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AE2135-II - Vibrations
Version 2.01
Table of Contents
III
Table of Contents
1
2
3
4
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
Course overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Discretisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-1
Difference between statics and dynamics . . . . .
2-2
Discretisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Free vibrations (undamped) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Free damped vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-1
Case 1: Underdamped motion . . . . . . . . . .
4-2
Case 2: Overdamped motion . . . . . . . . . . .
4-3
Case 3: Critically damped motion . . . . . . . .
Forced undamped vibrations (harmonic) . . . . . . . . .
5-1
General solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5-2
Solution at resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Forced damped vibrations (harmonic) . . . . . . . . . .
6-1
Solution method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-2
Initial conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Response to arbitrary excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-1
Unit impulse response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-2
Unit step response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-3
Standard solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7-4
Alternative solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Multiple degree of freedom systems . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-1
Solving the MDOF problem . . . . . . . . . . . .
8-2
Modal analysis of MDOF systems . . . . . . . .
8-3
Forced vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Simplification standard solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Energy methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B-1
Energy analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B-2
Euler-Lagrange equation . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Coulomb damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Logarithmic decrement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Base excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Laplace transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General solution strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G-1
Step 1: DOFs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G-2
Step 2: Free-body diagram . . . . . . . . . . . .
G-3
Step 3: Equation of motion . . . . . . . . . . . .
G-4
Step 4: Constitutive relations . . . . . . . . . . .
G-5
Step 5: Kinematic relations . . . . . . . . . . . .
G-6
Step 6: Force and moment equilibrium . . . . . .
G-7
Step 7: Combining information into one relation .
G-8
Step 8: Solve for the motion . . . . . . . . . . .
AE2135-II - Vibrations
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1
2
2
2
7
10
10
12
12
14
14
15
17
17
17
18
18
20
21
23
25
25
28
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37
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42
Lecture Notes
IV
Lecture Notes
Table of Contents
AE2135-II - Vibrations
1 Course overview
Course overview
These notes present a short summary of the content of the course AE2135-II - Vibrations
by Roeland De Breuker. These notes are ultimately based on the book Engineering Vibrations, by Daniel J. Inman. Please feel free to report any mistakes or suggestions to
R.deBreuker@tudelft.nl.
In table 1 you can find the course map for the course, which will bring you to the specified
section when clicked upon.
Table 1: Course map for single degree of freedom systems
Free Vibration
Undamped Motion
Section 3
Forced Vibration
Force + base excitation
Harmonic
Arbitrary
Section 5
Section 7
Section 6
Section 7
Section 4
Damped Motion
Coulomb friction: C
