Math 120R Workbook

Section #:
Roster #:
Name:
Math 120R Class Notes
Math 120R: Pre-calculus

University of Arizona
Instructor: Deborah Hur
Summer Session I 2014
Contents
Chapter 2: Functions
2.1: What is a Function? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2: Graphs of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3: Getting Information from the Graph of a Function
2.4: Average Rate of Change of a Function . . . . . . .
2.5: Transformations of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6: Combining Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7: One-to-One Functions and Their Inverses . . . . .
Focus on Modeling: Modeling with Functions . . . . .
Chapter 3: Polynomial and Rational Functions
3.1: Quadratic Functions and Models . . . . . . . .
3.2: Polynomial Functions and Their Graphs . . . .
3.3: Dividing Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7: Rational Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Chapter 4: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

4.1: Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2: The Natural Exponential Function . . . . . . . . .
4.3: Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4: Laws of Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5: Exponential and Logarithmic Equations . . . . . .
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52
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Chapter 5: Trigonometric Functions: Unit Circle Approach

5.1: The Unit Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2: Trigonometric Functions of Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3: Trigonometric Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6: Modeling Harmonic Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4: More Trigonometric Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5: Inverse Trigonometric Functions and Their Graphs . . . . . .
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76
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79
83
88
92
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Chapter 6: Trigonometric Functions: Right Triangle Approach

6.1: Angle Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2: Trigonometry of Right Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3: Trigonometry Functions of Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4: Inverse Trigonometric Functions and Right Triangles . . . . . . .
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99
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. 105
. 109
. 112
Chapter 7: Analytic Trigonometry

7.1: Trigonometric Identities . . . . . . .
7.2: Addition and Subtraction Formulas
7.3: Double Angle Formulas . . . . . . .
7.4: Basic Trigonometric Equations . . .
7.5: More Trigonometric Equations . . .
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Appendix: Fundamental Algebra Skills Review

1.3: Algebraic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4: Rational Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5: Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6: Modeling with Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7: Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8: Coordinate Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.9: Graphing Calculators; Solving Equations and Inequalities Graphically
1.10: Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.11: Making Models Using Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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132
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137
141
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153
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159
Chapter 2: Functions
2.1: What is a Function?
Topics
1. Definition of Function.
3. Domain of a Function.
2. Four ways to Represent a Function.
4. Piecewise Defined Functions.
Class Notes and Examples

1. Definition of Function.
A function f is a rule that assigns to each element x in a set A exactly one element, called
f (x), in a set B.
Intuitively:
2. Four ways to Represent a Function.

There are four ways in which a function can be represented. In each instance, we shall
explore criteria for checking the function definition quickly.
Example 1.
1. Visual (Graph)
2. Numerical (Table)
2
3. Algebraic (Equation)
4. Verbal (Description written in words)
3. Domain of a Function.
The domain of a function is the set of all inputs for the function.
Intuitively:
We shall return to the previous examples to find how to the functions domain quickly.
1. Visual (Graph)
2. Numerical (Table)
3
3. Algebraic (Equation)
4. Verbal (Description written in words)
Lets practice finding domains for functions represented algebraically. For each of the following, find the domain.
4. Piecewise Defined Functions.
Sometimes the formula/graph that is to be used to find the output of a function depends on
the input. This issue can be compactly described using piecewise defined function notation.
1. The function f (x) uses the formula x2 for x values less than 2, and uses the formula
x + 1 for x values 2 or greater. Write this in piecewise defined function notation:
2. Write the absolute value function in piecewise defined function notation:
4

3. Given FX (x) =
x2 1
x
x+1
x<0
x0
evaluate F (0), F (1) and F (2).
2.2: Graphs of Functions

Topics
1. Graphing Functions.
3. Graphing Piecewise Defined Functions.
2. Basic Graphs.
4. Equations that Define Functions.

1. Graphing Functions.
Formally, the graph of the function f is the set of ordered pairs (x, y) that satisfy f (x) = y.
In other words, the graph consists of all solutions (x, y) to the equation y = f (x).
We can graph functions in a few ways:
1. Plotting points. (drawback: time consuming and sometimes inaccurate depending on
the number of points plotted and issues with drawing by hand.)
2. With your graphing calculator. (drawback: a good window (often found using logic
and tools such as zoom functions and table) is absolutely necessary to get a useful
graph).
3. Knowing basic graphs and using tools that we cover throughout this course. (drawback:
we will be developing these skills as we progress through the course).
2. Basic Graphs.
Students must know the following graphs from memory:
Linear Functions: f (x) = mx + b
Power Functions: f (x) = xn
6
Root Functions: f (x) =
Reciprocal Functions: f (x) =
1
xn
Absolute Value Function: f (x) = |x|
3. Graphing Piecewise Defined Functions.

Using our basic graphs, we can graph simple piecewise defined functions.
2
x
x<2
1. Draw a sketch of g(x) =
1
x2
x

2. Draw a sketch of F (x) =
|x|
x1
x>1
7
4. Equations that Define Functions.
More practice on this topic that we lightly covered in the last section:
For all the following, determine if y is a function of x. For those that do give functions, find
the domain of the function.
1. y + 2xy = 1 x
2. x2 2y = 12
3. y + 2xy =
4. x2 + y 2 = x
2.3: Getting Information from the Graph of a Function

Topics
1. Domain and Range.
2. Intervals of Positive and Negative.
3. Zeros and Horizontal Intercepts.
4. Increasing and Decreasing Functions.

