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Lecture 1-2: HYPOTHALAMUS

Overall three basic purposes of the hypothalamus


o 1. Integration of regulatory functions
o 2. Connects with major divisions of CNS
o 3. Works with pituitary to communicate with hormones to periphery
Integration of Sensory and Nonsensory Info
o 1.olfaction- important for survival and reproduction
o 2.visual projections-SCN
o 3.Visceral projections- NTS, with CN 9 and 10.
Integrates visceral, cardiorespiratory, cardiovascular, taste
o 4.multimodal brainstem afferents- MFB
o 5.limbic regions- hippocampus, amygdale, septum
Regulates neuroendocrine, ingestive, autonomic behavior
o 6. CVOs- no BBB so can analyze blood chemistry
1. Median Eminence- between hypothalamus and pitutary
2. OVLT- senses the blood osmolality and determines need for AVP
3. SFO- chemosensitive controls kidney
4. Area Postrema- connects with NTS, regulates food intake, cardiovascular, and vomiting
5.pituitary
6.SCO
7.Pineal-circadian rhythmn
Know the Picture of the all the CVOs
Know the Picture of the Pituitary
o 1.anterior pituitary- parvocellular neurons
Neuron called: portal vessel
Projected from: Arcuate and PVN
Releases: regulatory hormones
o 2. Posterior pituitary- magnocellular neurons
Neuron called: tuberohypophyseal tract
Projected from: SON, PVN
Releases: AVP, Oxytocin respectively
Hypothalamic Functions
o 1. Integration of autonomic function- PVLM controls cardiovascular function to Spinal cord
o 2. Reproduction
o 3. Neuroendocrine- ant/post pituitary
o 4. Immune System- ANS action on spleen
o 5. Behavioral state- sleep wake cycle till SCN
o 6. Themoregulation
o 7. Fluid- OVLT, SFO, NTS
o 8. Feeding- integration of neural to viscera
Central Network that Regulates Autonomic Function
o 1. Hypothalamus
o 2. Limbic
o 3. Central Gray
o 4. Paramedian Regions of Mesencephalon
Functional Autonomic Integration
o 1. Autonomic reflexes- coordinates GI after meal
o 2. Linked with Somatic Actitvity- Postural Adjustment

o 3. Autonomic adjustment in response to environmental events- fainting


Ascending Projections
o 1. NST and SLV Midbrain central Gray, Amygdala, nucleus of Stria Terminalis, Hypothalamus
Descending Projections
o 1. Supraspinal center to preganglionic neurons in Spinal cord
o 2. CNS visceral stations in SLV, NST
o 3. HypothalamusANS
o 4. PVNvagal, NST, SLV
o

Lecture 2-1: SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM


Overall 4 functions of ANS.
o 1. Controls homeostasis
o 2. Works with endocrine system
o 3. Control emotions
o 4. Short latency
Define Viscertopy
o There is innervations in the same section of the body, typically at the same level
Three elements of homeostatic Mechanisms- sensor, integrator (hypothalamus), effector
Three Divisions of ANS
o 1.SNS- catabolic
o 2.PSNS-anabolic
o 3.enteric
Three functions of SNS
o 1. Energy Use
o 2.catabolic
o 3. fight or flight
SNS Two-neuron circuit
o 1. Preganglionic- T1-L3
White ramus- viscerotopic organization
o 2. Postganglionic-gray ramus
Paravertabral- are all in the sympathetic chain
Innervates blood vessels, skin, erector pili muscles
1. Superior cervical ganglia- head and neck
2. Middle and inferior (stellate)- heart, lungs, bronchi
Prevertebral- white ramus is called splanchic nerves
1.Adrenal Gland- same pattern as prevertebral- hormones to combine with autonomic
response
2. Celiac- stomach, foregut, liver, pancrease
3. Superior mesenteric- midgut- small intestine
4. Inferior mesenteric- hindgut- large intestine
5. Pelvic-hypogastic plexus- urinary and genital
Lecture 2-2: PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
4 Features
o 1. Energy conservation
o 2.anabolic