A discussion on multiple degree of freedom systems is given in section 8.
AE2135-II - Vibrations
Lecture Notes
2
2-1
2 Discretisation
Discretisation
Difference between statics and dynamics
There is a difference in the balance of a mass like the one below in a static and a dynamic
case:
Statics: F = 0
Dynamics: F = m
u
u
F2
F3
F1
Figure 1: Balance of a mass
2-2
Discretisation
w, z
q
x, u
w(x)
L
Figure 2: Continuous beam deformed by a distributed load
F2
F1
k1
w1
m1
k2
w2
k3
m2
L/3
2 L/3
Figure 3: A discretised version of figure 2
Lecture Notes
AE2135-II - Vibrations
2 Discretisation
A: Bending stiffness
F
F
k
E, I, L
In the case of a cantilever beam loaded by a transverse load, the bending stiffness of the beam
is discretised as can be seen in figure 4. For the deflection:
=F
L3
3EI
F =
3EI
L3
F
F
kr
E, I, L
For the case the cantilever beam is attached via a rotational spring (see figure 5), the deflection
is described as follows:
L3
=F
+ L
3EI
Through the moment equilibrium at the root of the beam, the relation between the angle of
rotation and the applied load F can be found:
(
M = kr
M = FL
FL
kr
Hence:
AE2135-II - Vibrations
Lecture Notes
2 Discretisation
F =
F =
3EIkr
L3 kr + 3L2 EI
3EI
,
L3
which is
C: Axial stiffness
E, A, L =
FL
EA
Hence:
F =
F =
EA
L
E 2 , A 2 , L2
F
E 1 , A 1 , L1
F2 F1
In figure 7, a axially loaded rod composed of two different materials is shown. Its deflection
is calculated using displacement compatibility:
1 = 2 =
Lecture Notes
AE2135-II - Vibrations
2 Discretisation
E1 A1
L
E2 A2
F2 =
L
F1 =
k
F =
E1 A1 E2 A2
+
L
L
The relation above can again be checked by a limit case, in this case when one of the Youngs
moduli goes to zero. Clearly, the relation can be rewritten to contain the stiffness of the two
individual bars:
F = (k1 + k2 )
E: Axial stiffness of two rods in series
F
E 2 , A 2 , L2
E 1 , A 1 , L1
Figure 8: Discretising two rods in series
There can also be a case where two different types of rod are stacked on top of one another
as displayed in figure 8. In this situation the displacement compatibility as in the previous
example does not count, but is a summation rather:
= 1 + 2
Now the force is constant throughout the rod, and the individual displacements can be described as:
F L1
E1 A1
F L2
2 =
E2 A2
1 =
AE2135-II - Vibrations
Lecture Notes
2 Discretisation
=F
L2
L1
+
E1 A1 E2 A2
F =
L1
E1 A1
1
+
L2
E2 A2
1
k1
1
+
Ei Ai
Li )
as below:
1
k2
T,
Figure 9: Discretising for rotational stiffness
TL
GJ
So:
Lecture Notes
T =
kr
T =
GJ
L
AE2135-II - Vibrations
The discretised version of the simplified view of a wing as shown in figure 10 is shown on the
right side of the same figure. It is assumed that the mass of the wing is negligible compared
to m.
m
Fuselage
E, I
Fuel pot
L
Figure 10: Discretising a simplified wing
k=
Solution
m
mg
FS
+y
Figure 11: Free-body diagram of the mass (the spring is shown for clarity)
The next step is to write down the equation(s) of motion (EOM) and constitutive equation(s)
(CE). The latter are equations that relate forces to displacements.
(
EOM
m
y = Fs + mg
(3.1)
CE
Fs = ky
(3.2)
Lecture Notes
then:
y = x
m
x + k (s + x) = mg
m
x + kx = mg ks
mg
k
which yields
m
x + kx = 0
(3.3)
(3.4)
where A is the amplitude of the oscillation and is the phase shift which describes how
much the sine wave is shifted from x = 0 at t = 0, see figure 12. The standard solution
to the harmonic equation is x = et . How to get from et to A sin (n t + ) is shown in
appendix A. The two unknowns A and can be found from the initial conditions. This is
a second-order homogeneous differential equation, so two initial conditions are needed: the
initial displacement x0 and the initial velocity x 0 . Starting from (3.4), the initial conditions
become:
(
x(0) = x0 = A sin()
(3.5)
x(0)
= x 0 = n A cos()
(3.6)
x 0
n
2
= A2 sin2 () + cos2 ()
|
{z
A=
=1
x20 +
x 0
n
2
= arctan
x 0 n
x 0
