Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Classified according to its state (its physical form) and its composition (the basic
components that make it up)
o Substance specific instance of matter (ex. air, water, or sand)
Can exist in 3 different states:
o Solid atoms/molecules pack close to each other in fixed locations
They vibrate
Has a fixed volume & rigid shape
May be crystalline atoms/molecules are in patterns with long-range, repeating
order (ex. diamond & table salt)
Or they may be amorphous atoms/molecules do not have long-range order (ex.
glass & plastic)
o Liquid atoms/molecules pack about as closely as they do in solid matter
Free to move relative to each other
Fixed volume but not a fixed shape
Takes shape of their container
(ex. water, alcohol, & gasoline at room temperature)
o Gas atoms/molecules have a lot of space between
Compressible
Free to move relative to one another
Takes the shape & volume of their container
(ex. helium, nitrogen, and CO2 at room temperature)
Classifying according to its composition
o First classification
Pure substance made up of only 1 component
Components can be individual atoms, or groups of atoms joined together
o Must always be exactly the same
o Does not vary from one sample to another
Elements substances that cannot be chemically broken down into
simple substances
o Ex. helium
Compounds substances composed of 2 or more elements in fixed &
definite proportion
o More common than pure elements on Earth
o Water, and table salt (NaCl)
Mixture composed of 2 or more components in proportions that can vary from
one sample to another
Heterogeneous composition varies from one region to another
o Atoms/molecules that compose them separate
o Ex. wet sand
Homogeneous same composition throughout
o Atoms/molecules that compose them mix uniformly
o Ex. sugar water
o
In general, mixtures are separable b/c different components have different physical/chemical
properties
o Decanting carefully pouring off
Ex. pouring the water into another container for a mixture of sand and water
o Distillation process in which the mixture is heated to boil off the more volatile (easily
vaporizable) liquid
Volatile liquid is then recondensed in a condenser & collected in a separate flask
Component with the lowest boiling point vaporizes first
o Filtration mixture is poured through filter paper in a funnel designed to pass only the
liquid
Mixture is composed of an insoluble solid & a liquid
1.4 Physical and Chemical Changes & Physical and Chemical Properties
Physical changes alter only state or appearance, but not composition
o Atoms/molecules that compose a substance do not change their identity
o Ex. water boiling changes its state from a liquid to a gas
o Physical property one that a substance displays wo/ changing its composition
Odour, taste, colour, appearance, MP, BP, and density
Chemical changes alter the composition of matter
o Atoms rearrange, transforming the original substances into different substances
o Ex. rusting of iron
Iron atoms combine with oxygen molecules from air to form iron oxide (rust)
o Chemical property one that a substance displaces only by changing its composition
via a chemical change
Corrosiveness, flammability, acidity, toxicity
Prefix multipliers multipliers that change the value of the unit by powers of 10
o When reporting a measurement, choose a prefix multiplier close to the size of the
quantity being measured
2. In addition/subtraction, the result carries the same # of decimal places as the quantity with the
fewest decimal places
3. When rounding to the correct # of SDs, round down if the last digit dropped is 4; round up if the
last digit dropped is 5
4. To avoid rounding errors in multistep calculations round only to the final answer do not round
intermediate steps. If you write down intermediate answers, keep track of SDs by underlining the
least significant digit
Conversion factor a fractional quantity with the units we are converting from on the bottom &
the units we are converting to on top
o Constructed from any 2 equivalent quantities
If current starts to a bit, the tip is moved down towards the surface to the current
as the tip goes over an atom, the tip must move up to maintain constant current
Atom smallest identifiable unit of an element
o 91 different naturally occurring elements
o Over 20 synthetic elements (not found in nature) made my scientists
2.2 Early Ideas about the Building Blocks of Matter
Leucippus & Democritus proposed that:
o Matter were composed of small, indestructible particles(atoms)
o Many different kinds of atoms existed, each different in shape & size, and that they moved
