
D6) Never leave a viewfoil on the projector if you are not actively using it to make
a point. Abandoned foils distract the audience from your presentation.
D7) Don't flip back and forth between foils or conduct extensive searches for
backup foils. Keep the pitch flowing. A ragged presentation brings out the
predatory instincts in an audience. (Confidence rating = 9)
D8) Every foil should have something more than text on it. If you don't need a
picture, chart, or table to make a point, you don't need that viewfoil.
D9) Don't sail through your foils so fast that the audience doesn't have a chance to
read them. You will frustrate your customer and leave the impression that you are
trying to slip something by him. (Confidence rating = 10)
D10) When responding to questions or criticism, try to keep cool. A calm response
is more convincing than an emotional one. (Confidence rating = 9)
D11) If the original of a viewfoil can be read at a range of ten feet, the foil will be
legible when projected. (Confidence rating = 7)
D12) Budget 90 minutes of preparation time for every minute of presentation.
D13) In the interest of legibility, use upper case text for brief labels, but mixed case
text for any string over a few words long. (Confidence rating = 8)
D14) When preparing for an important presentation by means of a dry run, include
at least one person in the audience who is not a member of the project team. This
will encourage the presenter to format his pitch more nearly as it will be given to
the target audience. A person who is not familiar with the program and who has
not bought into the assumptions that have become second nature for team members
will more readily spot holes in the presentation. (Confidence rating = 7)
D15) Vary the format of your foils. A series of foils with identical format is boring
and makes it more difficult for the audience to retain the points you are trying to
make. Cognitive human factors research indicates that varied appearance in foils
induces structure in memory for containing associated facts.
D16) While it may not be necessary for a naturally gifted speaker, I find that if I
practice a presentation by giving it aloud to the mirror the night before, it greatly
increases my smoothness of delivery the following day. Since I'll often try out
several ways of phrasing the points I want to make, it takes me about ten minutes
per foil for this practice session.
D17) Viewfoils prepared for major reviews should use a colored background.
Hours of reading black-on-white text produces eye strain in the audience.
REPAIRS
E1) When repairing a scratch or gouge caused by an impact type event, always
etch and do a dye penetrant (or equivalent) inspection of the area of the defect
(which will commonly be blended out to a ten to one width to depth ratio). Even a
dropped wrench can start and propagate a crack in light structure.
E2) When investigating a discrepancy report, always go see the structure for
yourself. Human vision occurs more in the mind than the eye and there is no
substitute for informed observation. (Confidence rating = 10)
MASS PROPERTIES
F1) For purposes of converting a known weight of an electronics package to a

volume or vice versa, use an approximate density of 0.03 lbs /cubic inch. For
NiCd batteries, use 0.08 lbs /cubic inch. (Confidence rating = 8)
F2) Conventional aluminum spacecraft bracketry generally weighs from 15% to

25% of the weight of the supported equipment. As an example of how far such an
approximate rule can be extended, historical data indicate that cradle type
structures flown on the STS Orbiter roughly follow the rule:
Ws = 1025 + .154 Wp
where Ws is structural weight in pounds and Wp is supported payload weight in
pounds.
Payload attach fittings for the Delta family of launch vehicles have weights
ranging from 2% to 12% of the weight of the spacecraft they are designed to
support. The low end of the range is made up of very short adapters with direct
load paths, primarily inserted as a means of mounting separation mechanisms. The
high end of the range is occupied by payload attach fittings that must support
spacecraft whose interface diameter is much smaller than vehicle structural
diameter necessitating an extensive conical adapter. (Confidence rating = 7)
F3) Table F1 is a compilation of historical data on weight estimate growth. The
prudent designer will make allowance for component weight growth when
designing supporting structure. (Confidence rating = 6)
TABLE F1 - WEIGHT GROWTH ALLOWANCE
(% OF ESTIMATED WEIGHT)
DESIGN
PHASE
STRUCT,
MECH
WIRING,
PLUMBING
THERMA
L
ELECTRONIC POWER PROPULSIO

S
N
CONCEPTUAL
22
29
21
20
25
10
PRELIMINARY
12
16
14
13
16
DETAIL
10
QUAL HDWR
F4) For composite spaceframes, joint weights can be estimated using joint
penalties from the table below.
Joint Penalty Table for Launch Condition Driven Composite
Spaceframes
Joint penalty = Weight of joints in structure
Weight of structure less joints
Type of Joint
Typical Application
Joint Penalty
All bonded with composite joint

components
Weight critical, highly stiffness driven

structure, permanent joints
0.2
Bonded with composite joint components

and anti-peel fasteners
Weight critical, stiffness driven structure

with moderate loads, permanent joints
0.3
Bonded and bolted with aluminum joint

components
Highly strength driven structure with

permanent joints
0.7
Mechanically fastened design with titanium Strength driven structure with separable
joint components
joints, weight not critical
0.8
F5) The following table summarizes spacecraft subsystem weight data from an
Aerospace Corporation database of 16 space vehicles. (Confidence rating = 8)
Space Vehicle Subsystem Weight Distribution
Subsystem
Mission Payload
Structure
Thermal control
Electrical Power (Less Wiring)
Wire Harness
Tracking, Telemetry & Command
Attitude Control & Navigation
Reaction Control & Propulsion (Dry)
Balance & Ballast Weights
Adapter
Miscellaneous
Total Dry Vehicle
% S/C Wt. - Max.
% S/C Wt. - Min.
% S/C Wt. - Average
37.3
37.2
11.0
32.0
9.1
15.4
14.7
11.9
2.0
4.5
0.2
16.6
18.1
Negligible
9.2
3.1
1.5
3.3
1.9
0.0
0.0
0.0
26.6
23.3
3.7
21.6
6.2
5.6
6.9
4.5
1.0
0.6
Negligible
100.0
F6) Pressure vessel weight can be estimated using the performance factor, K,
defined as the product of tank burst pressure (psi) and volume (cu. in) divided by
tank weight (lbs); K = PV/W. The table below lists theoretical performance factors
as well as data from as-built hardware with weld lands, penetration bosses, and
attach flanges. Values are given both for pressure dominated designs and for
applications in which flight loads are relatively significant. The heavier tank walls
needed to carry flight loads significantly affect the realizable performance factor so
that the optimum tank material may well be different for flight load dominated vs.
pressure dominated designs. (Confidence rating = 9)
Pressure Vessel Performance Factors
K - Idealized
K - Pressure dominated
K - w/ Flight loads
666,667
407,767
349,515
377,622
404,040
606,061
563,000
324,000
298,000
353,000
393,000
174,242
537,037
680,000
869,048
1,130,952
1,428,571
450,000
675,000
850,000
1,075,000
1,350,000
MATERIAL
Homogeneous metal tanks:
6AL-4V TITANIUM
2219-T87 ALUMINUM
2219-T62 ALUMINUM
410 STAINLESS STEEL, AMS 5505
INCONNEL 718
CRYOFORMED 301 CRES
Filament wound tanks:
S-GLASS
KEVLAR 49 ARAMID
IM-7 GRAPHITE
HT-46-9A GRAPHITE
T1000 GRAPHITE
186,823
168,545
F7) For seventy-five (75) spacecraft launched from 1975 to 1984, the average wet
stowed density for a complete spacecraft was 0.0028 lb/cubic inch. Extreme
values for this set of spacecraft were 0.00072 lbs/cubic in. and 0.0062 lbs/cubic
inch. (Confidence rating = 8)
F8) There is a multiplier effect to weight savings if various affected components
can be optimally resized. It is commonly estimated that one pound of dry weight
savings in an upper stage will result in a seven pound dry weight reduction in the
launch vehicle. (Confidence rating = 8)
F9) For spacecraft preliminary design purposes, wire harnesses can be estimated to
weigh 4% of associated box weight for data lines and 9% of associated box weight
for power lines. (Confidence rating = 6)
F10) For composite skins, the weights of tension critical splices can be estimated
using joint efficiencies from the table below. The length of skin used for the
calculation is the total length of the candidate joint.
Joint Penalty Table for Tension Critical Composite Skin Splices