AE2135-II - Vibrations
Natural frequencies
Each mass-spring system oscillates at its own natural frequency when excited. This frequency
is n , and is calculated by substituting x = A sin (n t + ) into the homogeneous differential
equation (3.3):
mn2 A sin (n t + ) + kA sin (n t + ) = 0
mn2 = k
s
n =
k
m
dFs
dt
= 0:
kAn cos (n t + ) = 0
Irrespective of the phase shift , the maximum stays the same, so:
kAn cos (n t) = 0
+ k, k Z
t=
n
1
+k
2
so
|Fsmax | = mg + kA
AE2135-II - Vibrations
Lecture Notes
10
Consider the mass-damper-spring system as shown in figure 13. It has the following equation
of motion:
m
x + cx + kx = 0
To solve for the motion x(t), substitute x = x
et :
t
t
t
m
x
2
e
+ c
x
e
+ k
x
e
=0
m2 + c + k = 0
c2 4mk
2m
The discriminant c2 4mk makes the difference whether is real or complex. The critical
factor is when it is zero:
c2 = 4mk ccrit = 2 mk
Define the damping ratio :
c
c
=
=
ccrit
2mn
2 mk
Then the equation of motion can be rewritten:
=
x
+ 2n x + n2 x = 0
4-1
2n
4 2 n2 4n2
2
q
= n n 2 1
q
= n i n 1 2
|
{z
so:
1 = n id
2 = n + id
Lecture Notes
AE2135-II - Vibrations
11
x = en t a1 eid t + a2 eid t
nt
= A |e
{z } sin (d t + )
{z
(4.1)
The amplitude A and phaseshift can be found from the initial conditions x(0) = x0 and
x(0)
= x 0 :
x0
x(0) = A sin = x0 A =
(4.2)
sin()
From equation 4.1 the velocity can be deduced:
x = n Aen t sin(d t + ) + Aen t d cos(d t + )
So the initial velocity condition can be written as:
x 0 = n A sin() + Ad cos()
(4.3)
= arctan
x0 d
tan()
x 0 d
x 0 + n x0
x0 d
x0
=
A
P
P = Ad
AE2135-II - Vibrations
A=
x20 d2 + (x 0 + n x0 )2
d
Lecture Notes
12
4-2
Now: > 1
In this case the roots of the equation of motion are real:
q
1 = n n 2 1
q
2 = n + n 2 1
and the displacement becomes non-oscillatory (see also figure 16):
=0
4-3
AE2135-II - Vibrations
13
= 1
AE2135-II - Vibrations
Lecture Notes
14
m
x
5-1
General solution
EOM:
m
x + kx = F e (t) = F cos(x t)
The displacement x of the forced mass-spring system in figure 18 is composed of a transient
part, xh , and a steady-state part, xp , i.e.:
x = xh + xp
The following is assumed for x:
x = A sin (n t + ) + Ap cos(x t)
|
{z
xh
{z
xp
n2
f
x2
with:
F
f =
m
The amplitude and phase shift are displayed in figure 19.
Lecture Notes
AE2135-II - Vibrations
15
Figure 19: Amplitude of undamped forced motion and phase difference between loading and
response. After x = n , the load and response are in opposite phase
Suppose:
(
x0 = 0
x 0 = 0
then:
A sin() + Ap = 0
An cos() Ap x 0 = 0
5-2
A = Ap
+ 2k
2
Solution at resonance
x
+ n2 x = f cos (n t)
The normal assumption to reach a solution would be xp = Ap cos (n t), but in this case this
AE2135-II - Vibrations
Lecture Notes
16
(
(
p (((((
p (((((
2n Ap cos (n t + ) (
n2(
A(
t sin (n t + ) + (
n2(
A(
t sin (n t + ) = f cos (n t)
2n Ap cos (n t + ) = f cos (n t)
Hence:
= 0 + 2k
f
Ap =
2n
So:
xp =
f
f
t sin (n t + ) =
t sin (n t)
2n
2n
Lecture Notes
ft
2n
AE2135-II - Vibrations
17
Lets look at the harmonic forced vibrations of an underdamped system, this has the following
equation of motion:
x
+ 2n x + n2 x = f cos (x t)
6-1
Solution method
Re
x2 + 2n ix + n2 Ap eix t = Re feix t
f
A = Re
2
2
n x + 2n ix
fu
= Re
v 2 + w2
Also:
u = v iw = |u| (cos() i sin()) = |u| (cos() + i sin()) = |u| ei
with = arctan
w
v
. Hence:
!
!
i
2 + w 2 ei
ei
v
f
e
p
A = Re f
= Re
= Re fq
2
2
v 2 + w2
v 2 + w2
2
2
(n x ) + (2n x )
fei(x t)
f cos (x t )
= q
xp = Re Ap eix t = Re q
(n2 x2 )2 + (2n x )2
(n2 x2 )2 + (2n x )2
6-2
Initial conditions
x = Ah en t sin (d t + ) + Ap cos (x t )
= 0, then:
(
Ah sin () + Ap cos () = 0
Ah (n sin () + d cos ()) + Ap x sin ()
Lecture Notes
18
To be able to solve the response to an arbitrary excitation, first, the solution methods for
a unit impulse and step response need to be known. They are treated first, after which the
standard solution to an arbitrary excitation is treated.