5. Local Maximum and Minimum Values
of a Function.

1. Domain and Range.
Recall the definitions of domain and range:
The domain is:
The range is:

Definitions:
f is positive on an interval I if f (a)is positive for all a in I.
f is negative on an interval I if f (a) is negative for all a in I.
3. Zeros / Horizontal Intercepts.

Recall that a horizontal intercept is a point on the graph of y = f (x) with y coordinate equal
to 0.
9
A zero is an input value a such that f (a) = 0.
What is the connection between zeros and horizontal intercepts?
What is the connection between zeros/horizontal intercepts and intervals of positive

and negative?

f is increasing on an interval I if f (a) < f (b) whenever a < b in I.
f is decreasing on an interval I if f (a) > f (b) whenever a < b in I.
5. Local Maximum and Minimum Values of a Function.

Definitions:
The function value f (a) is a local maximum value of f if
f (a) f (x)
when x is near a. In this case, we say that f has a local maximum at a.
The function value f (a) is a local minimum value of f if

f (a) f (x)
when x is near a. In this case, we say that f has a local minimum at a.
10
Local maxima and minima are sometimes refered to as local extrema. In other words, a local
extremum is either a local maximum or local minimum.
What is the connection between local extrema and intervals of increasing and decreasing?
For each of the graphs, find the following:

3
-3
-2
-1
-1
-2
-3
1. Domain and Range
1. Domain and Range
5. Local Maximum and Minimum Values.
11
Calculator example: Consider y = x 6 x. Use your graphing calculator to help your

sketch a complete graph of the function, labeling all intercepts and local extrema. Then find
the following:
1. Domain and Range
Highway Engineering Example: A highway engineer wants to estimate the maximum

number of cars that can safely travel a particular highway at a given speed. Under some
assumptions (see text), she finds that if cars are traveling at a speed s mph, the number N
of cars that can pass a given point per minute is modelled by the function
88s

N (s) =
s
17 + 17 20
a) What speed maximizes traffic flow? (round to the nearest mph).
b) Find the intervals on which the function is decreasing(round to the nearest mph). Interpret the interval in the context of the problem.
12
2.4: Average Rate of Change of a Function

Topics
1. Average Rate of Change (ARC).
3. Other Functions.
2. Linear Functions.
4. Interpreting ARC in Application Problems.

1. Average Rate of Change.
The average rate of change (ARC) of the function y = f (x) between x = a and x = b is
average rate of change =
change in y
=
change in x
The easiest examples of computing ARC are via table and graph:
1. Find the average rate of change over the interval x = 1 to x = 3.
x
-1 0 1 2 3
f (x) 2 6 9 14 17
2. Find the average rate of change over the interval (10,15).
2. Linear Functions.
1. Find the average rate of change for y = 2x + 1 over the interval (2, 4).
13
2. Find the average rate of change for y = 2x + 1 over the interval (x, x + h).
What should be true about ARC for linear functions?
3. Other Functions.
For each function, find the average rate of change over the indicated interval.
1. y = x2 for x = 2 to x = 3.
2. y = 3 + 2x x2 for x = 0 to x = 2.
3. y =
1
x2
over (1, 2).
14
4. y = x2 for x = a to x = b.
5. y = 3 + 2x x2 over (x, x + h).
6. y =
7. y =
x over (x, x + h).
1
x
over (a, b).
4. Interpreting ARC in Application Problems.

Calculate and interpret the ARC in the context of the scenario, including the value and units
in your response.
15
1. The height of a ball in feet after t seconds is given by y = 40t 16t2 . Find the average
rate of change of height over the interval (0, 1).
2. A soft-drink vendor analysis his sales records and finds that if he sells x cans of soda
in one day, his profit (in dollars) is given by P (x) = 0.001x2 + 3x 1800. Find the
average rate of change over the interval (1000, 2000).
3. The speed of a car in mph can be expressed in terms of the length of a skid mark in feet
when thebrakes are applied. Suppose for a certain car, this relationship is expressed
as S = 2 5L. Find the average rate of change from (20, 25).
16
2.5: Transformations of Functions

Topics
1. Vertical Transformations
3. Multiple Transformations.
2. Horizontal Transformations
4. Even and Odd Functions

Before we summarize all the transformations, I would like to explore some basic examples
to motivate: Given the following table of values,
x
f (x)
-2 0 2 4 6
1 -2 3 1 3
Find tables for the following functions. Describe what happens graphically, when comparing
the original table to the new table.
(a) y = f (x) + 1
(b) y = f (x 2)
(c) y = 2f (x)
(d) y = f (2x)
(e) y = f (x)
(f) y = f (x)
17
1. Vertical Transformations.
Vertical Shifts
Vertical Stretch/Shrink
Reflection over x axis.
2. Horizontal Transformations.
Horizontal Shifts
Horizontal Stretch/Shrink
Reflection over y axis.
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3. Multiple Transformations
When there are multiple transformations, it is critical to apply the transformations in an
appropriate order to obtain the correct graph. Here are a few examples:
1. Explain how the graph of g(x) = 2f (x 1) + 4 is obtained from the graph of y = f (x).
2. Sketch the graph of the function by starting with the graph of a standard function and
applying transformations. f (x) = (x + 2)2 3
3. Sketch the graph of the function by

starting with the graph of a standard function and
3
applying transformations. p(t) = x + 1
4. Find a formula which transforms f (x) = x3 by shifting to the right 2 units, reflecting
over the x axis, then shifting up 2 unite.
5. Find a formula which transforms g(x) = |x| by horizontally compressing it by a factor

of 1/2, shifting to the left 1, then shifting down 3 units.
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4. Even and Odd Functions.
Recall from section 1.8, that certain graphs have special symmetries. In the case of functions,
there are two types of symmetry that are possible:
In function notation we may write these graphical characteristics as:
To Test for Symmetry of a Function Algebraically