Joint efficiency = Unjointed skin weight to carry design load
Jointed skin weight to carry design
load
Type of Splice
Staggered Ply Splice
Stepped Ply Splice
Joint Efficiency
0.86
0.71
Double Lap Splice
0.31
Tapered Scarf Joint
0.30
DESIGN WITH COMPOSITES

G1) In a layup designed for production by the pultrusion process, at least 20% of
the fibers must be oriented axially to allow drawing the material through the die.
G2) "A basis" material properties, such as are listed in MIL-HDBK-5 for
commonly used aerospace metals, are rarely available for composites. Due to the
wide scatter in material properties from one composite specimen to another, it is
mandatory to apply some kind of knock down factor to the average material
properties values commonly given for composite materials. In the absence of
better data, reduce average strength values by 30% and average stiffness values by
20% to obtain usable design properties. (Confidence rating = 7)
G3) Quasi-isotropic fiber reinforced epoxy layups have stiffness and strength on
the order of 30% to 40% of the axial properties of a unidirectional layup, with the
difference being more pronounced the more the fiber properties exceed those of the
matrix. (Confidence rating = 8)
G4) When selecting a cross-ply layup for a high modulus graphite/epoxy
composite for use in "room temperature" environments, the maximum change in
fiber angle between plies should be less than 60 degrees to reduce the probability
of microcracking. For example, the layup [0/+45/0/-45/0//]s is preferable to
[02/+45/-45/0//]s For applications with large temperature variations, the maximum
change in fiber angle should be less than 30 degrees.
G5) To insure good load transfer between plies of a laminate, try to avoid having
over four layers with the same fiber orientation. (Confidence rating = 6)
G6) For components made by filament winding, fifteen degrees is the lowest offaxis angle that can be wound without extensive development. With development,
and perhaps special tooling, angles as low as ten degrees may be obtained.
G7) The following rules apply to the design of mechanically fastened joints
through unreinforced composites.
a) The best bolted joints can barely exceed half the strength of unnotched
laminates.
b) Optimized joints with a single row of fasteners have approximately three
quarters of the strength of an optimized four row joint.
c) Fastener diameter should be selected to develop bearing strength of
laminate rather than by fastener rated shear strength.
d) Bolt bending is more significant for joints in composites than for joints in
metals because composite joints tend to be thicker for a given load and
because composites are more sensitive to nonuniform bearing stresses.
e) Optimum fastener spacing for a joint with a single row of fasteners in
composite material is about three fastener diameters. This is less than the
4D usually recommended for metals, due to the greater tendency for the
composite to fail in bearing if the spacing is so large as to put too high a
load per individual fastener.
f) Optimum fastener spacing for a joint with three rows of fasteners in
composite material is about five fastener diameters in the first row (to
minimize load transfer in this row nearest the joint), then 4D for the
second row, and 3D for the final row.
g) Best fiber patterns for composites in the area of bolted joints have at least
12 % of the plies in each of the four directions, 0, +45, -45, and 90.
No more than 38% of the plies should be in any one direction.
G8) The following rules apply to the design of adhesive bonded joints in laminated
composites.
a) Bonded joints should be designed to be stronger than the adjacent
structure. A failure in a weak bonded joint can propagate catastrophically
from a local defect.
b) Bonding works best for thin structures.
c) Thick bonded structures need complex stepped-lap joints to develop
adequate efficiency. Analysis of stepped-lap joints in thick structures
requires non-linear analysis.
d) Thick structures cannot be practically repaired by bonding. If damage is
likely to be sustained during the service life of a thick composite structure,
bolted field joints should be provided to allow segment replacement.
e) Proper faying area surface preparation is a must. Beware of "cleaning"
solvents and peel plies. Mechanical abrasion is more reliable. Grit
blasting
is preferable to sanding for irregular surfaces such as cloth layups.
f) Laminates must be dry before bonding.
g) The key to durability of bonded joints is that some of the adhesive must
not carry sustained high loads. Creep will occur in joints where all of the
adhesive is kept under high load.
h) Bonded joints are sensitive to environmental conditions. Bonded
overlaps
are commonly sized by the hot/wet environment. If exposed to cold
conditions, the adhesive becomes brittle and especially susceptible to
failure in peel.
i) In a lap joint, adherend ends should be tapered to a thickness of
approximately 0.020 inches with about a ten to one (6) slope.
j) Adherend ends should be chamfered to provide a local thickening of the
bondline around the periphery of the joint. This will reduce peak stresses
and help prevent the initiation of peeling.
k) Assuming that the primary load in a bonded joint is in the 0 direction, do
not use 90 plies at joint faying surfaces. If thermal excursions are large,
joint strength may be increased by using off angle plies (i.e. 45) nearest
the bondline, rather than 0 plies, in order to reduce thermal stresses.
l) For joints between equal thickness quasi-isotropic laminates, near
optimum splice geometries are: 80t overlap for single lap joints, 30t
overlap for double lap joints, and 1/50 slope for a scarf joint, where
"t" is the thickness of the laminates being joined.
m) When designing a laminate with bonded joints, avoid layups with large
Poisson's ratio mismatches between adherends.
G9) Tight control of the thickness of a laminate typically requires special tooling,
such as matched die molds. Without special tooling, thickness variations up to ten
percent of the nominal part thickness can be expected. (Confidence rating = 8)
G10) Since the outer ply of a laminate is the most likely to be damaged, its
orientation should be chosen to allow some damage tolerance. For example, a
column member, which will tend to have its 0 fibers most heavily loaded, should
use a shear carrying off axis ply (such as a 45 ply) as its outer layer. (Confidence
rating = 7)
G11) The "Ten Percent Rule": When designing a lay-up, use a minimum of ten
percent of the plies in each direction. This is based on the assumption that you are
already following Rule G4, so that the maximum arc between reinforcement
directions is about 60 degrees. (Confidence rating = 6)
G12) It is common knowledge that to avoid coupling of extensional strains with
bending and twisting in a composite laminate, the layup should be both
symmetrical about its midplane and balanced (each +X ply matched with a -X
ply). An implication of this basic guidance combined with rules G4 and G11
above, is that a well designed laminate must be at least seven plies thick. (For
what it's worth, there are a lot of four ply laminates in service, so for the seven ply
rule, Confidence rating = 4)
G13) When adding or dropping off plies at a local reinforcement in a laminate, the
step spacing should be chosen so that the surface slope angle with the shell
midplane does not exceed ten degrees. (Confidence rating = 7)
G14) When doing trade studies to select material for a structure, do not neglect to
include tooling costs. For short runs, the tooling cost for some types of composite
construction can exceed the cost of flight units made of aluminum. (Confidence
rating = 9)
G15) Stiffness and strength of a laminate made from eight harness satin cloth are
about 30% lower than the equivalent values for a tape plied laminate of the same
fiber and matrix. Unidirectional fabrics or pre-plied broadgoods are alternate ways
of avoiding the property degradation associated with fiber kinking in woven
products. (Confidence rating = 7)
G16) The compressive strength of composites is very sensitive to void content. 2%
void content can produce a 20% knockdown in compressive strength and 4% void
content is sufficient to approximately halve the strength of a composite shell.
MOTHERHOOD, TRUISMS, AND CATCH PHRASES

