Chapter 5

Signal Conditioning

Measurement and Instrumentation / EEE 2223

By :
Elya Mohd Nor and Azrena Abu Bakar

Signal Conditioning
A major concern in transducer design is simply identifying some material that
changes in a physical parameter being sensed.
The amplitude and linearity of the transducer output signal are usually not firstorder concerns in transducer design, but they are of considerable concern in
data acquisition system.
Therefore, signal conditioning to increase amplitude and improve linearity
is usually necessary in data acquisition systems.

Temperature Sensor Curve

Thermistor

Thermocouple

RTD

Principles of Analog Signal

Conditioning
1. Signal-Level and Bias Change
Example 1An IR pyrometer provides an output voltage varies
from 0.2 to 0.6 V as a temperature in the
annealing of glasses changes from 0oC to 600oC.
However, the transmitter to which this transducer
output must be connected require a voltage that
varies from 0 to 5V, for the same variation of the
process variable.
What to do? How to do it??
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Solution to Example 1
We perform the required signal conditioning by first
changing the 0V to occur when the transducer output
is 0.2V.
This is done by bias adjustment, or zero shift.
Now we have a voltage that varies from 0V to 0.4V, so
we need to make the voltage larger.
If we multiply the voltage by 12.5, the new output will
vary from 0 to 5V (12.5 x 0.4V).
This is called amplification, and 12.5 is called the
gain.
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Principles of Analog Signal

Conditioning
2. Improve Linearity
Thermistor resistance versus
temperature is highly nonlinear
and usually has a negative slope.

Vapor temperature measurement

Principles of Analog Signal

Conditioning
2. Improve Linearity
Example 2Suppose a thermistor varies
nonlinearly with a process variable.
A linearization circuit is required to
conditioned the transducer/sensor
output so that a voltage was
produced which was linear with the
process variable.

Principles of Analog Signal Conditioning

3. Conversions
Example 3
Suppose a metal resistance varies nonlinearly with the
temperature inside the oven. In order to measure the
oven temperature, we need a circuit to convert the
resistance change to a voltage or current signal.
This is done by bridges when the fractional resistance
change is small and/or amplifiers whose gain varies
with resistance.

Principles of Analog Signal Conditioning

4. Signal Transmission
An important type of conversion is associated with the
standard of transmitting signals as 4-to-20mA current
levels in wire.

Why current transmission than voltage?

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Principles of Analog Signal

Conditioning
5. Digital Interface
The use of computers in measurement requires
conversion of analog data into a digital format by
integrated circuit devices called ADC.
Analog signal conversion is needed to adjust the analog
measurement signal to match the input requirements of
the ADC.
Example : ADC need a voltage between 0 to 5V, but
sensor provides signal that varies from 30 to 80 mV.
Signal conversion circuits must be developed to
interface the output requirement to the required ADC.

Principles of Analog Signal Conditioning

6. Filtering
Industrial environments in which data acquisition
systems are often placed tend to introduce
spurious interference signals into the acquisition
system.
These unwanted signals are noise, and often due to
60-Hz or 400-Hz power line interference caused by
inductive load changes such as starting motors.
A filter is designed to reduce such interference.

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In summary, the requirements for signal

conditioning in instrumentation are for:-

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Signal-level and bias change

Linearization
Signal conversion
Filtering
Impedance matching

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Concept of Loading
One of the most important concerns in
analog signal conditioning is the loading of
one circuit by another.
This introduces uncertainty in the amplitude of a
voltage as it is passed through the measurement
process.
If this voltage represents some process variable,
then we have many uncertainty in the value of
the variable.
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The Thvenin equivalent circuit of a sensor allows easy

visualization of how loading occurs.

The voltage that appear across the load is reduced by the voltage
dropped across the internal resistance.
How to reduce the effect of loading?? by making RL much larger
than Rx (that is RL >> Rx).
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Example 4
An amplifier outputs a voltage that is 10 times the voltage on
its input terminals. It has an input resistance of 10 k. A
sensor outputs a voltage proportional to temperature with a
transfer function of 20 mV/oC.The sensor has an output
resistance of 5.0 k.
If the temperature is 50oC, find the amplifier output.

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Solution
If loading is ignored, serious errors can occur in expected outputs of
circuits and gains of amplifiers.

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Common passive circuits that can provide

some of the required signal conditioning
operations are:
1.
2.
3.

Divider circuit
Bridge circuit
RC filters

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Divider Circuit
To provide conversion of resistance into
a voltage variation.

VD = supply voltage
R1,R2 = divider resistors
Either R1 or R2 can be the sensor whose
resistance varies with some measured
variable.
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Divider Circuit in Signal-level

change
The most frequently performed type of signal conditioning is a
level or amplitude change.
A change in signal level may require either attenuation or
amplification of the input signal.
Attenuation is accomplished with a resistive voltage divider
network.
Amplification requires an active device such as a transistor or an
op-amp.
It is common practice to use both attenuation and amplification for
signal-conditioning purposes in many electronic test
instruments, such as electronic multimeter and oscilloscopes in
order to provide multiple ranges.
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Bridge Circuit
(Wheatstone Bridge)
To convert impedance variations into voltage variations.