randomly through empty space
Plato & Aristotle
o Matter had no smallest parts & that different substances were composed of various
proportions of fire, air, earth, & water
o No experimental way to test the idea
Nicolaus Copernicus
o Proposed that the sun, not Earth, was at the center of the universe
Marks the beginning of the scientific revolution
2.3 Modern Atomic Theory and the Laws That Led to It
3 most important laws that led to the development & acceptance of the atomic theory:
o Law of Conservation of Mass
Formulated by Antoine Lavoisier in 1789
in a chemical reaction, matter is neither created nor destroyed
Total mass of the substances involved in the reaction does not change
Mass of reactants = mass of product(s)
* particles rearrange during chemical rxn, but the amount of matter is conserved b/c
the particles themselves are indestructible
o Law of Definite Proportions
Proposed by Joseph Proust (1754 1826)
all samples of a given compound, regardless of their source or how they were
prepared, have the same proportions of their constituent elements
Applies to every compound
Applies to 2 or more samples of the sample compound
* compounds have definite proportions of their constituent elements b/c the atoms
that compose them, each with its own specific mass, occur in a definite ratio
o Law of Multiple Proportions
Published by John Dalton in 1804
when 2 elements (call them A & B) form 2 different compounds, the masses of
element B that combine with 1g of element A can be expressed as a ratio of small
whole numbers
Applies to 2 different compounds containing the same 2 elements (A & B)
Atomic Theory
o Explained the laws by John Dalton in 1808, which included the following concepts:
1. Each element is composed of tiny, indestructible particles called atoms
2. All atoms of a given element have the same mass & other properties that distinguish
them from the atoms of other elements
3. Atoms combine in simple, whole-number ratios to form compounds
4. Atoms of 1 element cannot change into atoms of another element. In a chemical rxn,
atoms only change the way that they are bound together with other atoms
o Matter is indeed composed of atoms
2.4 The Discovery of the Electron
Further experiments revealed that the atom itself was composed of even smaller, more
fundamental particles
Electrical charge fundamental property of some of the particles that compose atoms
o Results in attractive & repulsive forces electrostatic forces - between those particles
1. + & - electrical charges attract one another
2. + charges repel one another
3. - charges repel one another
4. + & - charges of exactly the same magnitude sum to zero when combined
o Electric field area around a charged particle where these forces exist
Millikans oil drop experiment
Charge = -1.60x10-19 C
Mass = 9.10x10-28 g
Charge of the electron is significant b/c it determines how strongly an atom holds its electrons
o If e- had a much smaller charge atoms will be held more loosely
o If e- had a greater charge atoms will be held more tightly
Could result in fewer compounds or maybe even none
2.5 The Structure of the Atom
Since atoms are neutrally charged, they must contain + charge that neutralizes the e J.J. Thomson e- were small particles held within a + charged sphere
o The raisin bread model
Raisins = e Bread = positively charged sphere
Radioactivity emission of small energetic particles from the core of certain unstable atoms
1. Alpha () particles
2. Beta () particles
3. Gamma () rays
Rutherford proposed the nuclear theory of the atom, with 3 basic parts
1. Most of the atoms mass & all of its + charge are contained in a small, dense core called the
nucleus
2. Most of the volume of the atom is empty space, throughout which tiny, - charged e- are
dispersed
3. There are as many charged e- outside the nucleus as there are + charged particles
(protons) within the nucleus, so that the atom is electrically neutral
H atoms contain 1 p+, and He atoms contain 2, yet H atom has only the mass of a helium atom
o Because the atom contains the previously unaccounted mass due to neutrons neutral
particles within the nucleus
Mass similar to that of a p+, but has no electrical charge
Ex. we can think of the e- that surround the nucleus in analogy to the water droplets that make up a
cloud
o Although their mass is almost negligibly small, they are dispersed over a very large volume
o Consequently, an atom, like a cloud, is mostly empty space
Matter appears solid b/c the variation in its density is on such a small scale that our eyes cannot
see it
2.6 Subatomic Particles: Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons in Atoms