H1) "The bitterness of poor quality lasts long after the sweetness of meeting the
schedule has gone." (Confidence rating = 10)
H2) A design can meet any two of the following criteria at the expense of the third:
1) Good, 2) Fast, and 3) Cheap. To produce a satisfactory product, the designer
should understand the relative valuation his customer places on performance,
schedule, and cost. (Confidence rating = 10)
H3) "Don't let your education get in the way of your common sense." (Confidence
rating = 10)
H4) The given design requirement is never the real design requirement. It is the
responsibility of the designer to determine the real requirements and produce a
design to meet them. (Confidence rating = 10)
H5) "If you cannot be clever, you can at least be careful." (Confidence rating = 10)
H6) "An engineer is someone who can accomplish with a dollar what any fool can
do for three dollars and fifty cents." Cost is a factor in all design decisions.
H7) Never do business with a company you haven't visited. (If a subcontractor has
contractual freedom to sub out your work, you may well end up doing business
with a company you haven't visited.) (Confidence rating = 10)
H8) In the aftermath of the Three Mile Island reactor radiation release, Admiral H.
G. Rickover prepared a report recommending nuclear utility management
objectives. With slight editing, these apply as well to any engineering effort:
A) Require rising standards of adequacy.
B) Be technically self-sufficient.
C) Face facts.
D) Respect even small problems.
E) Require adherence to the concept of total responsibility.
F) Develop the capacity to learn from experience.
H9) The Mountaineer's club of Seattle publishes rules for climbers, one of which
is:
"Never let judgment be overcome by desire when selecting a route or

deciding whether to turn back."
Suitably paraphrased, this rule is applicable to any engineering endeavor.
H10) "Hope is not a method." - General Gordon Sullivan (Confidence rating = 10)
H11) "You learn something every day - if you aren't careful."
H12) To paraphrase biographer James Gleick in describing an insight of Nobel
prize winning physicist Richard Feynman:
To avoid errors requires an intimate acquaintanceship with the rules of the
engineer's game. It also requires not just honesty, but a sense that honesty
requires exertion.
H13) Kelly Johnson, of Lockheed Skunk Works fame, offered the following "all
you need to know to run a company":
A. It's more important to listen than to talk.
B. Be decisive; even a timely wrong decision is better than no decision.
C. Don't halfheartedly wound problems - kill them dead.
H14) Carl Printz often had occasion to point out that there's no point in our making
the same mistakes over and over again when we could be making new and exciting
mistakes! (Confidence rating = 10)
H15) I pay you to make me look good and when I tell you to do something stupid,
youre supposed to be smart enough not to do it!
- Chief engineer to lead structures designer immediately after design
change ordered by said chief engineer caused failure resulting in destruction of
structural qualification test article (Confidence rating = 10)
H16) Not-designed-here-syndrome is a common ailment amongst designers of all

stripes. The best designer Ive ever known offered the following preventative
measures:
a) Circulate your ideas widely among known good designers. If they point
out fatal defects in your brainchild, you can just ditch the ugly baby quietly. Most
people have short memories...
b) Listen with open mind to all ideas proffered to you, especially if they
come up repeatedly from various plausible sources. Meticulously attribute the
good ideas to their originators the first time you cite them. Fold them into your
work.
c) As time passes and people comment that your designs work uncannily
well, accept their praise gracefully. Your glowing reputation will be truly
deserved, because nurturing the humility to be able to accept the other guys idea
when it is better is, in fact, one of the keys to becoming a great designer.
H17) In laying off a young fellow from his lab, Thomas Alva Edison gave the
following reason: I dont mind the fact that you dont know much yet. The
trouble is that you dont even suspect. The good engineer aims to be
knowledgeable, but even the budding engineer should be intelligently suspicious.
H18) There is only one difficulty in the world: wishful thinking. Edward Teller
COST ESTIMATING
J1) The United States Air Force Unmanned Spacecraft Cost Model, Version 5.0,
gives the following cost estimation relationships for structural/mechanical
subsystems with a total weight ranging from 16 to 942 lbs. These formulas are
inappropriate for estimating component costs. The formulas have been expressed
in 1990 kilodollars (K$).
Nonrecurring Cost = 2468 + (232*W0.66) K$
Recurring Cost = 48.5*W0.65 K$
where W is the total structural/mechanical subsystem weight.
J2) Jerry Fish, of Cost Estimating, provided the formulas in Table J1 for estimating
the costs of large structural assemblies for the Space Station program. All formulas
have been corrected to 1990 dollars. (Confidence rating = 4)
TABLE J1 - STRUCTURE COST ESTIMATION FORMULAS*