1. First, evaluate f (x) and fully simplify.
2. Next, compare your simplified expression to f (x) and f (x).
If f (x) simplifies to f (x), the function is even.
If f (x) simplifies to f (x), the function is odd.
If f (x) is neither, then we say f (x) is neither even nor odd.
Lets practice with a few examples; Determine if the function is even, odd or neither. Identify
symmetry, if any.
1. f (x) = x2 + 1
2. f (x) = x3 + 1
3. f (x) =
x
x2 +2
4. f (x) = |cx| where c is a positive constant.
20
2.6: Combining Functions

Topics
1. Sums, Differences, Products, and Quotients.
2. Composition of Functions.

1. Sums, Differences, Products, and Quotients.
Given functions f (x) and g(x), we define the following new functions:
Function
(f + g)(x) =
Domain
(f g)(x) =
(f g)(x) =

f
g
(x) =
1. Suppose f (x) has domain [2, 1] with a zero at x = 1 and g(x) has domain [4, 0]
with zeros at x = 3, 2. Find the domains of
(a) f + g
(b) f g
(c) f g
(e) fg .
(d)
f
g
21
2. Let f (x) = x2x4 and g(x) =
Function
(f + g)(x) =
3 x. Find
Domain
(f g)(x) =
(f g)(x) =

(x) =

(x) =
f
g
g
f
2. Composition of Functions.
Given functions f (x) and g(x), we define the following new functions:
(f g)(x) =
(g f )(x) =
To find the domain of a composition, there are two approaches:

1. For algebraic expressions, use the unsimplified composition expression to determine
the domain.
2. Look for x values that are both in the domain of the inside (first) function and give y
values that in the the domain of the outside (second) function.
22
1. Let f (x) = x2x4 and g(x) =
Function
(f g)(x) =
(g f )(x) =
(g g)(x) =
(f f )(x) =
3 x. Find
Domain
23
2. Suppose f and g are given by the following tables. Find the tables of f g, f g, f f
and g g. State the domain and range.
x
1 2 3 4 5
x
1 3 5 7 9
f (x) 2 3 1 5 7
g(x) 2 4 1 6 3
Function
(f g)(x)
Domain
(g f )(x)
(g g)(x)
(f f )(x)
3. Given the function h(x) = f g(x), find possible expressions for f (x) and g(x).
(a) h(x) =
1
(x1)2 +3
(b) h(x) = ( x2 1 + 5)3 .
24
2.7: One-to-One Functions and Their Inverses

Topics
1. One to One Functions.
3. Inverse Application Problems.
2. The Inverse of a Function.

1. One to One Functions.
Intuitively, a function is called one to one if:
More formally, f (x) is one to one if:

f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ) whenever x1 6= x2 .
In other words, if x1 and x2 are different input values, the function assigns them to
different output values.
Equivalently, we may write:
If f (x1 ) = f (x2 ), then x1 = x2 .
In other words, if the output values are the same, the input values must be the same.
So each output value comes from exactly one input value.
Now we shall explore via example how to check if a function is one to one or not. For each
of the following, determine if the given function is one to one.
1.
1
x
f (x) 3
3
1
4
5
7 -2
-1 1
2.
x
1
f (x) 3
3
1
4
5
7 -2
-1 -4
3. The function which assigns to each UA student their Student ID Number.
4. The function which assigns to each item in a grocery store its price.
25
5.
6.
7. f (x) = x2 + 1
8. f (x) =
2x+1
x3
2. The Inverse of a Function.

The inverse of a function f (x) can be thought of intuitively as:
a function which simply swaps the role of input and output.
the function which cancels the original function.
Some easy examples to further explain these two perspectives:
If V = f (h) gives volume as a function of height, the inverse gives height as a function
of volume.
If F = T (C) gives Farhenheit temp as a function of Celcius temp, the inverse gives
Celcius temp as a function of Farhenheit temp.
Adding by 1 is cancelled by subtracting by 1.
Multiplying by 2 is cancelled by dividing by 2.
A function f (x) has an inverse (is invertible) if and only if it f (x) is one to one.
We denote the inverse by f 1 , where -1 is NOT an exponent.
Important Facts:
f 1 (y) = x y = f (x)
f 1 (f (x)) = x
f (f 1 (x)) = x
26
Next, go back to the earlier examples and find their inverses (if the inverse exists), then
summarize here the procedures used for each type of problem:
Tables
Graphs
Functional notation
3. Inverse Application Problems.

For application problems, it is important to NOT switch the variables, as we often choose
variable names based on the application quantities:
1. The volume of liquid in a cylindrical container of height 12 is given by V = 12r2 .
Find the inverse and explain its practical use.
2. Cassie can complete a task in 4 hours. If she works with a partner that takes t hours
to complete the job on their own, we can express their working together rate as
r=
1 1
+
4 t
27
3. The concentration obtained by mixing x ml of 40% solution with 50 ml of 20% solution

is given by
0.4x + 10
C=
x + 50
28
Focus on Modeling: Modeling with Functions

Topics
1. Making and Using Models.
2. Problems about Geometric Objects.
3. Problems about Distance, Rate, and
Time.
4. Problems about Cost, Revenue, and/or

Profit.
5. Miscellaneous.