All atoms are composed of the same subatomic particles protons, neutrons, and electrons
Atomic mass unit (amu) common unit to express the masses of subatomic particles
o 1/12 the mass of a carbon atom containing 6 p+ & 6 n 0
o Mass of p+ & n0 is approximately 1 amu
Normally list the more metallic (or more positively charged) elements first, followed by the
less metallic elements
o 3 types:
Empirical formula gives the relative # of atoms of each element in a compound
Lowest whole-number ratio
Ex. hydrogen peroxide = HO
Molecular formula gives the actual # of atoms of each element in a molecule of a
compound
Ex. hydrogen peroxide = H2O2
Whole-number multiple of the empirical formula
Indicates the number & type of each atom in he molecule
Structural formula uses lines to represent covalent bonds & shows how atoms in
a molecule are connected/bonded to each other
Ex. hydrogen peroxide = HOOH
Gives a sense of the molecules shape
Shows the different types of bonds that occur between molecules how
atoms are connected
o Single bond
1 shared e- pair
o Double bond
2 shared e- pair
Generally stronger & shorter than a single bond
o Triple bond
3 shared e- pair
Stronger & shorter than double bond
o Structural formula communicates the most information
o Empirical formula communicates the least
Molecular models
o Ball-and-stick models atoms = balls & chemical bonds = sticks
Balls are typically colour-coded to specific elements
Portrays the geometry of the molecule
Ex. the C atom sits in the center of a tetrahedron formed by the 4 H atoms
o Space-filling molecular models atoms fill the space between each other to more closely
represent best estimates for how a molecule might appear if scaled to a visible size
Gives the best sense of the relative sizes of the atoms & how they merge together in
bonding
The atoms that composed a molecule, the lengths of the bonds between atoms, the angles of the
bonds between atoms, & its overall shape determine the properties of the substance that the
molecule composes
o Change any of these details changes the properties
o
o
2nd type contains a metal w/ a charge that can be differ in different compounds
Are often transition metals
Can determine the charge of the metal cation by inference from the sum of the
charges of the non-metal anions
Sum of all the charges must be zero
ionic compounds that contain a polyatomic ion are named in the same way as other ionic
compounds, except that the name of the polyatomic ion is used whenever it occurs
o most polyatomic ions are oxyanions
anions containing oxygen & another element
one with more oxygen atom has the ending ate
one with few has the ending ite
hydrates ionic compounds containing a specific # of water molecules associated w/ each formula
unit
o Ex. MgSO4 7H2O = magnesium sulphate heptahydrate
o Waters of hydration can usually be removed by heating the compound
3.6 Molecular Compounds: Formulas and Names
Formula for a molecular compound cannot readily be determined from its constituent elements b/c
the same combination of elements may form many different molecular compounds
o Ex. nitrogen and oxygen form all of the following unique molecular compounds: NO, NO 2,
N2O, N2O3, N2O4, and N2O5
Like ionic compounds, many molecular compounds have common names (H2O and NH3 = water &
ammonia)
o Requires a systematic approach to naming them
First element is the more metal-like one (toward the left & bottom of the periodic
table)
Acids molecular compounds that release hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water
o Composed of hydrogen (usually written first in their formula) & one or more non-metals
(written second)
o Characterized by their sour taste & ability to dissolve many metals
o Binary acids composed of hydrogen & a non-metal
X 100%
Conversion factor between mass of the element and mass of the compound
Ex. 58.64% of Cl in CCl2F2 = 58.64g Cl : 100g CCl2F2
o Conversion factor between moles of atoms and moles of molecules
Ex. 1 mol CCl2F2 : 2 mol Cl
3.9 Determining a Chemical Formula from Experimental Data
Calculate a chemical formula from mass percent composition
o Obtains an empirical formula only
o
3.10
3.11
n=
molar mass
empirical formula molar mass
combustion analysis another common way of obtaining empirical formulas for unknown
compounds
o especially those containing C and H
1. unknown compound undergoes combustion in the presence of pure oxygen
2. when the sample is burned, all of the C in the sample is converted to CO 2, and all of the H is
converted to H2O
3. CO2 and H2O produced are weighed
4. Determine the amounts of C and H in the original sample using numerical relationships