7-1
To calculate the response of a system to a unit impulse, first, the unit impulse function
needs to be defined. This function is called the Dirac delta function and has the following
definition (see also figure 21):
(t a) = 0
for
t 6= a
(t a) 6= 0
for
t=a
(t a)dt = 1
area = 1
(t a)dt = f (a)
k
c
m
x
AE2135-II - Vibrations
19
x(0) = 0
x(0)
=0
To solve the impulse response problem, the impulse is converted to the initial conditions. To
this end, integrate both sides from 0 to :
Z
(m
x + cx + kx) dt =
0
P (t)dt
This can be split into different integrals, looking at each individual part:
lim
mx(0))
= mx(0
+)
m
xdt = lim mx = lim (mx()
0
lim
cxdt
= lim cx = lim (cx() cx(0)) = cx(0+ )
0
lim
lim
P (t)dt = P
x(0+ ) = 0 from the definition of impulse. The impulse can thus be written as an initial
velocity and the equation can be simplified to:
mx(0
+ ) = P
x(0
+) =
P
m
x(0) = 0
x(0)
P
m
A=
x20 d2 + (x 0 + n x0 )2
d
x0 d
= arctan
x 0 + n x0
AE2135-II - Vibrations
Lecture Notes
20
= 0 + 2k
A = x 0 = P
d
md
P en t sin ( t)
d
x(t) = md
0
t0
t<0
= P g(t)
where the displacement function to a unit impulse has been labelled g(x) for later convenience.
7-2
The unit step function H, or Heaviside step function, is defined as (see also figure 23):
(
H(t a) =
0
1
for t < a
for t a
H
1
The Heaviside step function is mathematically linked to the Dirac delta function:
(t a) =
H(t a) =
dH(t a)
dt
Zt
( a)d
AE2135-II - Vibrations
21
G(t) =
g( )d
Zt
Zt
=
0
1 n
e
sin (d ) d
md
1 n
e
sin (d ) H( )d
md
where the lower limit has been set to zero because of the inclusion of the Heaviside function
i t
id t
and we are only interested in the displacement after t = 0. Substitute sin(d t) = e d e
:
2i
Zt
G(t) =
0
1
en eid eid H( )d
2imd
"
1
e(n id )
e(n +id )
=
2imd (n id ) (n + id )
#t
0
The denominator has to be equal to add fractions. Multiplying both fractions with the other
denominator yields a common denominator: (n id ) (n + id ) = 2 n2 + d2 = n2 .
So:
1
2imd n2
1
=
2imd n2
1
=
2imd n2
G(t) =
it
0
n t id t
e
+ n en t eid t
n en t eid t +
n + id id e
n
+ id id en t eid t
i
h
i
1
n t
id t
id t
id t
id t
2i
e
+
i
e
+
e
n
d
d
2imd n2
n
1
2id
n t
=
1e
2i sin(d t) + 2 cos(d t)
2imd n2
2id
2
1
n
=
1 en t cos(d t) +
sin(d t)
k
d
7-3
Standard solution
The response to an arbitrary excitation can be found by dividing the excitation force into
infinitesimally short impulses, see figure 24, and summing all the responses to these impulses
up:
AE2135-II - Vibrations
Lecture Notes
22
t
Figure 24: An arbitrary load can be seen as a collection of impulses
P ( ) = f ( )
F ( ) = P ( )(t ) Impulsive force
= f ( ) (t )
linear
system
Figure 25
x( ) = f ( ) g(t )
x(t) = lim
x( ) = lim
f ( ) g(t ) =
Zt
f ( )g(t )d
It does not matter which of the two functions (f or g) is function of which one is function
of (t ), as can be seen below:
t = , so: = t and: d = d
also:
x(t) =
Z0
=0
=t
=t
=0
f (t )g()d =
Zt
f (t )g()d
x=
f ( )g(t )d
Lecture Notes
AE2135-II - Vibrations
23
= x 0
the equation of motion m
x + cx + kx = f (t) becomes in the Laplace domain:
X=
ms2
where:
g(s) =
m (s2
1
+ 2n s + n2 )
This expression can be split up in partial fractions and transformed back to the time domain
using a table of standard Laplace transformations (Note: such a table will be provided at the
exam).