We will follow these guidelines to have an organized approach at handling word problems.
Guidelines for Modeling with Functions
1. Draw a picture (if relevant) and designate variables for unknown quantities.
Clearly identify the desired input and output variables.
2. Express the main model in words.
3. Set up the model, using the variables chosen above.
4. If necessary, eliminate any unwanted variables. In this step, a substitution using
a secondary equation might be necessary. Your final expression should give the
desired output as an expression in ONLY the desired input variable.
5. If asked further questions about the model, it is necessary to determine the
domain that makes sense in the context of the problem. This can be logically
determined in most cases, with a picture being very helpul.
We shall exemplify these steps in the following problem:

Exercise 2 from text:
A poster is 10 inches longer than it is wide. Find a function that models its area A in terms
of its width w.
29
2. Problems about Geometric Objects.
1. Exercise 10 in text.
Find a function that models the area A of a circle in terms of its circumference C.
A rectangle is inscribed in a semicircle of radius 10. Find a function that models the
area A of the rectangle in terms of its height h.
30
3. A right triangle has an area of 3000 square centimeters.
(a) Find a formula for the length of the hypotenuse in terms of the length of the base.
(b) Determine the minimum length of hypotenuse, rounded to the nearest 0.001 and
include units.
3. Problems about Distance, Rate, and Time.

Two ships leave port at the same time. On sails south at 15mph and the other sails
east at 20mph. Find a function that models the distance D between the ships in terms
of the time (in hours) elapsed since their departure.
31
A man stands at a point A on the bank of a straight river which is 2 miles wide. To
reach point B, 7 miles downstream on the opposite bank, he first rows his boat to a
point P on the opposite bank and then walks the remaining distance x to B. He can
row at a speed of 2mph and walk at a speed of 5mph.
(a) Find a function that models the time needed for the trip.
(b) Where should he land so that he reaches B as soon as possible?
4. Problems about Cost, Revenue, and/or Profit.

1. Suppose a square-bottomed box with no top is to be constructed from two different
materials; the material for the sides is $0.50 per square inch and the material for the
bottom is $1.25 per square inch. Suppose we are to construct such a box with a volume
of 100 cubic inches.
(a) Find a formula for cost C as a function of the length of the square base, s.
(b) What is the minimum cost of constructing such a box?
32
2. Suppose a manufacturer needs to make a open top cylindrical container. Suppose the
material for the tube costs $0.10 per square inch and the material for the bottom costs
$0.25 per square inch. They have a budget of $5 per box.
(a) Find a formula for the volume of the container as a function of the radius r.
(b) What is the practical domain of this function?

(c) Find the maximum volume of such a box, rounded to the nearest 0.01.
5. Miscellaneous.
Find two positive numbers whose sum is 100 and the sum of whose square is a minimium.
33
A bird is released from point A on an island, 5 miles from the nearest point B on a
straight shoreline. The bird will travel to his nesting area which is 12 miles downstream,
on the shoreline. The bird flies to a point C on the shoreline, then flies along the
shoreline to its nesting area D. Suppose the bird requires 10kcal/mile of energy to fly
over land and 14 kcal/mile to fly over water.
(a) Draw a diagram to organize the above information. Let x represent the distance
between points B and C.
(b) Find how much energy the total trip takes in terms of x as defined in part (a).
(c) If the bird instinctively chooses the path that minimizes energy expenditure, to
what point does it fly?
34
Chapter 3: Polynomial and Rational Functions

3.1: Quadratic Functions and Models
Topics
1. General form of a quadratic.
4. Standard Form of a Quadratic.
2. Zeros of a Quadratic.
5. Factored Form of a Quadratic.
3. Maximum or Minimum of a Quadratic.
6. Applications.

1. General form of a quadratic.
A quadratic function is a function that may be written in the form
f (x) = ax2 + bx + c
where a, b, c are real constants with a 6= 0. We call a the leading coefficient.
2. Zeros of a Quadratic.
The zeros of a quadratic may be found by factoring (if possible) or by using quadratic
formula:
b b2 4ac
x=
2a
3. Max/min of a Quadratic
Due to the shape of the parabola (graph of a quadratic), a quadratic either has one global
max or one global min.
What criteria determines whether the vertex is a max or a min?
the vertex gives a minimum if
the vertex gives a maximum if
The vertex is also nice for symmetry reasons, as the vertical line through the vertex also
happens to give the line of symmetry for our parabola.
The text uses completing the square to find the vertex. We shall use a very nice shortcut to
avoid completing the square. We derive it here:
35
Vertex formula:
To find the vertex (h, k) of the quadratic f (x) = ax2 + bx + c
h=
k=
4. Standard Form of a Quadratic.

A particularly convenient way to represent any quadratic is what is referred to as standard
form:
Standard Form of a Quadratic:
f (x) = a(x h)2 + k
where (h, k) is the vertex and a is the same leading coefficient used in general form.
For the following, a) find the vertex, b) write the quadratic in standard form, c) sketch a
graph of the quadratic.
1. f (x) = 2(x 3)2 + 1.
2. f (x) = x2 + 4x + 2.
36
3. f (x) = 3x2 + 24x 1.
5. Factored Form of a Quadratic.