between moles
5. Any other elemental constituents (O, Cl, or N) can be determined by subtracting the original
mass of the sample from the sum of the masses of C & H
Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations
Chemical reaction 1 or more substances are converted into 1 or more different ones
o Compounds form & change
o Combustion reaction particular type of chemical reaction
A substance combines w/ oxygen to form 1 or more oxygen-containing compounds
Emit heat
o Represented by a chemical equation
Reactants substances on the left side of the equation
Products substances on the right side
Add coefficients to balance the chemical equation
Mass conservation law
# of atoms on the right = # of atoms on the left
Organic Compounds
2 types of compounds:
o Organic originate from living things
Composed of C and H and a few other elements (N, O, S)
C is the key element
Ex. Sugar from sugarcane/sugar beet
Easily decomposed
Major components of living organisms
Hydrocarbons organic compounds that contain only C & H
Main components of most fuels (gasoline, oil, & natural gas)
Alkanes hydrocarbons containing only single bonds
Alkenes containing only double bonds
o
o
% yield =
actual yield
theoretical yield
X 100%
M=
Concentration =
mole
volume
M1V1 = M2V2
For solving dilution problems
# of moles of solute does not change when diluting a solution
o Spectator ions ions in solution appear unchanged on both sides of the equation
Net ionic equations show only the species that actually change during the reaction
o Without spectator ions
o Ex. Pb2+ (aq) + 2Cl- (aq) PbCl2 (s)
4.8 AcidBase and Gas-Evolution Reactions
Acid-base reaction an acid reacts w/ a base & neutralize each other, producing water (or in
some cases a weak electrolyte)
o AKA neutralization reaction
o Arrhenius definitions
Acid substance that produces H+ ions in (aq) solution
H+ ions normally associate w/ water molecule to form hydronium ions
o H+ (aq) + H2O H3O+ (aq)
Polyprotic acids contain more than 1 ionizable proton & release them
sequentially
o Ex. H2SO4 is a diprotic acid
Ex.
4.9 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Oxidation-reduction reactions e- transfer from one reactant to another
o AKA redox reactions
Combustion rxn is one type of redox rxn
o Ex. metal (loses e-) reacts with a non-metal (gains e-)
o Oxidation loss of electrons (LEO)
Increase in oxidation state
o Reduction gain of electrons (GER)
Decrease in oxidation state
o Transfer of e- need not to be a complete transfer (as occurs in the formation of an ionic
compound) for the rxn to qualify as redox rxn
o Oxidation state/number a charge given to each atom based on the electron
assignment
To keep tract of e- before & after a rxn
Ex. H has an oxidation state of +1 & Cl has an oxidation state of -1
Different from ionic charges (1+ & 1-)
o
o
Chapter 5 Gases
5.1 Breathing: Putting Pressure to Work
Pressure force exerted per unit area by gas molecules as they strike the surfaces around them
Bodys ability to create pressure differences to move air into & out of the lungs
Total pressure exerted by a gas depends on several factors
Concentration
force
area
Pressure =
F
A
1 mmHg = 1 torr
o Atm (atmosphere) average pressure at sea level
1 Pa = 1 N/m2
1 atm = 101,325 Pa
o in Hg (inches of mercury)
1 atm = 29.92 in Hg
o psi (pounds per square inch)
If the volume of gas sample , the same # of gas particles is crowded into a smaller volume,
resulting in a more collisions w/ the walls & in the pressure
o
1
p
(constant T & n)
V = (constant) x
PV = constant
1
p
When the temperature of a gas sample , the gas particles move faster; collisions w/ the walls
are more frequent, & the force exerted w/ each collision is greater
Only way for the pressure to remain constant is for the gas to occupy a larger volume, so that
collisions become less frequent & occur over a larger area
V = (constant) x T
V
T
V1
T1
= constant
V2
T2
v1
n1
v2
n2
PV = nRT
1
p
nT
P
V=
nRT
P
,VT,Vn
L atm
mol K
Quantities in the ideal gas law must be expressed in the units within R
Volume (V) in L
Temperature (T) in K
5.5 Applications of the Ideal Gas Law: Molar Volume, Density, and Molar Mass of a Gas
molar mass
molar volume
Density =
o
o
n=
PV = nRT
m
M
m
V
d=
n
V
P
RT
d=
PM
RT
Derived
m
M
PV = nRT PV =
RT M =
mRT
PV
Ex. Pa = na
RT
V
; Pb = nb
; Pc = nc
RT
V
Daltons law of partial pressures - sum of the partial pressures of the components in a gas mixture must
equal the total pressure
o Ptotal = Pa + Pb + Pc +
= na
RT
V
+ nb
RT
V
= (na + nb + nc + )
= (ntotal)
RT
V
Pa
Ptotal
Pa = aPtotal
+ nc
RT
V
RT
V
RT
)
V
RT
ntotal(
)
V
na (
RT
V
na
ntotal
na