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Bridge Circuit

This circuit is used in signal-conditioning applications where a

sensor changes resistance with process variable changes.
The object labeled D is a voltage detector, used to compare
potentials of points a and b of the network.

Potential of point a with respect to c : Va

Potential of point b with respect to c : Vb

When there is zero difference and zero voltage across the detector-it
is called null
R3R2 = R1R4

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Example 5
If a Wheatstone bridge nulls with R1=1000 ,
R2=842 , and R3=500 , find the value of R4.
Assume the detector impedance is infinite.
Answer : 421

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Bridge Circuit
Va
Vb

V = Va - Vb

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Example 6
The resistor in a bridge are given by
R1=R2=R3=120 and R4=121 . If the supply is
10 V, find the voltage offset. Assume the detector
impedance is infinite.
Answer : -21 mV

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Bridge Circuit

Whenever Wheatstone bridge is assembled and resistors are

adjusted for a detector null, the resistor values must satisfy
the indicated equality [R3R2 = R1R4].

The null is maintained, even when the supply voltage drifts or

changes.

In modern applications, the detector is a very high-input

impedance differential amplifier.

In the calibration purposes and spot measurement

instruments, a highly sensitive galvanometer with low
impedance may be used.

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Galvanometer detector

In a impedance with low impedance, when the

bridge is in unbalanced condition, current flows
through the galvanometer detector causing a
deflection of its pointer. This current is known as
offset current.

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Example 7
A bridge circuit has resistance of R1=R2=R3=2.00 k and
R4=2.05 k and a 5.00 V supply. If a galvanometer with a 50.0-
internal resistance is used for a detector, find the offset current.
How to do it?
The easiest way to determine this offset current is to find the
Thevenins equivalent circuit between point a and b of the bridge
(with the detector removed).

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Bridge Resolution
Bridge resolution is where a minimum
resistance change that must occur before the
detector indicates a change in offset voltage.
It is an overall accuracy of the instruments.

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Example 8
A bridge circuit has R1=R2=R3=R4=120.0- resistances and
a 10.0-V supply. Clearly, the bridge is nulled. Suppose a 3digit DVM on a 200-mV scale will be used for the null detector.
Find the resistance resolution for measurement of R4.
Answer :
On a 200-mV scale, the DVM measures from 000.0 to 199.9
mV, so the smallest change is 0.1 mV, or 100 V.
The smallest change in resistance that can be measured is
0.0048
A bridge offset of +100V is caused by a reduction of R4. it
follow that a bridge offset of -100V would be casued by an
increase in R4.
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Lead Compensation

in many process-control
applications, a bridge circuit may be located at some distance from
Effectively,
both
R3 and
R4 are changes
identically
changed,
and thus R3R2 =
the sensor
whose
resistance
are
to be measured.

R1R4 shows that no change in the bridge null occurs.

If wire (2) changes in

resistance because of
spurious influences, it
introduces this
change into the R4
leg of the bridge.

sensor
Wire 3 is the power lead,
has no influence on the
bridge balance condition.

Wire 1 exposed to the same

environment and changes
by the same amount, but is
in the R3 leg of the bridge.

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Current Balance Bridge

In the past, many process-control applications

used a feedback system in which the bridge
offset voltage was amplified and used to drive
a motor whose shaft altered a variable resistor
to renull the bridge.

Such a system does not suit the modern

technology of electronic processing because it
is not very fast, is subject to wear, and
generates electric noise.

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Current Balance Bridge

A technique that provides for an electronic

nulling of the bridge and that uses only fixed
resistors can be used with the bridge.

This method uses a current to null the bridge.

A closed-loop system can even be constructed

that provides the bridge with a self-nulling
ability.

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Current Balanced Bridge

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Example 9
A current balance bridge, as shown below has resistors
R1=R2=10k, R3=1k, R4=950, and R5=50 and a highimpedance null detector. Find the current required to null the
bridge if R3 changes by 1. The supply voltage is 10V.

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ac Bridges
Z2Z3 = Z1Z4

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ac Bridges

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Bridge Applications
1.

Primary application of bridge circuits in modern

process-control signal conditioning is to convert
variations of resistance into variations of voltage.

2.

This voltage variation is then further conditioned for

interface to an ADC or other system.

3.

It is thus important to note that the variation of bridge

offset is nonlinear with respect to any of the resistors.

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Bridge Applications
4. If a sensor has an impedance that is linear with
respect to the variable being measured, such
linearity is lost when a bridge is used to convert
this to a voltage variation.
5. Figure below shows how V varies with R4 for a
bridge with R1=R2=R3=100 and V = 10V. Note
the nonlinearity of V with R4 as it varies from 0 to 500.

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39

Bridge Applications
6. If the range of resistance variation is small and
centered about the null value, then the
nonlinearity of voltage versus resistance is small.
7. Figure shows that when R4 is between 90 to
110, then the variation of V with R4, on an
expanded scale, is relatively linear.
Amplifiers can be used to amplify this voltage
variation.

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a) Bridge off-null voltage is clearly nonlinear for largescale changes in resistance.

