This presentation focuses on inorganic scale deposits as suppose to organic deposits

such as asphaltenes and paraffins.

This slide provides an indication of the drastic impact that scale can have on the wells
production.
In this North Sea example, the client experienced a production decline of 28% due to
scale. It is the 2nd highest factor that results in production decline. This is a good
indication to Schlumberger that we need to work with our clients and relevant
Production Chemical companies, in defining appropriate solutions.

Inorganic scales

Hard inorganic crystal although different scales will have a different magnitude of hardness,
when compared to steel, there is minimal contrast. This puts things in perspective for anyone
who has never been exposed to scale. It is important to understand the hardness of scale and
the implications with removal. This will determine whether a mechanical method (scale blaster)
would be required.

Variable crystal size the smaller the particles, the easier to dissolve, the larger the particles the
more difficult to dissolve.
Scale has crystal structures and clearly defined chemical
compositions; this makes identification possible using common laboratory equipment or
computer prediction.

Produced from aqueous solutions simply equation implies, no water, no scale. Because
scales are formed from aqueous solutions and well established chemical reactions; prediction is
made possible by analysis of field waters and chemical modeling.

Soluble in some special formulations carbonate scales are soluble in acids whereas sulfate
scales are not.

The two most common scales in the industry are calcite and barite.

Calcite Most naturally occurring waters contain some amount of calcium. If we exceed the
solubility limits of the solution, then calcite could be formed. Calcite is easy to remove, but
difficult to predict using analytical software.

Barite Easy to detect, but difficult to remove. There are also HSE issues involved with
removing barite; when barite precipitates, it is very common that radium will precipitate as well,
which makes it easy to detect on a gamma ray log. However, disposal becomes a safety issue.

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An essential concept in scale formation is the mineral solubility; mineral solubility

defines the capacity of a fluid to hold a given amount of the mineral under specific
conditions.
Any fluid can be below its capacity for a given mineral under given conditions.
However, changing the conditions may change the capacity. If the amount of dissolved
mineral is greater then the capacity under the new conditions the fluid will precipitate
the solid.

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Solubility is the amount of a mineral that the fluid will hold in solution.
This table show the great difference between the solubility of NaCl, CaS04, CaC03 and BaS04 at
770 F.
Sulfates, though easily formed, are difficult to remove.

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Minerals will precipitate if their solutions become oversaturated; the more

oversaturated the solution, the faster the mineral will precipitate. Calculation of
exact growth rates (kinetics) is almost impossible for real systems because of the
complex mechanism of precipitation.

Mechanistic steps involve two stages - nucleation and growth:

1. Solutions become over saturated because of perturbations.
2. Specific ion diffuse together to form on pairs which may form clusters or
nuclei. The formation of clusters is reversible but the more oversaturated
the solution the more nuclei will form and the longer they will reside.
3. Clusters can spontaneously rearrange into crystallites.
homogeneous nucleation and is very rare.

This is called

4. Commonly clusters form preferentially on rough surfaces (casings etc) and

on existing crystals. This is heterogeneous nucleation.
5. Crystallites are imperfect and further rapid growth is at imperfections on
crystal surfaces.
This mechanism has a strong bearing inhibition treatments

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There are three common causes of scale in oil and gas wells.
(a) Incompatible mixing is most commonly encountered and gives rise to carbonate
and sulphate scales.
Perturbations to solubility caused by changing the
concentration of the scaling ions is the driving force.
This phenomenon is controlled by inhibitors.
(b) Self scaling is caused by changing the temperature and pressure of a fluid as it
travels along a wellbore.
For sulphates and carbonates this phenomenon is controlled by inhibitors. For halite
formation it can be severe and difficult to control.

(c) The third and least common cause of scale is evaporation in a gas bubble.
This can only be stopped by saturating the gas bubble with water at its point of entry
into the wellbore. It is a serious but uncommon source of scaling.

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The more data we have the better will be our assessment of the scale
problem.
Ideally we need the lot.
Even with imperfect data we can back out the problem.
pH and precise carbonate analyses are critical and often neglected by
clients.

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