A REPORT ON

Site Investigation

Department Of Civil Engineering

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
NIRMA UNIVERSITY
Ahmedabad 382 481
September 2014

Prepared By

Neeraj Khatri 14 MCLC 12

Pragnesh Patel 14 MCLC 17
Sachin Patel 14 MCLC 19
Tejas Patil 14 MCLC 22

Site Investigations
Introduction:
To design a foundation that will adequately support a structure, an engineer must understand the
type of soil deposits that will support the foundation. Moreover, foundation engineers must
remember that soil at any site frequently is non-homogeneous-that is, the soil profile may vary.
Soil mechanics theories involve idealized conditions, so the application of these theories to
foundation engineering problems involves judicious evaluation of site conditions and soil
parameters. To do so require some knowledge of the geological process by which the soil deposit
at the site was formed, supplemented by subsurface exploration. Good professional judgment
constitutes an essential part of geotechnical engineering-and it comes only with practice.

Definition:
A geotechnical site investigation is the process of collecting information and evaluating the
conditions of the site for the purpose of designing and constructing the foundation for a structure,
such as a building, plant or bridge.

Purpose of soil investigation:

Selection of foundation type.

Design of foundations.
Contractors to quote realistic and competitive tenders.
Planning construction techniques.
Selection of appropriate construction equipment (especially for excavation and
foundations).
Feasibility studies of the site.
Estimating development cost for the site.
Study of environmental impacts of the proposed construction

Phases:
1. Collection of Preliminary Information:

This step includes obtaining information regarding the type of structures and its general use. For
the construction of buildings, the approximate and their spacing and the local building code and
basement require be known. The construction of bridges requires determining span length,
loading on piers and abutments.
A general idea of the topography and the type of soil to be considered and around the proposed
site can be obtained from the following
1. Geological Survey maps.
2. Agronomy maps published by the agriculture departments of various states.
3. The hydrological information. These include the records of stream flow, high flood levels,
tidal records, and so on.
The information collected from these sources can be extremely helpful in planning a site
investigation. In some cases, substantial savings may be realized by anticipating problems that
may be encountered later in the exploration program.

2. Reconnaissance
The engineer should always make a visual inspection of the site to obtain information about
1. The general topography of the site, possible existence of drainage ditches, abandoned dumps
of debris, or other materials. Also, evidence of creep of slopes and deep, wide shrinkage cracks at
regularly spaced intervals may be indicative of expansive soils.
2. Soil stratification from deep cuts, such as those made for construction of nearby highways and
railroads.
3. Type of vegetation at the site, which may indicate the nature of the soil. For example, a
mesquite cover in central Texas may indicate the existence of expansive clays that can cause
possible foundation problems.
4. High-water marks no nearby buildings and bridge abutments.
5. Ground water levels, which can be determined by checking nearby wells.
6. Types of construction nearby and existence of any cracks in walls or other problems.
The nature of stratification and physical properties of the soil nearby can also be obtained from
any available soil-exploration reports for existing structures.

3. Site Investigation

The site investigation phase of the exploration program consists of planning making test
boreholes, and collecting soil samples at desired intervals for subsequent observation and
laboratory tests. The approximate required minimum depth of the borings should be
predetermined. The depth can be changed during the drilling operation, depending on the subsoil
encountered.

Site exploration methods:

a) Test pits
b) Boring
c) Probes and geophysical methods:

A) Test pits:
Pits and trenches are excavated at site to test the soil strata. IS-4453-1967 recommends a clear
working space of 1.2m X 1.2m at the bottom of the pit. Shallow pits up to a depth of 3m can be
made without providing any lateral support.

B) Boring:
When the depth of exploration is large, borings are used.

Auger boring:

Auger boring is the simplest method of making exploratory boreholes. Figure 2.10 shows two
types of hand auger-the past hole auger and the helical auger. Hand augers cannot be used for
advancing holes to depths exceeding 3-5 m (10-16 ft). However, they can be used for soil
exploration work for some highways and small structures. Portable power-driven helical augers
(76-2 mm to 304.8 mm in diameter) are available for making deeper boreholes. The soil samples
obtained from such borings are highly disturbed. In some non-cohesive soils or soils having low
cohesion, the walls of the boreholes will not stand unsupported. In such circumstances, a metal
pile is used as a casing to prevent the soil from caving in.
Figure 2.10 Hard tools: (a) post hole auger; (b) helical auger
When power is available, continuous-flight augers are probably the most common method used
for advancing a borehole. The power for drilling is delivered by truck or tractor-mounted drilling
rigs. Boreholes up to about 60-70 m (200-230 ft) can be easily made by this method. Continuous

Flight augers are available in sections of about 1-2 m (3-6 ft) with either a solid or hollow stem.
Some of the commonly used solid stem augers have outside diameters of 66.68 mm (258in.),
82.55 m (314in.), 101.6 mm (4 in.) and 114.3 mm (412in.). common hollow stem augers
commercially available have dimensions of 63.5 mm ID and 158.75 mm OD (2.5 in.6.25 in.),
69.85 mm ID and 177.8 OD (2.75 in.in.), 76.2 mm ID and 203.2 OD (3 in.8 in.) and 82.55
mm ID and 228.6 mm OD (3.25 in.9 in.).