o 3. Promotes GI- digest and absorb


o 4. Craniosacral/bulbosacral
Two neuron-circuit
o 1.pregranglionic (S2-S4)
o 2. Close to target tissue like- the prevertebral
o Similar to the _____ of the SNS
Innervation of head and neck
o 1. Edinger-westphal nucleus- ciliary ganglion- phincter papillae, ciliary muscle
o 2. Superior salivatory nucleus- 7- pterygopalatine ganglion and submandibular ganglion
Palate, nasal cavity
o 3. Inferior salivatory nucleus- 9 otic ganglion- parotic gland
Floor of mouth
Innervations of thorax and abdomen
o 1. Vagus nerve- X- smooth muscle of GI tract
o 2. Nucleus Ambiguus- X nerve- striate muscle of pharynx, larynx, esophageous, cardiac muscle
Innervation of abdomen and pelvis by sacral neurons
o Preganglionic: intermediolateral cell column of S2-S4
o Postganglionic: neurons located in plexuses nearby or on organ
Enteric NS
o 1. Myenteric plexus
o 2. Submucosal plexus
ANS integration
o Preganglionic NT, majority and others: ACH (90%), dopamine, adrenaline
o Postganglionic SNS- norepi
Also uses somatostatin and NPY
o Postganglionic PSNS-ACH
Also uses substance P, CCK for vagal afferents
How does info reach from periphery to CNS- SNS Visceral Afferents
o Info travels in mixed nerves and the cell body is in the DRG
o Enters the SC vis Lissauers tract and ends in dorsal horn (laminae I and V)
Relays information to IML
If need more integration, project to the NST and it goes up
PNS visceral afferents
o Cell body for afferent is located in ganglion outside cranium
o Terminates on CN sensory nuclei
o CNIII goes to brainstem through CNV
o CNVII, IX, X terminate in NST
o CCK is used for vagal afferents
o SACRAL PNS IS SIMILAR TO SNS
o

LECTURE 3-1 FLUIDS


What percent of body is water
Mechanism of fluid movement through capillaries: hydrostatic pressure and osmotic pressure- determine
the direction of flux
o In the artery side, the hydrostatic pressure pushes the water out. Then the venous side, the
osmotic colloidal pressure pulls it back in
Hydrostatic pressure is dependent on: cardiac output, arteriolar vasoconstriction

Osmotic Homeostasis
o Detection system: OVLT connect with magnocellular AVP in SON and PVN
o Reaction: AVP is produced and increases aquaporin channels
o 2nd reaction- thirst restores osmolality
o 3rd reaction- ANP- excretion of NaCl by kidney
Volume Homeostasis
o Detection system: heart atrium, carotid sinus, aortic archNST- creates baroreceptor reflex
o Reaction: kidney makes rennin and the angiotensin II creates aldosterone in adrenal cortex ,
aldosterone acts on kidney and also stimulates SFO to make AVP
o Osmotic dilution less thirst and AVP secretion
Thirst
o Detection System: stimulated by cellular dehydration when ECF osmolality is increased,
forebrain osmoreceptors response to increases in osmoality
o Reaction: AVP
o Modulatory- gastric distention, inhibition from oropharinx, stomach, and memory

LECTURE 3-2 EATING


Neural Control to Feeding- purposes
o 1. Restore energy
o 2. Maintain caloric homeostasis
Depends on demand for cellular metabolism
Types of Nutrients
o 1. Carbs-glycogen
o 2.lipids-triglyceride
o 3.proteins-cell structure
Two Metabolic States
o 1. Prandial/fed- lots of nutrients in blood
1.lipogenesis- carbs to lipids
2. Glycogenesis- glycogen is stored in many tissues
o 2.postabsorptive/fasted-absence of calories entering circulation
1. Glycogenolysis- glycogen to glucose
2. Lipolysis- triglycerides to fatty acids and glycerol
3. Glucogenesis- glycerol to glucose
4. Ketogenesis- fatty acids to ketone bodies
Insulin secretion determined by the three things
o 1. glucose
o 2. AA
o 3. Ketone bodies
Insulin Secretion Phases
o 1.cephalic phase- neural anticipation for food- vagus brainstem
o 2. GI phase- reaches stomach or duodenum, triggers GI hormones insulin
o 3. Substrate phase- absorbs by intestine signal via circulation- lasts beyond eating
Satiety Signals
o 1. Gastric distention- stretch receptors tell NST and AP via vagus
o 2.postgastric detection of calories- liver, pancreas, hypothalamus
o 3. Increased plasma osmolality- detected by liver osmoreceptors
o 4. Molecules
1. Insulin