7-4
Alternative solution
Instead of using the impulse response function, one can also use the step response function
in the manner as described below. This approach, though slightly more complex, is relevant,
since it is often easier to get step response solutions from numerical codes than impulse
response solutions.
f
H(t )
f =
AE2135-II - Vibrations
x(t) = lim
X f
G(t ) =
Zt
df
G(t )d
d
Lecture Notes
24
t
Figure 26: An arbitrary load can also be seen as a collection of steps
Lecture Notes
AE2135-II - Vibrations
25
An example of a multiple degree of freedom (DOF) system is a wing with two masses, see
figure 27.
Fuselage
m1
k1
m2
k2
The wing can basically be discretised in two ways, see figures 28 and 29 below.
k1
m1
k2
x1
m2
x2
k1
m1
k2
x1
m2
x2
Note that both approaches are equivalent: although for figure 29 the direction of movements
appears to have changed, still wing bending is considered and hence it is just an easier way
to draw the discretised version of the wing.
8-1
Upon solving the discretisation method as displayed in figure 29, the loads are as displayed
in figure 30.
AE2135-II - Vibrations
Lecture Notes
26
k1
m1
F1
k2
F2
m2
F2
x1
x2
F1 = k1 x1
F2 = k2 (x2 x1 )
m1 x
1 = F1 + F2
m2 x
2 = F2
m1 x
1 = k1 x1 + k2 x2 k2 x1
m2 x
2 = k2 x2 + k2 x1
or:
(
m1 x
1 + (k1 + k2 )x1 k2 x2 = 0
m2 x
2 k2 x1 + k2 x2 = 0
m1 0
0 m2
#(
x
1
x
2
"
k + k2 k2
+ 1
k2
k2
#(
x1
x2
( )
0
0
or, in short:
Mx
+ Kx = 0
When handwriting matrix symbols, it is more common to use a double underline, because
writing in bold is not possible.
1. M and K are always symmetric
2. The system is coupled, so you cannot solve x1 without solving x2 and vice versa
The solution can be found by assuming a harmonic displacement again:
x=x
ein t
which stands for:
(
x1 = x
1 ein t
x2 = x
2 ein t
"
n2 m1
0
k + k2 k2
+ 1
k2
k2
0
n2 m2
|
Lecture Notes
{z
#)
x
=0
}
AE2135-II - Vibrations
27
m1 = 4 103 kg
m = 2 103 kg
2
k1 = 8 kN/m
k2 = 4 kN/m
4n2 + 12
2n2 + 4 16 = 0
or:
8 n2 4
n2 1 = 0
n = 2
n = 1
k1
m1
k2
m2
1 = 1 6=
2 = 2 6=
Entering the value of an eigenfrequency into the equation of motion yields the corresponding
eigenmode. For 1 = 1:
#(
"
)
11
8 4 x
=0
4 2
x
12
The two lines are a scalar multiple of each other, so no unique solution exists. Choose an
equation and choose a value for e.g. x
11 . The first equation yields:
8
x11 4
x12 = 0
Choosing x
11 = 1 gives x
12 = 2 and so the first eigenmode is:
( )
1
2
x
1 =
or any scalar multiple of this. For 2 = 2:
"
#(
4 4
4 4
x
21
x
22
=0
so:
x
21 =
x22
AE2135-II - Vibrations
Lecture Notes
28
-1
and choosing x
21 = 1 yields x
22 = 1, making the second eigenmode:
(
x
2 =
1
1
or any scalar multiple of this. The two eigenmodes are visualised in figure 31 below. There
are as many eigenmodes and eigenfrequencies as there are degrees of freedom. Considering
the following initial conditions:
n
x1 (0) = x10
x 2 (0) = x 20
x1 (t) = A1 sin (1 t + 1 ) x
11 + A2 sin (2 t + 2 ) x
21
x (t) = A cos ( t + ) x
21
1
1 1
1
1 11 + A2 2 cos (2 t + 2 ) x
x2 (t) = A1 sin (1 t + 1 ) x
12 + A2 sin (2 t + 2 ) x
22
x 2 (t) = A1 1 cos (1 t + 1 ) x
12 + A2 2 cos (2 t + 2 ) x
22
and thus, using the initial conditions, there are four equations to solve for the four unknowns:
A1 , A2 , 1 and 2 .