* ALL COSTS IN 1990 $'S
NONRECURRING COST = 208000(W).516K3K4
WHERE: W = STRUCTURAL WEIGHT IN LBS
K3 = FABRICATION TECHNIQUE FACTOR
= 1.00 INTEGRALLY STIFFENED (CAD/CAM)
= .90 MONOCOQUE
= .58 TRUSS STRUCTURE (GROUND SUPPORT
EQUIPMENT, WELDED)
= 1.18 DOMES (WELDED GORE SEGMENTS)
= 2.00 SKIN, RING, STRINGER
= 2.00 GIMBAL MECHANISM
K4 = MATERIAL FACTOR
= 1.00 ALUMINUM
= 1.20 STAINLESS STEEL
= 1.40 TITANIUM
= 3.00 HIGH MODULUS GRAPHITE/EPOXY (Note: This factor is
severely dated; structural composites were developmental when this figure was
generated. As of 2001, I'd recommend a range of factors from 1.0 to 1.5 depending on
the relative complexity of the design, based on anecdotal evidence.)
RECURRING COST = 3860(W).757K1K2
WHERE: W = STRUCTURAL WEIGHT IN LBS
K1 = FABRICATION TECHNIQUE FACTOR
= 1.00 INTEGRALLY STIFFENED (COMPUTER AIDED
MACHINING)
= .70 MONOCOQUE
= .84 TRUSS STRUCTURE (GROUND SUPPORT EQUIPMENT,
WELDED)
= 1.30 SIMPLE ADAPTER
= 1.60 DOMES (WELDED GORE SEGMENTS)
= 2.78 SKIN, RING, STRINGER
= 5.00 GIMBAL MECHANISM
K2 = MATERIAL FACTOR
= 1.00 ALUMINUM
= 1.50 STAINLESS STEEL
= 2.20 TITANIUM
= 4.00 HIGH MODULUS GRAPHITE/EPOXY (Note: This factor is
severely dated; structural composites were developmental when this figure was
generated. As of 2001, I'd recommend a range of factors from 0.7 to 2.0 depending on
the relative complexity of the design, based on anecdotal evidence.)
J3) The estimated cost of a spacecraft usually doubles between initial contract
award and delivery of the first article. (Confidence rating = 2)
J4) The average engineer underestimates by a factor of two the manhours it will
take him to accomplish a design job of the order of complexity of a Delta payload
attach fitting. This assumes that the job has been broken down to some level of
detail and each portion of the job estimated separately. An offhand guess will
generally produce an even more optimistic estimate. Estimation accuracy will be
better for a smaller job and worse for a larger one. (Confidence rating = 4)
J5) The cost of a finished composite spaceframe strut with metal end fittings is
approximately three times the cost of the raw materials. (Confidence rating = 2)
J6) The following approximate costs, in 1991 dollars, for various composite
prepreg tapes, were compiled in Feb. 1991. Composite material per pound prices
can vary 25% with the size of the purchase order. (Confidence rating = 7):
E-glass/epoxy
S-glass/epoxy
Kevlar/epoxy
T300 graphite/epoxy
T300 graphite/toughened epoxy
IM7 graphite/epoxy
IM7 graphite/toughened epoxy
P75 graphite/toughened epoxy
FT700 graphite/toughened epoxy
10 $/lb
20 $/lb
30 $/lb
60 $/lb
100 $/lb
75 $/lb
125 $/lb
350 $/lb
550 $/lb
800 $/lb
850 $/lb
J7) On a typical aerospace project, the costs for engineering, planning, and quality
assurance will be roughly equal. The manufacturing cost will be 250% of the
engineering cost. (Confidence rating = 4)
J8) On a typical missile design effort, the hours charged by various groups as a
percentage of Structures Design group hours are:
Structural Analysis group - 75%
Structural Dynamics group - 40%
Mass Properties group - 25%
Obviously, these proportions can vary considerably with the nature of the project.
Composite structures typically require a higher proportion of analysis support.
J9) Below is an estimate of the average hours allotted to various structures design
tasks per drawing (twelve zone J size). The time period covered is from contract
award through completion of a first flight item. This estimate was prepared in
1991 and is based on the use of Unigraphics Version 7.0 for drawing preparation.
The concurrent engineering estimate includes coordination with analysis and other
engineering groups as well as Operations disciplines. (Confidence rating = 3)
Task
Hours/drawing
Concurrent engineering ................ 20
Layout & trade studies ............... 180
Detail design ................................. 30
Drawing preparation ......................45
Technical check ............................ 25
Drawing maintenance ................... 30
Manufacturing support ................. 20
Total ............................................ 350
J10) Total program costs for one-of-a-kind mid-sized satellites are known to vary
over the range of $8K/lb for modest modifications of an existing design to $36K/lb
for technically ambitious projects. The value $20K/lb in 1991 dollars has been
used as something of a standard for preliminary estimates. (Confidence rating = 5)
J11) Each level of security classification increases program cost by a factor of 1.25
times the proportion of the program data classified at that level. Example: If a
program's data is 20% Secret and 5% Top Secret, the program cost factor will be
approximately (0.8)(1.0)+(0.2)(1.25)+(0.05)(1.25)2 = 1.13; that is the program will
be about 13% more expensive than if it were a completely unclassified program to
produce the equivalent hardware. (Confidence rating = 3)
J12) Per a list published in "Space Mission Analysis and Design", small satellites
(below 150 lbs) range in cost between $6.5K/lb and $20.2K/lb in 1990 dollars.
TECHNICAL WRITING
K1) The Fog Index, F, of a piece of writing is given by the formula:
F = 0.4(W+S)
where:
W is the average number of words per sentence
S is the number of words per hundred having three or more syllables
The Fog Index can be thought of as the reading age required to comprehend the
text. Try to keep the Fog Index of your reports below 15.
Examples:
Document
Fog Index
"Big Two-Hearted River" - Hemingway ...................................................5.9
"Microsoft Excel Reference Manual" ..................................................... 14.3
"Rules of Thumb for Structural Design" ............................................. 16.8
(Hmmm...)
"Tools and Approaches for Total Quality Management" ................ 19.7
K2) In engineering analysis documentation it is desirable to:
Explicitly state assumptions
Define symbols used in formulae
Use sketches and figures where required for clarity
Highlight results and conclusions by shadowboxing them as they occur in
the text or by putting them in a summary paragraph.
K3) Minimize references to other documents, especially ones that may be difficult
for the reader to obtain. Information vital to making your point is worth quoting or
paraphrasing. (Confidence rating = 8)
K4) Minimize your use of acronyms. Always define an acronym at first use in a
document. In a large document with many acronyms, provide an acronym table.
K5) If you have to look up the definition of a word, then you probably shouldn't
use it in your writing. (Confidence rating = 9)
K6) If you feel that a point is too obvious to state, better state it anyway. Your
readers may not share your assumptions or your familiarity with your subject.
K7) Budget four hours per page for writing a technical article. Of this, one hour is
to produce the rough draft and the remaining three for editing and rewriting.
COMPUTER PROGRAMMING
L1) Write the documentation first, then write the program to match the
documentation. This provides a clear requirements statement to serve as a guide
during the actual coding, and incidentally guarantees that at least some form of
documentation will be available to go with the software. (Confidence rating = 6)
L2) When estimating time required to write a program, figure on about a five to
one ratio for debugging vs. coding. (Confidence rating = 7)
COGNITIVE HUMAN FACTORS