Another particularly convenient way to represent a quadratic is factored form; however, there
are many quadratics that cannot be written in this form:
Factored Form of a Quadratic:
f (x) = a(x r1 )(x r2 )
where r1 and r2 are the zeros of the quadratic and a is the same leading coefficient
used in general form.
Weve seen some examples of this in Chapter 1, but we shall review it here for completeness.
For the following, a) write the quadratic in factored form, b) sketch a graph of the quadratic.
1. f (x) = x2 3x 4.
2. f (x) = 3x2 2x 1.
37
6. Applications.
For applications modeled by a quadratic function, we now have exact methods to find the
intercepts and extrema.
1. A soft drink vendor at a popular beach analyzes his sales records and finds that
if he sells x cans of sode in one day, his profit (in dollars) is given by P (x) =
0.001x2 + 3x 1800. What is his maximum profit for the day and how many cans
must he sell for maximum profit?
2. A farmer has 2400 feet of fencing and wants to fence off a rectangular area bordering
a long straight stream. He does not need fence along the stream. Find the maximum
area that he can enclose.
3. A movie theatre estimates that each $0.50 increase in ticket price, ticket sales decrease
by 40 tickets. If the current price is $10.50 and sales are about 1000 tickets, how much
should they charge for tickets to maximize revenue?
38
3.2: Polynomial Functions and Their Graphs

Topics
1. General Form of a Polynomial.
4. Multiplicity of a Zero.
2. End Behavior of a Polynomial.

3. Zeros of Polynomials.
5. Graphing Polynomials.

1. General Form of a Polynomial.
General Form of a Polynomial:
A polynomial function of degree n is a function that may be written in the form:
P (x) = an x2 + an1 xn1 + + a1 x + a0
where n is a non-negative integer and an 6= 0.
The numbers a0 , . . . , an are called the coefficients of the polynomial.
The number a0 is the constant coefficient or constant term.
The number an is called the leading coefficient.
The term an xn is called the leading term.
Lets identify the above defined terms for a concrete example:
f (x) = 2x5 + x4 6x2 + x 3
Polynomial Graph Properties:

In general all polynomial graphs share the following properties:
The domain is (, ).
The graph is continuous (no breaks or holes).
The graph is smooth (no cusps/pinches/corners).
39
2. End Behavior of a Polynomial.
In general, given any function, the end behavior of the function is defined to be what happens
to the function values as x gets very large (stated in two cases: x large and positive, x large
and negative). For example:
The graph of y = x2 is a parabola that is concave up. So, as x gets large and positive,
y gets large and positive. Similarly, as x gets large but negative, y gets large and positive.
More compactly, we write:
Or equivalently, we could write:
Both notations are acceptable for end behavior.

To find the end behavior in the special case of a polynomial, we will find that the end behavior is dominated by the leading term ( a monomial since it is just one term). We summarize
the end behavior of monomials below:
For each of the following, find the end behavior:

1. f (x) = 2x3 7x4 + 1
2. f (x) = 2x(x + 1)2 (x 3)3
40
3. Using Zeros to Graph Polynomials.
Recall that a number c is called a zero of a function f (x) if f (c) = 0.
Factor Theorem:
In the special case where P (x) is a polynomial, then the following are equivalent:
c is a zero of P (x) (x c) is a factor of P (x).
This fact will be incredibly convenient for difficult to factor polynomials, which we will see
in the next section. For now, lets just understand why this theorem must be true and also
summarize a few more facts that rely on this theorem.
Find the zeros of the polynomial
1. P (x) = x(x 2)(x + 4)
2. P (x) = x4 4x2
This leads us the the following facts about the degree(highest power) of a polynomial:
If P (x) is a polynomial of degree n, then:
The number of zeros must be less than or equal to n.
The number of local extrema must be less than or equal to n 1.
4. Multiplicity of a Zero.
If c is a zero of the polynomial P (x), the multiplicity of c is the highest power
of (x c) that divides the polynomial. More simply, the multiplicity of c is the
exponent on (x c) when P (x) is written in factored form.
To understand the relevance of this definition, lets graph the following in our calculators:
y = x(x 2)(x 1)
y = x(x 2)2 (x 1)
y = x(x 2)2 (x 1)3
41
In general, the multiplicities indicates the shape of the graph near each x-intercept.
Shape of the Graph Near a zero of multiplicity m:
5. Graphing Polynomials
We can put all of the above facts together to produce a very good sketch of a polynomial in
factored form.
General Method of Graphing a Polynomial:
1. Identify the leading term and end behavior.
2. Factor the polynomial (if necessary). Note the zeros and their corresponding
multiplicities.
3. Draw the ends of the graph.
4. Fill in the middle of the graph starting from left to right, crossing at the xintercepts with the appropriate multiplicity
Sketch a graph of the following polynomials:
a) f (x) = x4 2x3 3x2
b) f (x) = 2x3 (x 4)(x + 5)2 .
42
Now we are ready to try to construct polynomials: For each of the following, find an
equation for a polynomial that fits each description/graph:
1. P (x) has intercepts (0, 18), (1, 0), (2, 0), (3, 0)
2.
3.
4.
5.
43
3.3: Dividing Polynomials

Topics
1. Long Division of Polynomials.
3. The Remainder and Factor Theorem.
2. Synthetic Division.