8-2
A popular way of solving MDOF systems is by modal analysis. The basic idea is that the
displacements of the MDOF system are replaced by coordinates of the modes (modal coordinates) of the MDOF system. These modes are comparable to the eigenvectors of the MDOF
system as discussed in the previous section. Using the modified eigenvectors of the MDOF
system will result in an uncoupled system of equations which can be solved using the single
degree-of-freedom techniques from the previous chapters in this reader. Obviously from a
physical point-of-view the MDOF system remains coupled, but the coupling is moved for the
system of equations to the modal coordinates.
The procedure is as follows:
1. Mass normalise the displacements x to a new coordinate q.
2. Tranform the mass normalised coordinates q to mass normalised modal coordinates r.
Lecture Notes
AE2135-II - Vibrations
29
1
The mass normalisation is carried out by transforming x = M 2 q. Substituting this into the
equations of motion yields:
1
M M 2 q + KM 2 q = 0
1
M 2 M M 2 q + M 2 KM 2 q = 0
This results in the following equation:
=0
q + Kq
is the mass normalised stiffness matrix, which is still symmetric, but full.
In this equation, K
It is obvious that the eigenvalues of this matrix are the squares of the eigenfrequencies of the
MDOF system.
The next step is to tranform the mass normalised displacements q to modal coordinates r.
This is done by applying the transformation q = P r. Matrix P contains the orthonormal
This transformation results in the following equation of motion:
eigenvectors of K.
r=0
P r + KP
Premultiplying the equation by P T yields:
r=0
P T P r + P T KP
or:
r + r = 0
This system of equaMatrix is a diagonal matrix which contains the eigenvalues of K.
tions is a decoupled system of which the modal amplitudes can be solved individually. The
1
displacement vector can be retrieved by using x = M 2 P r.
8-3
Forced vibrations
Solving MDOF systems with forced vibrations, whether they are harmonic or arbitrary becomes rather straightforward is the decoupled system in modal coordinates is used. The same
methodologies from the previous chapters on single degree-of-freedom systems can be used to
obtain the forced response of r, and the coordinate transformation back to x can be used to
obtain the physical displacements. Obviously the forcing terms have to be modified to:
1
r + r = P T M 2 F
AE2135-II - Vibrations
Lecture Notes
30
2 =
k
m
= in
x = A1 cos (n t) + A2 sin (n t)
where A1 = 2a and A2 = 2b. This solution is equivalent to a sine function with a phase
shift. To prove that this is indeed the case, the following identity needs to be used:
ein t = cos (n t) + i sin (n t)
iein t = i cos (n t) sin (n t)
so:
cos (n t) = Im iein t
sin (n t) = Im ein t
x = A1 Im iein t + A2 Im ein t
= Im (A1 i + A2 ) ein t
Lecture Notes
AE2135-II - Vibrations
31
From figure 32 it can be deduced that for an imaginary number A1 i + A2 the following is
valid:
A1
= arctan
A2
so
A1 =
A2 =
and
(A1 i + A2 ) =
= Aei
with A =
AE2135-II - Vibrations
x = A sin (n t + )
Lecture Notes
32
B Energy methods
Energy methods
Vibration problems can also be solved considering the energy in the system.