ntotal
When the desired product of a chemical rxn is a gas, its often collected by the displacement of water
5.7 Gases in Chemical Reactions: Stoichiometry Revisited
Ex. use the conversion factors to determine the mass of product obtained in a chemical rxn based on a given
mass of reactant
o Conversion factor between amounts (in moles) of each comes from the stoichiometric coefficients in
the balanced chemical equation
Use the ideal gas law to determine the amounts in moles from the volumes, or vice versa
5.8 Kinetic Molecular Theory: A Model for Gases
Kinetic molecular theory models gas as a collection of particles (either molecules/atoms, depending on
the gas) in constant motion
o A single particle moves in a straight line until it collides with another particles (or with the wall of the
container)
o Basic assumptions of kinetic molecular theory are
1. The size of a particle is negligibly small
Assumes that the particles themselves occupy no volume, even though they have
mass
o Space between atoms/molecules in a gas is very large compared to the size of
an atom/molecule itself under normal pressures
2. The average kinetic energy of a particle is proportional to the temperature in Kelvins
At any given moment, some particles are moving faster than others (there is a
distribution of velocities)
The higher the temperature, the faster the overall motion the greater the average
KE
KE T
o The atoms in a sample of He & a sample of argon at the same temperature
have the same average kinetic energy
Since He atoms are lighter, they must move faster to have the
same KE as argon atom
3. The collision of 1 particle with another (or with the walls of its container) is completely elastic
When 2 particles collide, they may exchange energy, but there is no overall loss of
energy
o Any KE lost by one particle is completely gained by the other
Completely elastic = particles have no stickiness & they are not deformed by the
collision
o Particles do not exert an forces on one another between collisions
o Ex. billiard balls
Ideal gas law can be mathematically derived from kinetic molecular theory
o ideal gas law follows directly from KE theory
1
P
VT
Vn
Daltons Law total pressure of a gas mixture is the sum of the partial pressures of its
components
Mass is the only property that would distinguish one type of particle from another
Particles with different masses have the same average kinetic energy at a given
temperature
o exerting the same amount of force upon collision with a surface
o same amount of pressure
Adding different kinds of gases has the same effect as simply adding more particles
o ** PAGE 208 for derivation **
5.9 Mean Free Path, Diffusion, & Effusion of Gases
Although gases particles travel at tremendous speeds, they also travel in haphazard paths
o Molecule travels only a short distance before it collides with another molecule, changes direction, only
to collide again, etc
Mean free path average distance that a molecule travels between collisions
rate
1
M
ratea
rateb
Mb
Ma
He escapes from the balloon quite quickly since it has a low molar mass
at low pressure, molar volume of a gas is nearly identical to that of an ideal gas
at high pressure, molar volume becomes greater than that of an ideal gas
volume of the particles themselves occupy a significant portion of the total gas volume
2. The forces between the gas particles are not significant
Ex. if 2 billiard balls collide at high velocity, the stickiness will not
have much effect
Ex. if the 2 billiard balls might stick together and not bounce off one
another at low velocity
At low temperature, the pressure of the gas is less than that of an ideal gas
Gas atoms will spend more time interacting w/ each other & less time colliding with the
walls
o These assumptions are valid for most common gases at STP
Van der Waals equation combines the effects of particle volume & particle intermolecular forces to
describe non-ideal gas behaviour
[P + a(
n
v
o
o
o
Transfer of e- gives Cl an octet & leaves K wo/ any valence e- but w/ an octet in the previous
principal energy level
K becomes + charged (cation)
Cl becomes charged (anion)
Lewis structure of an anion is usually written within brackets with charge in the upper
right-hand corner, outside
o 2 Na atoms each lose their 1 valence eo S atom gains 2 e- & forms an octet
Formation of an ionic compound from its constituent elements is usually quite exothermic
o Energy comes from the crystal lattice
o Lattice energy the energy associated with forming a crystalline lattice of alternating
cations & anions from the gaseous ions
Ex. Na & Cl bond together to lower the PE