Wash boring:

Wash boring is another method of advancing boreholes. In this method, a casing about 2-3 m (610 ft) long is driven into the ground. The soil inside the casing is then removed by means of a
chopping bit attached to a drilling rod. Water is forced through the drilling rod exists at a very
high velocity through the holes at the bottom of the chopping bit (figure 2.11). The water and the
chopped soil particles rise in the drill hole and overflow at the top of the casing through a T
connection. The wash water is collected in a container. The casing can be extended with
additional pieces as the borehole progresses; however, that is not required if the borehole will
stay open and not cave in.

Rotatory drilling:
Rotary drilling is a procedure by which rapidly rotating drilling bits attached to the bottom of
drilling rods cut and grind and soil and advance the boreholes. There are several types of drilling
bit. Rotary drilling can be used in sand, clay, and rocks (unless badly fissured). Water, or drilling
mud, is forced down the drilling rods to the bits, and the return flow forces the cuttings to the
surface. Boreholes with diameters of 50.8-203.2 mm (2-8 in.) can be easily made by this
technique. The drilling mud is slurry of water and bentonite. Generally it is used when the soil
encountered is likely to cave in. When soil samples are needed, the drilling rod is raised and the
drilling bit is replaced by a sampler.

Percussion drilling:
This method is used for making holes in rocks, boulders and other hard strata. In this method a
very heavy chisel is alternately lifted and dropped in vertical hole. The material gets pulverized.

Standard penetration test:

The Standard Penetration test (SPT) is a common in situ testing method used to determine the
geotechnical engineering properties of subsurface soils. It is a simple and inexpensive test to
estimate the relative density of soils and approximate shear strength parameters
.

Procedure:
Test Hole
Drill the hole to the desired sampling depth and clean out all disturbed material.
If a wet drill is used, flush out all cuttings.

Assembling Equipment
Attach the split-barrel sampler to the A-rod and lower into the hole until it is sitting on the
undisturbed material. Attach the drive weight assembly. Lift the 63.5 kg hammer approximately
0.76 m and allow it to fall on the anvil delivering one seating blow. Mark the drill rod in 3
successive .15 m increments to observe penetration.
Mark the drive weight assembly to indicate a 0.76 m hammer lift.

Penetration Testing
Raise and drop the hammer 0.76 m successively by means of the rope and cathead, using no
more than 2 1/4 wraps around the cathead. The hammer should be operated between 40 and 60
blows per minute and should drop freely. Continue the driving until either 0.45 m has been
penetrated or 100 blows has been applied. Record the number of blows for each .15 m of the

penetration. The first 0.15 m increment is the "seating" drive. The sum of the blows for second
and third increment of 0.15 m penetration is termed "penetration resistance or "N-value". If the
blow count exceeds 100 in total, terminate the test and record the number of blows for the last
0.30 m of penetration as the N-value.

Handling Sample
Bring the sampler to the surface and open it. Remove any obvious contamination from the ends
or sides and drain excess water. Carefully scrape or slice along one side to expose fresh material
and any stratification. Record the length, composition, color, stratification and condition of
sample. Remove sample and wrap it or seal in a plastic bag to retain moisture. If the sample can
be removed relatively intact, wrap it in several layers of plastic to strengthen it and seal ends
with tape. Mark the sample "top" and "bottom" if applicable and label it with an identification
number.

Correlation between SPT-N value, friction angle, and relative

density
Correlation between SPT-N value and friction angle and Relative density (Meyerhoff
1956)
SPT N3
[Blows/0.3 m - 1 ft]

Soil packing

Relative Density
[%]

Friction angle
[]

<4

Very loose

< 20

< 30

4 -10

Loose

20 - 40

30 - 35

10 30

Compact

40 - 60

35 - 40

30 - 50

Dense

60 - 80

40 - 45

> 50

Very Dense

> 80

> 45

STATIC CONE PENETRATION TEST

Equipment :
Steel Cone : The cone shall be of suitable steel with its tip hardened. It shall have an apex angle
o
of 60 15 minutes and overall base diameter of 35.7 0.01 mm giving a cross-sectional area
of 10 cm2 ( see Fig. 1 ). The cone shall be so designed as to prevent the intrusion of soil particles
into the moving parts of the cone assembly.