A structures designer is expected to exercise good judgment in making
design decisions. Unfortunately, all the structures designers I know are human,
and human factors research has conclusively established that good judgment
doesn't come naturally to that species. Certain deviations from rational behavior
are hard wired into the human brain and sustained logical thought is possible only
through methodical workarounds or machine assistance. This section will discuss
heuristics that the mind has evolved to shorten processing times at the cost of
generating irrational behavior under circumstances other than those under which
the short-cut developed. Evolution has not yet had sufficient time to reduce rocket
design to instinct.
These cognitive traps have been a limiting influence on the quality of our
engineering work. By being aware of our shortcomings and making a conscious
effort to overcome them, we can achieve a higher standard of performance.
Known work arounds or decision making aids are discussed in connection with the
relevant mental shortcoming. This list of types of flawed thinking is by no means
complete, but is intended to stimulate an awareness that being sure doesn't
necessarily guarantee being right.
M1) Salience Bias Asked to estimate the proportion of events in a sample, people
make good estimates on mid-range proportions, say from 10% frequency to 90%
frequency, but will over report very infrequent events (less than 10% frequency)
and underreport very common events (greater than 90% frequency). The net effect
is to overemphasize the occurrence of rare events or to bias reporting to emphasize
exceptional (and therefore salient) events. By a similar mental process people tend
to estimate the average of a set of numbers as about half way between the highest
and lowest values noted, regardless of the dispersion of intervening values.
Extremes and unusual occurrences stick in memory, whereas common experiences
don't. In another example, on a control panel, data that is brightly lit, displayed at
high contrast, changes rapidly, or is at the top center of the display is more likely to
be taken into account in decision making than equally important data that does not
do as good a job of catching the eye. Personal experience is more salient and
likely to influence decision making than equally relevant data that was obtained
second-hand.
Prior to making a decision every effort should be made to review the
underlying data in a format that puts facts on an even footing.
M2) Linearization Bias Asked to extrapolate trends from past data, people tend to
err towards a linear extrapolation of the trend curve taken from the present
moment.
Predictive software can be used to provide more sophisticated trend
extrapolation data. (Confidence rating = 8)
M3) Anchoring and Recency People tend to form working conclusions based on
the first few pieces of data they receive and then gradually modify these initial
impressions based on subsequent data. People also tend to overweight recently
received data in comparison with older data. Thus conclusions reached can be
dependent upon the temporal sequence in which data is presented.
Decision forming data that is available simultaneously should be presented
simultaneously. (Confidence rating = 9)
M4) As-If Heuristic People tend to treat all information as if it were equally
reliable. People are quite capable of estimating the reliability of information
sources directly; however, even if information is known to be of poor quality, if it
is available in great quantity it will tend to drive decisions. Five dubious
arguments tend to be more convincing than two solid and sound ones.
Decision support software is becoming available to allow weighting of
information on the basis of operator provided reliability judgments. Programs like
these offer the promise of more reasonable decision making than can be
accomplished by the unaided human brain. (Confidence rating = 9)
M5) Confirmation Bias Once a person has formed a hypothesis, he will tend to
interpret the available data to support this hypothesis and ignore disconfirming
evidence. Data will be sought that tends to confirm the initial hypothesis but data
which might disprove the hypothesis will be subconsciously avoided. This
tendency towards "cognitive tunneling" is exacerbated by stress and schedule
pressure. Even a partial solution of a problem may lead to protectiveness and
inability to consider alternatives that may lead to a better solution of the overall
problem.
Some work has been done with expert system architectures to combat
confirmation bias, but ready availability of this type of aid is probably far in the
future. Good trade study methodology, which stresses keeping options open and
comparing options quantitatively and objectively, will help avoid this trap. Other
precautions include good design teamwork and conscious adoption of alternating
roles of advocacy and criticism for each design option considered.
M6) Positive Evidence Bias Explicitly presented information (data-on-a-platter) is

more readily used to test hypotheses than equally available data of a negative
nature. In a famous literary example, Sherlock Holmes solved a murder case by
noting, as the inept constabulary had not, that the victim's dog had not barked.
Absence of anomalies may be useful in tracing the branches of a fault tree.
Another aspect of the same bias is the "puzzle trap". People tend to look for a set
of rules to govern their search for problem solutions even if these rules are not
imposed by nature. This leads to consideration of an unnecessarily limited subset
of available problem solutions while neglecting part of the available solution
space.
In a laboratory situation, training involving practice in the application of
non-cued data has been shown to increase the trainee's tendency to search for and
utilize this type of information. (Confidence rating = 8)
M7) Framing Sensitivity People will choose different problem solutions to
identical problems depending on how the problem is stated. If the problem is
presented as a choice between potential gains or benefits, people tend to be risk
adverse and will select the low gain, but sure-thing, option. If the same situation is
viewed as a choice between potential losses or costs, people tend to be risk-seeking
and will select the low probability, high penalty option, attempting to avoid the
more certain loss.
The decision maker should seek a balanced presentation of cost vs. benefit
to avoid biased framing. (Confidence rating = 7)
M8) Miscategorization Given a large number of alternatives to choose from,
people tend to prune the number of choices by focusing on a single selection
criterion and eliminating all but the few choices that score best on that one
criterion. This approach may lead to early elimination of options that may be
preferable when given more balanced evaluation.
More broadly speaking, incorrectly categorizing problems or solutions can
then activate an inappropriate mental model associated with the category.
Decision support software is under development to relieve the human
decision maker of the stress of trying to keep too many factors in mind at once.
Decision making aids can assist the decision maker in breaking the decision task
down into chunks of a humanly manageable size. (Confidence rating = 9)
M9) Satisficing Another heuristic used for dealing with many options is to
mentally set a failure threshold for several decision criteria and accept the first
option that is not eliminated by one or more criteria not meeting the desired
threshold value. This approach leads to choice of an option that is "good enough"
rather than optimal.
As discussed under rule M9, decision support software or other
methodology may be required to decompose a complex decision making task into
subproblems simple enough to be handled within the memory and attention limits
of the human mind. (Confidence rating = 8)
M10) Overconfidence People tend to be unduly confident in the correctness of
their judgments, in the accuracy of their memories and, in fact, in their abilities in
general.
Training to raise awareness of this tendency has been shown to have a
corrective effect. (Confidence rating = 11)
SUPPORTED SUBSYSTEMS
N1) Minimum bend radii when routing wire harnesses:
Single copper, gauges 1/0 to 22 .................... 6 x diameter
Single coax .................................................. 10 x diameter
Single fiber optic cable ................................ 10 x diameter, 20 x preferred
N2) Maximum distance between support points on straight run of wire harness:
For harness under 0.5 inches diameter, maximum support spacing is 12
inches
For harness from 0.5 to 1.5 inches diameter, maximum support spacing is 18
inches
N3) For fluid systems tubing made of 316L stainless steel, minimum recommended
tube bend radius is three times the tube outer diameter. (Confidence rating = 9)
N4) When routing fluid lines, the recommended minimum distance between bends
is three times the tube outer diameter or one inch, whichever is larger. (Confidence
rating = 9)
ENGINEERING LEADERSHIP
P1) Leading an engineering team presents a different set of problems and