Energy is emitted as heat when the lattice forms
Born-Haber cycle hypothetical series of steps that represents the formation of
ionic compound from its constituent elements
Easiest way to calculate lattice energy
Enthalpy of each step is known except for the last one, which is the lattice
energy
Change in enthalpy for the overall process is also known
Enthalpy change for the unknown last step can be determined using Hesss
law
Hf = Hstep 1 + Hstep 2 + Hstep 3 + Hstep 4 + Hstep 5
Hlattice = Hstep 5 = Hf (Hstep 1 + Hstep 2 + Hstep 3 + Hstep 4 )
Lattice energies become less exothermic (less negative) with ionic radius
As the ionic radii as we move down the column, the ions cannot get as close
to each other & therefore do not release as much energy when the lattice
forms
Lattice energies become more exothermic (more negative) with magnitude of ionic
charge
9.5 Covalent Bonding: Lewis Structures
Sharing some (or all) of their valence e- in order to attain octets
Bonding pair a shared pair of e Often represented by a dash to emphasize that it constitutes a
chemical bond
o Lone pair e- not involved in bonding
AKA nonbonding electrons
Double bond when 2 e- pairs are shared between 2 atoms
o Shorter & stronger than single bonds
Triple bond sharing of 3 e- pairs between 2 atoms
o Shorter & stronger than double bonds
Intermolecular forces bonding interactions between molecules
o
o Weaker
o Overcome this relatively weak force for a substance to boil
Intramolecular forces bonding interactions within a molecules
o stronger
9.6 Electronegativity & Bond Polarity
1 limitation to the Lewis structure of representing e- as dots & covalent bonds as 2 dots shared
between 2 atoms is that the shared e- always appear to be equally shared
o Not always true
o Ex. hydrogen fluoride H side of the molecule have a slight + charge & F side has a slight
charge
E- density is greater on the F atom than on the H atom
e- in HF is unequally shared in reality
Electronegativity ability of an atom to attract e- to itself in a chemical bond (which results in
polar & ionic bonds)
o Ex. F is more electronegative than H b/c it takes a greater share of the e- density in HF
1. Generally across a period in the periodic table
2. Generally down a column
3. Fluorine is the most electronegative element
4. Francium is the least electronegative element (sometimes called the most electropositive)
o Inversely related to atomic size
The larger the atom, the less ability it has to attract e- to itself in a chemical bond
Degree of polarity in a chemical bond depends on the electronegativity difference (EN) between 2
bonding elements
o The greater the EN, the more polar the bond
o Purely covalent equally shared e If 2 elements with identical
electronegativities form a covalent bond
Molecules = nonpolar
o Polar covalent bond between a pure covalent
bond & an ionic bond
- & + poles
o ionic bond complete transfer of e9.7 Lewis Structures of Molecular Compounds & Polyatomic Ions
writing Lewis structures for molecular compounds
1. write the correct skeletal structure for the molecule
hydrogen atoms are always terminal (at the end)
central atoms must form at least 2 bonds
put the more electronegative elements in the terminal position & the less
electronegative (other than H) in the centre
2. calculate the total number of e- for the Lewis structure by summing the valence e- of each
atom in the molecule
3. distribute the e- among the atoms, giving octets (or duets in the case of H) to as many
atoms as possible
begin by placing 2 e- between every 2 atoms
then distribute the remaining e- as lone pairs
first to the terminal atoms
then to the central atom
4. if any atoms lack an octet, form double/triple bonds as necessary to give them octets
writing Lewis structure for polyatomic ions
o follows the same procedure
charge of the ion must be considered when calculating the total # of e- for a
polyatomic ion
add 1 e- for each charge & subtract 1 e- for each + charge
o usually written within brackets with the charge of the ion in the upper right-hand corner,
outside the bracket
9.8 Resonance & Formal Charge
2 additional concepts to write the best possible Lewis structures for a large # of compounds
Resonance when 2 or more valid Lewis structures can be drawn for the same compound
o
o
o
Molarity
Lewis structure
Group number
Valence elctron
Valence shell expansion
More than 4 atoms
Nomenclature t 3-6 atom
Electronic
Molecular geometry
Exam 2
Chemical reaction
Solubility problems
Acid base
Antihydrztes
Redox
Oxidation number
Covalent bonding
Assign
Proportion same species oxidizated and reduced
Vander waals
Phase
Exam 3 uili
Molarity
Molarity