(b) However, for small ranges of resistance change, the
off-null voltage is nearly linear.

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RC Filter
What is a filter?
A filter is a circuit that passes a certain band
of frequencies while attenuating the signals of
other frequencies.
Filter

Passive Filter
RC Filter
1. Low-pass filter
2. High-pass filter
3. Band-pass filter
4. Band-reject filter

Active Filter
Op-Amps with Gain and Feedback

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Circuit for Low-Pass Filter

Response of the low-pass RC filter.

Circuit for High-Pass Filter

Response of the high-pass RC filter.

Circuit for Band - Pass Filter

A band-pass RC filter can be made from
cascaded high-pass and low-pass RC filters.

Response of the band-pass RC filter.

Circuit for Band Reject Filter

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Comments of Filter
Filter performance is described in terms of output
voltage to input voltage (Vo/Vin) at different
frequencies and is expressed as
dB = 20 log (Vo/Vi)
The signal source for data acquisition system is a
transducer.
The maximum bandwidth of most transducers is
10 Hz. Thus, filtering noise from these transducer
signals is done using low-pass filter.
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Example 10
A measurement signal with amplitude 540-mV has a
frequency of <1kHz. There is unwanted noise at about 1
MHz. A filter is needed to eliminate the noise from the
signal. Identify the filter type. Why?
Answer :
Low-pass filter
Because the low-pass filter blocks high frequencies and
passes only the low frequencies to the next system.
Thus, the filter the measurement signal of <1 kHz to
pass and block the unwanted signal at 1 MHz.

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Other examples when

filters are needed.
1.

Pulses for a stepping motor are being transmitted at 2000

Hz. Design a filter to reduce 60-Hz noise but reduce the
pulses by no more than 3 dB.

2.

A 2-kHz data signal is contaminated by 60Hz of noise.

3.

A signal-conditioning system uses a frequency variation

from 6kHz to 60 kHz to carry measurement information.
There is considerable noise at 120 Hz and at 1 MHz. Design
a bandpass filter to reduce the noise by 90%.

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Other examples when

filters are needed.

4. A frequency of 400 Hz prevails aboard an

aircraft. Design a twin-T notch filter to reduce
the 400-Hz signal.

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Operational Amplifiers

An op-amp is a circuit consist of resistors, transistors, diodes, and capacitors.

It requires bipolar power supplies +Vs and -Vs, with respect to ground.
We concerned only with its input and output signals.

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Op-Amp Characteristics

The output voltage, Vout is plotted versus the differential input voltage
(V2-V1).

When V2 is much larger than V1, the output is saturated at Vsat.

When V1 is much larger than V2, the output is saturated at +Vsat.

There is a narrow range of differential input voltage, V where output

change from +Vsat to Vsat.
For most op-amps, this input voltage range is less than a milivolt,
whereas the saturation voltages are typically on the order of 10V.

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The schematic symbol and response of an op amp.

53

Op-Amp Characteristics

The input impedances are very high,

typically exceeding 1M, whereas the
output impedance is very low, typically less
than 100 .

54

The op amp inverting amplifier.

Summing point

I1 + I2 = 0

55

Op-Amp in Instrumentation

Voltage follower
Inverting amplifier
- Summing amplifier
Non-inverting amplifier
- Differential Instrumentation Amplifier
- Differential amplifier
- Instrumentation amplifier

56

The op amp voltage follower. This circuit has unity gain but
very high input impedance.

57

The op amp summing amplifier.

58

Example 11
Develop an op-amp circuit that can
provide an output voltage related to
the input voltage by Vout = 3.4Vin + 5

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A noninverting amplifier.

60

Differential
Instrumentation Amplifier

61

Most common
configuration of
Instrumentation Amplifier

62

Example 12
Figure below shows a bridge circuit for which R4
varies from 100 to 102. Show how an
instrumentation amplifier could be used to provide
an output of 0 to 2.5V.

63

The basic differential amplifier configuration.

64

An instrumentation amplifier includes voltage followers for

input isolation.

65

V-to-I Convertor
Because signals in process control are most often transmitted as a
current, specifically 4 to 20 mA, it is often necessary to employ a
linear voltage-to-current convertor.
2. Such a circuit must be capable of sinking a current into a number of
different loads without changing the VtoI transfer characteristics.
1.

66

Common measurement transmission in the

industrial environment

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Example 13
A sensor outputs 0 to 1 V. Develop a voltage-to-current
convertor so that this becomes 0 to 10 mA. Specify the
maximum load resistance if the op amp saturates at 10V.
Determine the value of R3 and R4 if we want to convert the 0
to 1V to 4 to 20 mA?

68

I to-V Convertor
At the receiving end of the process-control transmission
system, we often need to convert the current back into
voltage. This can easily be done by this circuit.

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References
Books
1.

2.

3.

Foster, A.C. (1995). Electronic Instruments and

Measurement. Prentice-Hall.
Curtis, D.J. (2003). Process Control Instrumentation
Technology. Prentice-Hall.
Liptak, B.G. (2003). Instrument Engineers
Handbook. 4th Edition. CRC Press.

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