B-1
Energy analysis
T + U = constant
Tmax = Umax
The kinetic and potential energy are always exchanged to one another, causing the oscillation
around the equilibrium position. Consider the suspended mass-spring system of figure 33:
k
m
In this system:
1
Uspring = k ( + x)2
2
Ugravity = mgx
1
T = mx 2
2
Now:
1
1
T + U = constant = k ( + x)2 mgx + mx 2
2
2
Taking the derivative to time yields:
(B.1)
k ( + x) x mg x + mx
x = 0
x + kx) x = 0
(k mg) x + (m
|
{z
=0
{z
=0
where in the last equation, coefficients have been grouped according to their dependency on
x. To find n , a solution of the form x = A sin (t + ) is suggested. In this case:
1
1
Tmax = m (n A)2 = Umax = kA2
2
s2
Lecture Notes
n =
k
m
AE2135-II - Vibrations
B Energy methods
B-2
33
Euler-Lagrange equation
The Euler-Lagrange equation can be used to find equations of motion in a very effective way,
and reads the following:
d L
L
D
+
= Qi
dt x i
xi x i
The Lagrangian L is equal to the kinetic energy minus the potential energy: L = T P ,
D is Rayleighs Dissipation Function, and Qi is a generalised force that is not derivable
from a potential or dissipation function, else it would have been included in one of the other
terms. The potential energy P consists of internal potential energy (U ) like strain energy and
external potential energy (V ), for example due to gravity. For the system in figure 33, there
is no dissipation or any applied force, so the Euler-Lagrange equation becomes:
d
dt
L
x i
L
=0
xi
Using the previously derived kinetic and potential energy for the system under consideration,
the Lagrangian becomes:
1
1
L = T P = k ( + x)2 mgx + mx 2
2
2
AE2135-II - Vibrations
d
(mx)
+ k ( + x) mg = 0
dt
m
x + kx = mg k
Lecture Notes
34
C Coulomb damping
Coulomb damping
Coulomb damping is based on friction instead of the viscous damping as treated e.g. in section
4, see figure 34.
m
N
FS
x
m
Fd
Figure 34: A mass-spring system with friction, the FBD is shown below
The amount of damping is now determined by the friction coefficient . The damping force
depends on the amount of normal force on the surface: Fd = N . The damping coefficient
usually differs for moving or static cases. When there is no movement, friction is governed
by the static friction coefficient s , which is normally higher than the (dynamic) friction
coefficient . For now, however, the friction coefficient is assumed to have only a single
constant value. The equation of motion for the situation in figure 34 consists of two cases:
Suppose the following initial conditions: x(0) = x0 , x(0)
= 0.
1:
x > 0 :
FS
2:
x < 0 :
FS
x
Fd
m
x + kx = Fd
x
Fd
m
x + kx = Fd
Phase 1: x < 0 m
x + kx = Fd
The motion becomes the following:
x = A sin (n t + ) +
Fd
k
Fd
k
+ 2k
2
Fd
k
A = x0
Fd
k
AE2135-II - Vibrations
C Coulomb damping
35
Fd
Fd
sin n t +
+
x = x0
k
2
k
Fd
Fd
= x0
cos (n t) +
k
k
This solution is only valid for 0 < t < t1 , of which t1 is the point in time where x changes
sign. To find t1 we have to find the first instance where x = 0:
so t1 =
phase.
n ,
at which x =
2Fd
k
Fd
sin (n t) = 0
k
x = n x0
Phase 2: x > 0 m
x + kx = Fd
Now the sign of the damping force changes:
x = A sin (n t + )
Applying the initial condition: x
x1 =
Fd
k
= x1 :
Fd
2Fd
x0 = A sin ( + )
k
k
For the velocity we can deduce the phase shift, because x is again zero at t = t1 :
x = n A cos( + ) = 0
+ 2k
2
x = x0
3Fd
Fd
cos(n t)
k
k
To calculate the time t2 at which the velocity is zero again, we equate the derivative to zero
again:
3Fd
2
0 = n
x0 sin(n t) = 0 t2 =
k
n
Finally: x(t2 ) = x0 4Fk d . The displacement can be seen in figure 35. The motion stops as
soon as the amplitude becomes low enough for the spring force not to overcome the frictional
force.