opportunities from leading other types of contributors to the companies success.
Engineers tend to be highly motivated and enthusiastic "out of the box". A
dispirited engineering team indicates that they have been subjected to severe
mismanagement. (Confidence rating = 9)
P2) The leader can make his best contribution to the team by leading rather than by
trying to do the work of the other team members. The leader of a United States
Marine Corps four man fire team is not allowed to carry a rifle, because having one
set of eyes dedicated to assessing the team's situation is more valuable than the lost
fire power. (Confidence rating = 9)
P3) Keeping the group aligned with the wishes of its customers is perhaps the
single most important leadership function. Larry Gale, a very effective Project
Manager, for the Neutral Particle Beam Integrated Space Experiment, delegated his
responsibilities in programmatics and technology to Deputy Program Managers,
but kept communications with the customer as his own special area of focus. In
Larry's words, "The Customer shouldn't even be able to take a piss without me
standing there..." (Confidence rating = 9)
P4) One technique that can be effective within a structural design group is for the
group leader to maintain a "To Do" list of prioritized tasks the group needs to
accomplish. Letting group members select their work from this list helps insure
that each designer will be doing work that is of interest. If a group member takes
on a task that is beyond his capabilities, the group leader can provide support by
teaming him with another, perhaps more experienced, engineer or by providing
coaching. (Confidence rating = 9)
P5) To find the areas in an organization which need serious attention, simply note
what management is trying to address with posters and slogans. Once management
has seriously addressed a problem by, for example, funding training or purchasing
equipment, there will be no further need for posters and slogans on that subject.
P6) Howard Herdman, an excellent Project Manager, offered the following

guidance on the common aerospace practice of lowballing, that is deliberately
underestimating the cost of a project in an effort to win projects. Howard pointed
out that regardless of whether a company lowballed or put in honest bids, it would
always win some and lose some. Some of our customers are trying to fool their
customers with unrealistically low cost estimates and some of our customers are
just trying to get a job done and dont want to have to deal with crooks. The
difference shows up after the job is awarded when, as Howard pointed out, If you
put in an honest bid, then you have the money needed to actually do a credible job
on the program.
REFERENCE BOOKS FOR AEROSPACE STRUCTURES DESIGN

Structural Sizing:
1) Formulas for Stress and Strain
R.J. Roark and W.C. Young
Invaluable "cookbook" guide to structural analysis, generally accurate.
Available from: McGraw Hill (800) 262-4729
Approximate cost: $50.00
IBSN 0-07-053031-9
2) Formulas for Natural Frequency and Mode Shape
R.D. Blevins
A guide to structural dynamics in the tradition of Roark, generally accurate.
Available from: Krieger (407) 724-9542
IBSN 0-89874-791-0
3) Structural Analysis of Shells
E.H. Baker, L. Kovalevsky, and F.L. Rish
A guide to the analysis of shells, with summary charts for stress, deflection,
and critical buckling load computations for various geometries, generally
accurate.
Available from: Krieger (407) 724-9542
IBSN 0-89874-118-1
4) Aircraft Structures
D.J. Peery
Clear presentation of practical hand analysis techniques for flight structures.
IBSN 0-07-049196-8
5) Analysis and Design of Flight Vehicle Structures
E.F. Bruhn
Extensive and wide ranging discussion of analysis techniques for flight
structures with instructive derivations, poor accuracy.
Available from: Jacobs Publishing Inc.
[via Opamp Books (213) 464-4322]
REFERENCE BOOKS FOR AEROSPACE STRUCTURES DESIGN (cont.)

Structural Sizing: (cont.)
6) Missile Structures - Analysis and Design
Orlando, Meyers, and Bruhn
Not commercially available - MDAC library has a copy.
Mathematics:
1) Engineering Mathematics Handbook
J.J. Tuma
Excellent collection of tabulated mathematical formulas, generally accurate.
IBSN 0-07-065443-3
Mechanisms:
1) Mechanisms, Linkages, and Mechanical Controls
N.P. Chironis
A collection of mechanisms, grouped by function, for those times when
you need to pinch hit as a mechanical engineer.
IBSN 07-010775-0
Supported Subsystems:
1) Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers
T. Baumeister and L.S. Marks
Introductory level material on a wide range of engineering disciplines,
useful in coping with subjects outside one's immediate area of specialization.
IBSN 0-07-004122-9
2) Design of Geosynchronous Spacecraft
B. N. Agrawal
Introductory level material on common spacecraft subsystems,
useful for rough preliminary design of spacecraft during proposal activity.
Available from: Prentice-Hall
IBSN 0-13-200114-4

Supported Subsystems: (cont.)
3) Space Vehicle Design
M.D. Griffin and J.R. French
Introductory level material on space vehicle design. Offers some insight
into the spacecraft design process from the customer's viewpoint.
Available from: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
IBSN 0-930403-90-8
4) Space Mission Analysis and Design
W.J. Larson and J.R. Wertz
Overview of space vehicle design. A good introduction to the basics of the
various subsystems making up a spacecraft. Contains useful tables of data
on existing spacecraft and spacecraft components.
Available from: Microcosm, Inc.
Approximate cost: $44.75 (pb)
IBSN 1-881883-01-9 (pb)
IBSN 0-7923-1998-2 (hb)
Composites:
1) Introduction to Composite Materials
S.W. Tsai and H.T. Hahn
Standard text for introductory composite courses. Intended more for college
students than working engineers, but contains useful basic material.
Available from: Technomic Publishing Company
IBSN 0-87762-288-4
2) Mechanics of Composite Materials
R.M. Jones
Standard introductory level text. Academic rather than design oriented, but
a useful reference on micromechanics.
Available from: Hemisphere Publishing Corporation
IBSN 0-89116-490-1
3) SDS Spacecraft Structural Composite Materials Selection Guide
Extensive materials data, test methods, and design guidelines to assist the
designer working on Strategic Defense System (SDS) satellites.
Prepared by Ketema Inc. for the Air Force Materials Laboratory
M.L. Hand and J.J Tracy have copies of release 2.0