For obtaining the cone resistance, the cone is pushed downward at a steady rate of 10mm/sec
through a depth of 35 mm each time. The cone is pushed by applying thrust and not by driving.
After the cone resistance has been determined, cone is withdrawn. The sleeve is pushed on to the
cone and both are driven together into soil and combined resistance is also determined. The
resistance of sleeve alone is obtained by subtracting the cone resistance from combined
resistance.
There is good correlation studies available between SPT number (N) and the engineering
properties of soil. If cone penetration results are related to the SPT number N, indirect
correlations are obtained between the cone test results and the engineering properties of soil.
Following relations hold approximately good between the point resistance of cone (qc) and N.
1) Gravels qc= 800 N to 1000N

2) Sands qc= 500 N to 600 N

3) Silty sands qc= 300 N to 400 N
4) Silts and clayey silts qc= 200 N
Where qc is sin kN/m2.

VANE SHEAR TEST

E
quipment:1. Vane shear apparatus.
2. Specimen.
3. Specimen container.
4. Callipers.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Prepare two or three specimens of the soil sample of dimensions of at least 37.5 mm
diameter and 75 mm length in specimen.(L/D ratio 2 or 3).
Mount the specimen container with the specimen on the base of the vane shear apparatus.
If the specimen container is closed at one end, it should be provided with a hole of about
1 mm diameter at the bottom.
Gently lower the shear vanes into the specimen to their full length without disturbing the

soil specimen. The top of the vanes should be atleast 10 mm below the top of the
specimen. Note the readings of the angle of twist.
Rotate the vanes at an uniform rate say 0.1o/s by suitable operating the torque application
handle until the specimen fails.
Note the final reading of the angle of twist.
Find the value of blade height in cm.

Find the value of blade width in cm.

Calculations:

Geophysical methods: Geophysical methods indicate general boundaries of drastically dissimilar layers.
Most commonly used geophysical methods are:1. Seismic or Refraction method
2. Resistivity method

Seismic refraction method: A shock wave propagates in an elastic medium with velocity,
v = (M/)1/2
M modulus and - mass density
Wave velocity
In soils
150 to 3000 m/s
In rocks
1500 to 6000 m/s.
Responses of a shock wave eminating from a source are picked up by geophone at known
distance.

The depth of rock underlying the soil or depth of water table can be obtained. Shock
waves emanating from a dynamite charge forming a source, S travel through soil & are
picked up at geophones 1,2,3,..etc. at distances d1,d2,d3..etc.
One shock wave travels directly through the top soil layer with a velocity v1 and another
gets refracted with a greater velocity v2.

The break in curve represents point of simultaneous arrival of primary & refracted waves,
and its distance is known as critical distance. The wave velocity through the rock layer is
many times greater than through soil layer.
So, time of arrival by a longer route is shorter than that by the shorter route through the
top soil.

Velocity, v1 =

Velocity, v2 =
The depth of rock H1 is obtained as,

H1=

Seismic refraction method is fast.

This method is reliable in establishing profile of different strata.

Resistivity method:-

Electrical resistivity method is based on the measurement & recording changes in mean
resistivity of various soils. Electrical conductivity of a soil layer depends upon the
concentration of ionized salts in the soil pores. Each soil has its own resistivity depending
upon water content, compaction & composition.
Low for saturated silt.
High for loose dry gravel or solid rock.
Dense rocks with few voids and little water content have high resistivity i.e. 100 to
10,000 ohm-m.
Soft saturated clays and organic deposits have low resistivity i.e. 5 to 150 ohm-m.
For a homogeneous isotropic material electrical resistivity, is given as,

Fig. electrical resistivity

=
Where,
= mean resistivity (ohm-m)
D= distance between electrodes (cm)
E= potential drop between outer electrodes (volts)

I = current flowing between outer electrodes (amperes)

R= resistance (ohm).
Procedure: It consists of using four equally spaced electrodes along a straight line. An electric
current I is passed into the ground through end electrodes and induced potential is
measured between the interior electrodes. The spacing is changed and the procedure is
repeated.
Marked change in potential indicates the presence of a stratum of different resistivity.
BORING LOG:The information on subsurface condition obtained from the boring operation is usually
presented in the form of a boring record, commonly known as BORING LOG.
A continuous record of the various strata identified at various depths of the boring is
presented. Description or classification of the various types of soils and rocks
encountered. And data regarding ground water level are presented in a pictorial manner
on the log. Sample record sheet is below.

References.
1) Soil mechanics and Foundation engineering by K.R.Arora.
2) Foundation engineering by B.C. Punmia
3) IS : 4968 ( Part III ) 1976.