1. Long Division of Polynomials.
Division Algorithm:
If P (x) and D(x) are polynomials, with D(x) 6= 0, then there exist unique polynomials Q(x) and
R(x), where R(x) is either 0 or of degree less than the degree of D(x) such that
P (x) = D(x) Q(x) + R(x)
Or we may write this as:

P (x)
R(x)
= Q(x) +
D(x)
D(x)
Long division is one method that always works in finding the quotient and remainder as
stated in the division algorithm. We shall look at a few examples to
1. Divide P (x) = 6x2 2x + 1 by D(x) = x 1. Write your final answer in the form
P (x) = D(x) Q(x) + R(x)
2. Divide P (x) = x2 2x3 + 2 by D(x) = x2 + 1. Write your final answer in the form
P (x) = D(x) Q(x) + R(x)
44
2. Synthetic Division.
In the very special case that the divisor can be written as (x c), or as a product of factors
of that form, there is a short cut to polynomial division called synthetic division. We will
explore this process via example below.
1. Divide P (x) = 6x2 2x + 1 by D(x) = x 1. Write your final answer in the form
P (x) = D(x) Q(x) + R(x)
2. Divide P (x) = 4x3 3x + 5 by D(x) = x + 2. Write your final answer in the form
P (x) = D(x) Q(x) + R(x)
3. The Remainder and Factor Theorem.

If you only need to determine the remainder after dividing by a factor (x c), there is a very
easy way to do so, referred to as the remainder theorem.
Remainder Theorem:
If the polynomial P (x) is divided by (x c), then the remainder is the value P (c).
1. Use synthetic division and the Remainder Theormem to evaluate P (c), when
P (x) = 2x2 + 9x + 1 and c = 1.
45
Notice that when the remainder is zero, that means that (x c) is a factor; this gives (in
part) the factor theorem introduced in 3.2 class notes:
Factor Theorem:
If P (x) is a polynomial, then the following are equivalent:
c is a zero of P (x) (x c) is a factor of P (x).
Now we shall combine our newly reviewed techniques of polynomial division and our 3.2
concepts to graph polynomials of higher degree.
Sketch a graph of each of the following polynomials:
1. y = x3 x2 + 8x + 12.
2. y = x4 2x2 + x
Hint: 2 is a zero.
Hint: 1 is a zero.
46
3.7: Rational Functions

Topics
1. Rational Functions.
2. Domain, Vertical Asymptotes, and
Holes.
3. Zeros.
4. End Behavior Asymptotes: Horizontal,

Slant, or other.
5. Graphing Rational Functions.
6. Applications.

1. Rational Functions.
A rational function r(x) is a function that may be written in the form r(x) =
P (x) and Q(x) are polynomials.
P (x)
,
Q(x)
where
Which of the following are rational functions?

y = x1/2
y = 2x
y = x1
1+x
y=
x
y = x2 + 2
y=3
2. Domain, Vertical Asymptotes, and Holes.

We shall study a few key examples first before summarizing results on the next page.
For each of the following, determine the domain. Graph the function in your calculator and
analyze what happens at the domain exclusions.
1. y =
x+1
(x)(x2)
2. y =
x(x+1)
(x+1)
47
3. y =
x2 2x3
x2 9
Domain:
Vertical Asymptotes
Holes
3. Zeros.
For each of the following, determine the zeros.
1. y =
x+1
(x)(x2)
2. y =
x(x+1)
(x+1)
3. y =
x2 2x3
x2 9
48
4. End Behavior Asymptotes: Horizontal, Slant, or other.
To best understand the end behavior, it is convenient to rewrite the rational function in
long-divided form (as seen in the division algorithm in section 3.3).
P (x)
R(x)
= Q(x) +
D(x)
D(x)
We shall study a few key examples first before summarizing results on the next page.
For each of the following, long divide and rewrite in the above form. Using logic or your
graphing calculator, determine what happens to the graph for extreme values of x (i.e. find
end behavior).
1. y =
4x+8
x1
2. y =
x+5
x2 1
3. y =
8x2 +2x1
x+3
The most general tool in determining the end behavior and any (end behavior) asymptote
is by considering the quotient from long division.
For extreme values of x,
P (x)
D(x)
Q(x)
49
Shortcuts to find Horizontal or Slant Asymptotes for Special Cases:
Horizontal Asymptote at y = a non-zero constant:
Horizontal Asymptote at y = 0
Slant Asymptote
5. Graphing Rational Functions.

Now, we can put all the above concepts together. In general, I use the following method for
graphing:
Graphing Rational Functions:
1. Factor the numerator, denominator. Cancel any common factors and note these as potential
holes.
2. Vertical asymptotes correspond to the reduced factors of the denominator.
3. Zeros correspond to the reduced factors of the numerator.
4. Find the quotient from long division to determine the end behavior asymptote (or identify
the appropriate shortcut to finding it)
5. Sketch the quantities above. Use logic (and perhaps test the signs near vertical asymptotes
and intercepts) to complete the graph.
50
Lets try all of the above steps to generate good graphs of the following:
1.
2x(x+2)
(x1)(x4)
2.
2x2 +x1
x3 x2
3.
x2 +5x+4
x3
4.
2x3 +2x
x2 1
51
6. Applications.
1. Suppose the rabbit population on a farm follows the formula
p(t) =
3000t
t+1
where t 0 is the time (in months) since the beginning of the year.
(a) Draw a graph of the rabbit population (WITHOUT your graphing calculator!).
(b) What eventually happens to the population?
2. A chemist has a big supply of 10% solution of acid and 30% solution of acid. He is
filling a 100 mL capacity container with x mL of the 10% solution and topping off with
the 30% solution.
(a) Find a formula for the concentration (written as a decimal) of the new mixture.
(b) What is the domain of this function?
(c) What is the range of this function?
52
Chapter 4: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

4.1: Exponential Functions
Topics
1. Exponential Functions.
3. Transformations of Exponential Functions.
2. Graphs of Exponential Functions.
4. Compound Interest.