Composites: (Cont.):
4) Composite Airframe Structures
M.C.Y. Niu
Although written in broken English and generously sprinkled with typos,
this is by far the most useful guide I've seen for composite structure design
practice. This guide contains much practical information based on the
author's 25 years of experience working with composites, primarily at
Lockheed.
Available from: Technical Book Company, Los Angeles, CA (310) 4755711
IBSN 962-7128-06-6
Launch Vehicles:
1) International Reference Guide to Space Launch Systems
S.J. Isakowitz
Basic information on most of the launch vehicles in the world: capability,
fairing sizes, imposed loads, payload stiffness requirements, etc.
Available from: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Approximate cost: $30.00 (paperback)
IBSN 1-56347-002-0
Design Methodology:
1) Why Buildings Fall Down
M. Levy and M. Salvadori
Although dealing with civil structures, this book is highly recommended
reading as it probes the psychology behind design errors that lead to
structural failures. Failures in aerospace structures are caused by precisely
the same sorts of flawed thinking that lead to civil structure failures. This
book presents some design practices to guard against common human errors.
Available from: W. W. Norton & Company
IBSN 0-393-03356-2

Design Methodology: (Cont.):
2) To Engineer is Human
Henry Petroski
Subtitled "The Role of Failure in Successful Design". A collection of
structural disasters and study of how the lessons drawn from them allowed
development of superior designs.
Available from: St. Martin's Press
IBSN 0-312-80680-9
3) How Designers Think
Brian Lawson
This book is a general overview of the design process providing an
introduction to a variety of cognitive strategies for attacking design
problems. The author's architectural background noticeably flavors the
book, but some material of interest to any designer will be found. The
chapter on "Design Tactics and Traps" is of particular interest.
Available from: Eastview Editions, Inc.
IBSN 0-89860-047-2
The Mind of the Engineer:
1) Engineering Psychology and Human Performance
Christopher D Wickens
Most complete reference I've found on inherent weaknesses in human
reasoning abilities. Contains some material on decision making aids.
Available from: HarperCollins Publishers Inc.
IBSN 0-673-46161-0
2) Fluid Concepts and Creative Analogies
Douglas Hofstadter and the Fluid Analogies Research Group
Report on recent research using computer modeling to probe for the
wellsprings of human creativity (and tendencies to make mistakes - the two
are intimately related).
Available from: BasicBooks, a division of HarperCollins Publishers Inc.
IBSN 0-465-05154-5

The Mind of the Engineer: (Cont.):
3) The Society of Mind
Marvin Minsky
I'll admit that this book can in no way, shape or form be considered an
engineering handbook. It is a piece of the foundation for the way
engineering will be done in the near future with individual engineers
forming part of a web of combined man/machine intelligence. Part of the
promise of artificial intelligence research is a better understanding of how
"natural" minds function. Minsky describes how that promise is being
realized.
Available from: Simon and Schuster Inc.
Approximate cost: $9.95 (paperback)
IBSN 0-671-60740-5
Index for Rules of Thumb

Acronyms, use of
Adhesively bonded joints
Admiral Rickover's rules
Aesthetics of design
Anchoring
Angle of taper for drop-off plies
Art on viewfoils
As-if heuristic
Assumptions
Attenuation of shock across joint
Audience selection for presentation dry runs
Battery density estimate
Beam columns
Beams
Bearing stress at pin
Bearings at column ends
Bollard's Rule
Bolt heat treat
Bolted joints in unreinforced composites
Bonded joints
Bracketing calculations
Brackets
Brainstorming
Bugs
Bullets on viewfoil
Calm presentation
Capital letters, use in viewfoils
Castings
CATCH PHRASES
Categorization, mistaken
Chattering joints, preventing
Checking calculations
Clampband lip angles
Classified programs, costs
Climber's rule
Clips
Cloth vs. tape laminate properties
COGNITIVE HUMAN FACTORS
Colored backgrounds for viewfoils
K4
B11, B21
H8
A1
M3
G13
D8
M4
K2
B18
D14
F1
C4
A13, C3
C20
B20
A23
B12
G7
B11, B17, B21, G8
A7
C6, F2
A25
A8
D2
D10
D13
A22
H
M8
B16
A6
B15
J11
H9
C6
G15
M
D17
Columns
Column end bearings to limit moment
Common sense
Composite material properties
Composite prepreg costs
COMPOSITES
Composites, tooling for
Compressive strength knockdown for voids
Computer Aided Design (CAD)
COMPUTER PROGRAMMING
Concept generation
Conformation bias
Conical faying surfaces
COST ESTIMATING
Cost growth
Cost ratios, by group
Creep in bonded joints
Crippling
Cyclic loading on bonded joints
Cylinders
Damping coefficients
Decision support software
Density estimate for electronics
Density estimate for spacecraft
Depth of ring to distribute point loads
Design drivers
DESIGN PRACTICE
Design requirements
Design task hour estimates
Designer's factors
Die casting
Documentation, rules for
Documenting computer programs
Doublers
Drop off plies, taper angle
Dry runs of viewfoil presentations
Dye penetrant inspection
Edge distance
Edges, sharp
Edisons employee qualifications
Effective width
C4, C12
B20
H3
G2
J6
G, B1
G14
G16
A14
L
A12
M5
B15
J
J3, J4
J7, J8
G8
C10
B17, B21
C8
C18
M4, M8, M9
F1
F7
C17
A3
A
A18, H4
J9
C15
A22
K2-K4
L1
C7
G13
D14
E1
B1, B4
A15
H17
C9
Electronics weight estimate