2. Leptin
3.CCK
Dual Center Hypothesis
o 1. VLH- hunger center
Lesion cause- less parasympathetic tone, less gastric emptying and insulin secretion
Disprove: cannot digest or absorb so not hungry
o 2. VMH- satiety center
Lesion causes reduces sympathetic and increases parasympathetic- more fat storage and
reduces duration of satiety
Disprove:
o OVERALL: problems with motor and sensorimotor integration
CNS Control for Feeding
o Brainstem: NST and AP receives input from stomach, GI, pancreas, liver- sends projections to
thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, gustatory
o Hypothalamus: works with limbic system to integrate taste, memory, emotion, environment
ARCUATE DETECTS ADIPOSE, FOOD INTAKE
Uses insulin, and leptin signals
Peptides released by hypothalamus: a-MSH, ACTH, NPY, AgRP
o Catabolic Peptides
1. Oxytocin
2.CRH, ACTH
o Anabolic Peptides
1. Orexin A
2.Melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH)
LECTURE 4-2- SLEEP
Stages and characteristics of sleep
o Sleep is characterized by:
1. Lying down
2. Increased sensory threshold
3.decreased motor output
4.dreaming
o Awake:
Thought: logical and progressive
Movement: continuous and voluntary
Sensation and perception vivid and externally generated
o nonREM
thought: logical and perserverative
movement: episodic and involuntary
sensation and perception: dull and absent
how many stages: 4
cannot be awakened, early in sleep
o REM
Thought: illogical and bizarre
Movement: commanded but inhibited
Sensation and perception: vivid, internally generated
Autonomic changes, REM, paralysis, and dreaming
o how long is each cycle: 90-100 minutes
Development of the concept of sleep

o First major improvement that proved sleep:


o 1. Sleep as a reflex: assumed brain activity (sleep) stopped because no moe sensory input
Forebrain still remained active when you have cervical transaction
Forebrain cut at midbrain induced sleep-like state
o 2. Sleep as an active state:
Stimulated thalamocortical system and induced sleep
Stimulation of midbrain activated arousal
General Anatomy of Brain stem regulatory Systems
o Sensorimotor integrator neurons: GABA glutamate
Big neurons, high rate of fire, fast conduction- good for fast bursts and immediate
responsiveness
o Modulatory neurons: norepi, serotonin, acetylcholine
Small, slow firing rate, slow conduction- good for rhythmic, stable, slowly adapting outputs
o Both of these are part of the: brainstem retricular activating system
o Circadian physiological mechanism cycle every day: S (sleep hormones) vs C= circadian rhythmthe difference between S and C are so large that you have to sleep to reset it
Difference between these two are called sleep pressure
o Integrated model of sleep:
VLPOTMN thalamus cortex
NONREM sleep
o Normally to prevent sleep: hypothalamic and brainstem retricular neurons modulate thalamocortiol
circuits
o Sleep Stages 1+2=Reticular neurons are deactivated, demodulating thalamocorticol circuit,
thalomocortical neurons begin firing oscillations
o Sleep Stages 3+4= thalamocortical neurons hyperpolarize and oscillations diminish, cortical neurons
generate spontaneous delta and own slow oscillations
Features of Stage III/IV sleep: hard to awaken, impaired cognition, less brain blood flow, less
cerebral glucose metabolism, increased neuroendocrine activity
REM sleep
o 1. Reticular neurons increase firing again, increasing firing of thalamocortical and cortical neurons
o 2. Desynchronization in EEG background
o 3. Phasic firing by reticular and vestibular neurons
o 4. REM
o 5. Pontomedullary reticular formation inhibits spinal motor neurons
o 6. Motor neuron paralysis
o Neurotransmitters: awake, NREM: norepi; REM= acetylchloine
o Models of REM activation
Aminergic cells inhibit cholinergic and maintain awake
Diminution of aminergic increases cholinergic so deeper sleep
Then REM, aminergic cells are turned off, and cholinergic reactivates brain but makes it
responsive to internal stimuli
Behavioral Model of Sleep
o Neurobiological- hypothalamic switch followed by alternations between cholinergic and aminergic
circuitry
o Psychophyisiological- emphasis is on internal and external sensations
Sleep Apnea
o Central sleep apnea- impaired brainstem drive to breathe during sleep

Audines curse- brainstem turns off when you sleep so you have to use machine to breathe
for you
o Peripheral sleep apnea- mechanical airway collapse during sleep (there are neural signals but no
room to breathe)- lots of snoring
Positive pressure mask during sleep
Motor disturbances in sleep
o nonREM motor disturbances- activation of central motor pattern generators- usually in young people
sleep walking, talking, tooth grinding, night terrors
o REM sleep behavior disorder- failure of motor inhibition during REM (older)
Usually problem with pontine tegmentum
Functions of sleep
o 1. Rest and restoration replenish glycogen stores
No sleep= eat more and lose weight, less thermoregulation
o 2. Immune function- NREM gives endogenous cytokines and bacterial antigens
o 3. Normal development-NREM sleep gives neuroendocrine activity- REM sleep patterns promote
development
o 4. Energy conservation/safety from predators- decreased activity and congregation with others
o 5. Memory consolidation- REM increases when learning and deprivation of REM impairs learning

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