AE2135-II - Vibrations
Lecture Notes
36
C Coulomb damping
Lecture Notes
AE2135-II - Vibrations
D Logarithmic decrement
37
Logarithmic decrement
Measure x at time t and time t + T with T = 2d . Then the logarithmic decrement is defined
as:
x(t)
= ln
x(t + T )
So for a generic damped displacement x = Aen t sin (d t + ):
t
n
Ae
sin (d t + )
= ln
n (t+T )
Ae
sin d t + d T +
|{z}
2
Hence:
= ln en T = n T
with T =
2
d ,
so:
=
n
p
=p
2
1 2
n 1
AE2135-II - Vibrations
4 2 + 2
Lecture Notes
38
E Base excitation
Base excitation
m
m
x1
FS
x2
Figure 36: A base-excited mass-spring system and the corresponding free-body diagram
Lecture Notes
n2 x
2
x
2
=
2
2
n x
1 (x /n )2
AE2135-II - Vibrations
F Laplace transforms
39
Laplace transforms
F (s) =
f (t)est dt
= L (f (t))
The first and second derivative are thus as given below:
L f(t) =
f(t)est dt
= f (t)e
st
i
0
+s
f (t)est dt
= f (0) + sF (s)
L f(t) =
f(t)est dt
= f(t)est
i
0
+s
f(t)est dt
L (m
x + cx + kx) = m s2 X sx0 x 0 + c (sX x0 ) + kX
AE2135-II - Vibrations
Lecture Notes
40
This section shows the solution steps to be taken that normally solve a generic problem. As
an example, the structure in figure 37 will be used.
c1
+
k2
k1
c2
b
G-1
Step 1: DOFs
Define the independent degrees of freedom and set positive directions. In this case, there is
only one degree of freedom, , and a clockwise rotation is set as positive, as indicated already
in figure 37.
G-2
Draw a free-body diagram in which all parts that were originally connected are separated and
define the internal and reaction forces, see figure 38.
Hint: if you cut something, like a spring, draw the resulting reaction forces as if they want
to bring the two parts back together, i.e. define tensile as positive. Moreover, draw the
displacements belonging to each internal load and define a positive direction (x1 , x2 and x3
in figure 38).
Lecture Notes
AE2135-II - Vibrations
41
Fd1
RA
FS 2
FS 1
+ x1
Fm m
Fd2
+ x2
+ x3
G-3
Set up the equation(s) of motion, describing the acceleration of each mass as a result of the
forces that act on it. In this case there is one EOM:
m
x3 = Fd2 Fm
G-4
The next step is to construct the constitutive relations, i.e. the connection between forces
and (derivatives of) displacements, and enter them into the equation of motion. Since in this
case there are four parts that cause a load on the structure due to displacements (two springs
and two dampers), four constitutive relations are to be formulated:
Fd2 = c2 (x(t)
x 3 )
FS1 = k1 x1
Fd1 = c1 x 1
FS2 = k2 x2
Hint: When setting up constitutive relations, be sure to check for a positive displacement
whether the force in the spring/damper becomes positive or negative.
G-5
Write the displacements defined in the FBD as a function of the degrees of freedom of the
system. These equations are called kinematic relations and there should be one for each
AE2135-II - Vibrations
Lecture Notes
42
displacement defined in the FBD. In this case, they are (assuming small angles):
x1 = a
x2 = b
x3 = L
G-6
G-7
The next step is to combine the four types (i.e. motion, constitutive, kinematic and equilibrium equations) into one relation. Starting from the basic EOM in step 3 and replacing Fd2
and Fm by their equations yields:
a
a
b
m
x3 = c2 (x(t)
x 3 ) k1 x1 c1 x 1 k2 x2
L
L
L
Entering now the kinematic relations into the EOM as well gives:
2
2
2
= c2 x(t)
k1 a c1 a k2 b
L
mL
L
L
L
mL2 + c2 L2 + c1 a2 + k1 a2 + k2 b2 = c2 Lx(t)
| {z }
m
{z
c
{z
k
where m is the equivalent mass, c the equivalent damping and k the equivalent stiffness of
the system.
G-8
As soon as this point is reached, the problem becomes purely mathematical. The aim is to
use any method suitable to find the solution for the motion, in this case that is (t). Identify
the type of equation and check whether it is consistent with the problem. In this case the
equation describes a forced damped motion because of the and forcing term, which seems
correct because figure 37 shows an applied load and dampers. Now the suitable solution
method can be applied, which in this case is described in section 6.
Lecture Notes
AE2135-II - Vibrations