Emotional presentation
End fixity
Engineer - definition
Engineering methodology
Exertion
Fabric, composite, material properties knockdown
Failure modes
Fast talking salesmen
Fastener diameter
Fastener edge distance
Fastener spacing
Fatigue of bonded joints
Faying surfaces
Feynman, Richard
Filament winding
Fish formulas for cost estimating
Flange thickness to width
Flawed thinking
Fog Index
Framing sensitivity
Full scale prints
Gleick, James
Gouge, repair of
Height of ring to distribute point loads
Helicoil inserts
Herdman, Howards words of wisdom
Hollow pins - wall thickness
Honesty
Hope
Hours per drawing for design tasks
Humility
Inserts, Helicoil
Interfaces
Investment casting
Isolation, forced vibration
Iteration
Johnson, Kelly's rules
Joint stiffness ratio
JOINTS
Joints, bolted in unreinforced composites
F1, F3
D10
C12
H6
H10
H12
G15
A17
D9
B5, B9
B1, B4
B2, B4, B13
B17, B21
B15, B16
H12
G6
J2, Table J1
C2
M1-M10
K1
M7
A21
H12
E1
C17
B19
P6
C19
H12
H10
J9
H16
B19
B7
A22
C21
A2
H13
B8
B, C15
G7
Joints, bonded
Joints, preload in
Joint weight penalties
Joints with seals
Judgment, undue confidence in
Judgment versus desire
Launch costs
Laminate design
Laminate thickness variations
Laminate thickness, minimum
Layers of same orientation in laminate
Layouts
Layup
Learning method
Legible viewfoils
Lightsat costs
Linearization bias
Load path
Lowballing, why not to
Lower case letters in viewfoils
Manhours
MASS PROPERTIES
Material, trade studies
Memory structure, creation by viewfoils
Memory, reliability of
Microcracking
Minimum angle for filament winding
Minimum gauge
Minimum laminate thickness
Mirror, presenting to
Mistakes, repeated
Miscategorization
Moisture, effects on bonded joints
Monoball bearing at column ends
MOTHERHOOD
Mountaineer's rule
Multiplier effect
Nature's three numbers
Not-designed-here-syndrome (avoidance)
Obvious points
B11, B17, G8
B10
F4, F10
B13
M10
H9
Table A1
G4, G5, G7, G8, G10,
G11, G12
G9
G12
G5
A14
G4, G5
H11
D11
J12
M2
A10, A11, A16, C1
P6
D13
J4
F
G14
D15
M10
G4
G6
C6
G12
D16
H14
M8
B21
B20
H
H9
F8
A23
H16
K6
Off-the-shelf designs
Onionskin
Outer ply orientation in laminate
Overconfidence
Panels
Payload adapter weight
Permanent mold casting
Pin, bearing stress
Plant inspection tours
Plaster mold casting
Ply angle selection for laminates
Point loads
Posters
Positive evidence bias
Practicing presentation in front of mirror
Preloaded joints
Preparation time, presentations
Preparation time, technical writing
PRESENTATIONS
Pressure vessel performance factors
Printz, Carl
Program cost for satellites
Programming computers, time required
Propellant tank weights
Pultrusion
Qualification by similarity
Quality
Quasi-isotropic composites
Recency
Readable text
Readable viewfoils
References in technical documents
REPAIRS
Requirements, design
Rickover's rules
Ring depth to distribute point loads
Ripple effect of weight savings
Risk, evaluating in trade studies
Rivets
Safety margins
A24
A14
G10
M10
A4, C5
F2
A22
C20
H7
A22
G4, G5, G7, G8, G10,
G11
C1
P5
M6
D16
B10
D12
K7
D
F6
H14
J10
L2
F6
G1
A24
H1, H2
G3
M3
K1
D11
K3
E
A18, H4
H8
C17
F8
A26
B5, B6
C15
Salience bias
Sand casting
Satellite program costs
Satisficing
Scale, layout
Scarf joints, weight estimate
Scratch, repair of
Seals, joints with
Security classification, program costs
Sharp edges
Shear peaking in bonded joints
Shear pins - wall thickness
Shear structure sizing - beams
Shear structure sizing - skin and stringer shell
Shear webs
Shell mold casting
Shells
Shock attenuation across joint
Skin and stringer construction
Skunk Works, rules for managing
Small satellite costs
Software
Space frame
Spaceframe member cost
Spacecraft density estimates
Spherical bearings at column ends
Splice joint weights
Stating the obvious
Stepped-lap bonded joints
Stiffener
Storyboard
Stringer
Structural cost estimates
Structural damping
STRUCTURAL SIZING
Structures weight estimate
Stupidity, inexcusable
Subcontractors
Subsystem weight distribution
Suspicion, warranted
Tankage weights
M1
A22
J10, J12
M9
A21
F10
E1
B13
J11
A15
G8
C19
C16
C11
A13
A22
C11, C15
B18
C8, C9, C11
H13
J12
A8
A11, A13
J5
F7
B20
F10
K6
G8
C5
D1
C5
J1-J5
C18
C
F2, F3
H15
H7
F5
H17
F6
Tape vs. cloth plied laminate properties

Taper angle for drop-off plies
Tapered adherends for bonded joints
TECHNICAL WRITING
Teller, Edward
Temperature, effects on bonded joints
"Ten percent rule"
Thickness variations in laminates
Thread engagement in aluminum part
Three Mile Island aftermath rules
Time budget for presentations
Time budget for technical writing
Time required to present a viewfoil
Time required to write computer program
Tooling for composites
Torsional stiffness
Toughened epoxies for cyclic loading
Trade studies
TRUISMS
Truss
Tube wall thickness
Unigraphics
Upper case letters in viewfoils
USCM cost model
Value of a pound
Varying viewfoil format
Vibration isolation
Viewfoils
Viewfoil art
Viewfoil background color
Visualization
Void content in composites
Weight distribution of spacecraft subsystems
Weight estimates
Weight growth
Weight savings, value of
Weighting criteria
Wire harness weight estimation
Wishful thinking
Wit and wisdom
Words, choosing
G15
G13
G8
K
H18
B21
G11
G9
B14
H8
D12
K7
D3
L2
G14
A5
B17
A18, A19, A20, A26
H
A11
C10
A14
D13
J1
A20
D15
C21
D
D8
D17
A17
G16
F5
F1-F7
F2, Table F1
A20
A19
F9
H18
H
K5
Woven composites, properties degradation

Zero, one, and infinity
G15
A23

Rules of Thumb for Structural Design

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Rules of Thumb for Structural Design

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RULES OF THUMB

A20) In performing trade studies, it is often desirable to assign a dollar value to

LAUNCH COST ($M)

TO GEOSYNCHRONOUS TRANSFER ORBIT (GTO):

TO GEOSTATIONARY ORBIT (GEO):

LAUNCH COST ($M)

A22) Casting may be an appropriate fabrication technique for making parts in

F1) For purposes of converting a known weight of an electronics package to a

F2) Conventional aluminum spacecraft bracketry generally weighs from 15% to

ELECTRONIC POWER PROPULSIO

All bonded with composite joint

Weight critical, highly stiffness driven

Bonded with composite joint components

Weight critical, stiffness driven structure

Bonded and bolted with aluminum joint

Highly strength driven structure with

% S/C Wt. - Max.

% S/C Wt. - Min.

% S/C Wt. - Average

Joint Penalty Table for Tension Critical Composite Skin Splices

Double Lap Splice

Tapered Scarf Joint

DESIGN WITH COMPOSITES

MOTHERHOOD, TRUISMS, AND CATCH PHRASES

"Never let judgment be overcome by desire when selecting a route or

H16) Not-designed-here-syndrome is a common ailment amongst designers of all

TABLE J1 - STRUCTURE COST ESTIMATION FORMULAS*

COGNITIVE HUMAN FACTORS

M6) Positive Evidence Bias Explicitly presented information (data-on-a-platter) is

P1) Leading an engineering team presents a different set of problems and

P6) Howard Herdman, an excellent Project Manager, offered the following

REFERENCE BOOKS FOR AEROSPACE STRUCTURES DESIGN

REFERENCE BOOKS FOR AEROSPACE STRUCTURES DESIGN (cont.)

REFERENCE BOOKS FOR AEROSPACE STRUCTURES DESIGN (cont.)

REFERENCE BOOKS FOR AEROSPACE STRUCTURES DESIGN (cont.)

REFERENCE BOOKS FOR AEROSPACE STRUCTURES DESIGN (cont.)

REFERENCE BOOKS FOR AEROSPACE STRUCTURES DESIGN (cont.)

Index for Rules of Thumb

Electronics weight estimate

Tape vs. cloth plied laminate properties

Woven composites, properties degradation

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