1. Exponential Functions.
Exponential functions are a new class of functions that arise naturally after our study of linear, quadratic, polynomial and rational functions. Lets look at our progression of different
functions:
Linear functions:
Quadratic functions:
Polynomial functions:
Rational functions:
53
The next pattern we will consider is:
This leads us naturally to exponential functions. Lets look at a specific example via table:
x
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
y
1/9
1/3
1
3
In general we have the following definition:

Exponential Functions:
The exponential function with base a is defined for all real numbers x by
y = ax
where a is a positive constant not equal to 1.
2. Graphs of Exponential Functions.
The graphs of exponential functions break into two general shapes, which have some of the
same key features:
Increasing Exponential:
Decreasing Exponential:
Domain:
Domain:
Range:
Range::
Asymptote:
Asymptote:
54
3. Transformations of Exponential Functions.
Now that we know the basic shapes of exponential graphs, we can also sketch transformations
of them as well. It will be important to keep track of the asymptote under the transformations to ensure a good sketch.
Describe the transformation and base graph. Draw a sketch, labeling the asymptote and
intercepts.
1. y = 1 2x
2. y =

1 2x1
3
4. Compound Interest.
Compound Interest (n compoundings per year):
If interest is compounded n times a year, we apply the following formula to calculate
the balance in t years:

r nt
A=P 1+
n
where
A = the amount after t years,
P = principal, or initial amount
n = number of times interest is compounded per year
t = number of years
r = annual rate
We shall now look at a few key examples of using the compound interest formula:
55
1. A sum of $5000 is invested at an interest rate of 12% per year. Find the amounts in
the account after 10 years if interest is compounded as follows:
(a) Annually.
(b) Quarterly.
(c) Monthly.
Annual Percentage Yield:

The annual percentage yield (APY, also called effective growth rate) can be interpreted as follows:
The actual amount of growth observed in a year.
The simple interest rate (n=1) that yields the same amount at the end of the
year.
2. Find the APY for an account that is compounded monthly at a rate of 4%.
56
4.2: The Natural Exponential Function

Topics
1. The Number e.
3. Continuously Compounded Interest.
2. The Natural Exponential Function.

1. The Number e.
We begin by considering a silly example. Suppose you invest $1 in an account bearing 100%
interest for one year, compounded n times per year. Using a graph or table, explain briefly
how the accumulated amount changes as the number of compoundings increases.
We shall define the number e to be:
2. The Natural Exponential Function.

The Natural Exponential Function:
The natural exponential function is defined for all real numbers x by
y = ex
where e is the constant defined above.
Graph:
57
Describe the transformation and base graph. Draw a sketch, labeling the asymptote and
intercepts.
1. y = 2ex
2. y = 3ex
3. Continuously Compounded Interest and Logistic Growth.

As the number of compoundings gets really large, we might say we are compounding interest
nearly all the time. The scenario in which compounding is occuring all the time is referred
to as continuously compounded interest.
Continuously Compounded Interest:
If interest is compounded continuously, we apply the following formula to calculate
the balance in t years:
A = P ert
where
A = the amount after t years,
P = principal, or initial amount
t = number of years
r = annual rate
1. A sum of $5000 is invested at an account that compounds interest continuously at a

rate of 3%. Find the balance in 3 years.
58
2. The balance in an account is $7361 after 3% interest is compounded continuously for

5 years. What was the initial amount of the investment?
3. Find the APY for an account that is compounded continuously at a rate of 4%. Round
to the nearest 0.01%.
Another important model that will prove useful is called the logistic growth model.
This model has some key features that we will explore via example.
4. An infectious disease begins to spread in a small city of population 10,000. After t days,
the number of people who have succumbed to the virus is modeled by the function
v(t) =
10, 000
5 + 1245e0.97t
(a) How many infected people are there initially?
(b) Find the number of infected people after one day, approximated appropriately.
(c) Graph the function v and describe its behavior.
59
Logistic Growth Model:
For quantities P that grow nearly exponentially for small values of t then approach
a horizontal asymptote, the logistic model may fit the data well:
P (t) =
d
1 + kect
where c, d, k are positive constants.

5. For the logistic growth model, determine the following:
(a) What is the y intercept?
(b) What happens as t ?
60
4.3: Logarithmic Functions

Topics
1. Review from 2.7: Inverse Functions.
3. Common Logarithms.
2. Logarithmic Functions.
4. Natural Logarithms.

Recall, the inverse of a function f (x) can be thought of intuitively as:
To motivate, lets explore some exponential equations:
a) 2x = 8
b) 212x = 1/4
c) 2x = 2
d) 2x = 5
So in the context of exponentials, we are currently at a standstill for solving certain types
of equations that have irrational solutions. This is where logarithms will come in!
2. Logarithmic Functions.
In order to cancel the exponential base a we shall define the base a logarithm, denoted by
loga as follows:
Definition of Logarithm base a
x = loga (y) is the solution to the equation y = ax , where y is any positive number.
In other words, the following two equations are equivalent: y = ax loga (y) = x
In particular, a logarithm and an exponential of the same base are INVERSE functions.
61
Exponential(Original Function)
input:
Logarithm (Inverse Function)

input:
output:
input:
domain:
domain:
range:
range:
asymptote:
asymptote:
Graph:
Graph:
input:

input:
output:
input:
domain:
domain:
range:
range:
asymptote:
asymptote:
Graph:
Graph:
62
In addition to the graphical results obtained above from noting the inverse relationship, we
shall find a lot of nice algebraic result too (we shall investigate this more deeply in the next
section):
1. Solve the equation: 2x = 5
2. Solve the equation: 2 (3)x1 = 8
3. Simplify each expression:

(a) log2 (4)
(b) log1/3 (9)
3. Transformation of Logarithms.
Describe each transformation in an appropriate order, identifying an appropriate base graph.
Determine the domain, range, and asymptote.
1. y = log2 (2x + 5) + 1.
2. y = log2 (x 1).
63
4. Common and Natural Logarithms.
Since y = 10x and y = ex are widely used exponentials in real-life applications, we have
special notation for the corresponding base logarithms.
Common and Natural Logarithms
Define the common logarithm as the base 10 logarithm, denoted simply as log(x).
log(x) is just a shortened way to write log10 (x).
Define the natural logarithm as the base e logarithm, denoted simply as ln(x).
ln(x) is just a shortened way to write loge (x).
Logarithms are particularly useful when values are extremely small, extremely large, and
span a wide range. Here we shall consider one application example in which logarithms are
used in the model:
1. The age of an ancient artifact can be determined by the amount of radioactive carbon14 remaining in it. It D0 is the original amount of carbon-14 and D is the amount
remaining, then the artifacts age A in years is given by

D
A = 8267 ln
D0
Find the age of an object if the amount D of carbon-14 that remains in the object is
73% of the original amount.
64
4.4: Laws of Logarithms

Topics
1. Review from 1.2: Exponents Properties.
3. Expanding and Combining Logarithmic

Expressions.
2. Laws of Logarithms.
4. Change of Base Formula.

1. Review from 1.2: Exponents Properties.
Properties of Exponents
Sum Property :
bm+n =
Subtraction Property :
bmn =
Multiplication Property :
bmn =
Recall that logarithms were constructed as inverses to exponential functions:

input:
input:
output:
input:
This relationship gives rise to equivalent properties in the language of logarithms:

2. Laws of Logarithms.
Properties of Logarithms
Sum Property :
Subtraction Property :
Multiplication Property :
65
3. Expanding and Combining Logarithmic Expressions.
1. Expand each logarithm completely:
(a) log2 (4yz 1/3 )

(b) ln
S 5T 2
Q3

(c) log
x2 y 3
zw4

q
p
x y x
(d) ln
(e) log(10(x 1)2 (x + 10)3 )
66
2. Rewrite as a single logarithm.
(a) 2 ln x + 3 ln y 4 ln z
(b) ln(6x) + 21 ln x ln(2x)
(c) log(5x) log(x) 3 log(3y) + log(t)

(d) ln
5x3
y x
(e) log(10(x 1)2 (x + 10)3 )
67
4. Change of Base Formula.
In instances where we would like to change from base b logarithms to base a logarithms (in
practice, we often use a=10 or e), there is a simple formula which helps us to do so. Since
its easy to derive, we shall do that first:
In summary, we have just proven the change of base formula:

Change of Base Formula
When is this formula useful? Here we shall see two distinct examples of its usage:
1. Evaluate log3 (6) accurate to 4 decimals.
2. Simplify the expression log3 (x) log5 (3).
3. Simplify the expression log100 (x) + log(x).
68
4.5: Exponential and Logarithmic Equations

Topics
1. Exponential Equations.
3. Application Problems.
2. Logarithmic Equations.
1. Exponential Equations.
Main focus: Apply algebra skills such as isolating an exponential expression, using the one
to one property of exponentials, substitution, and factorization to one main end:
Using algebra, reduce our equation to one or more simple equations in the form
y = asome variable expression .
Only when we reach this simple form will log base a be able to cancel the exponential base a.
The next page lists several exponential examples, which we will turn to now, before moving
on to log equations.
2. Logarithmic Equations.
Main focus: Apply algebra skills such as isolating a logarithmic expression, combining logarithms, using the one to one property of logarithms, substitution, and factorization to one
main end:
Using algebra, reduce our equation to one or more simple equations in the form
y = loga (some variable expression).
Only when we reach this simple form will exponential base a be able to cancel the log base a.
The next page lists several logarithmic examples, which we will turn to now.
69
More Practice:
Find the solution(s) exactly.
1. 10x = 5
5.
10
=4
1 + ex
2. 21x = 3
6. x2 2x 2x = 0
3. 4 + 35x = 8
7. 4x3 e3x 3x4 e3x = 0
4. 2e2x+1 = 200
70
8. e2x 3ex = 2
12. log2 (x2 x 2) = 2
9. ex 12ex 1 = 0
13. log(x) + log(x 1) = log(4x)
10. ln(x) = 10
14. log5 (x + 1) log5 (x 1) = log5 (20).
11. log(x 2) = 1
71
15. log9 (x 5) + log9 (x + 3) = 1.
16. log2 (log4 (x)) = 1.
17. log2 (2x 3) = 1
72
3. Application Problems.
1. Find the time required for an investment of $5000 to grow to $8000 at an interest rate
of 7.5% per year, compounded quarterly.
2. Find the time required for a student loan to triple in balance, if the interest rate is 9%
per year, compounded continuously. (Assume no other fees are assessed for simplicity).
3. A small lake is stocked with a certain species of fish. The fish population is modeled
by the function
10
P =
1 + 4e0.8t
(a) Find the fish population after 3 years. Approximate to the nearest fish.
(b) After a very long time, what happens to the population of the fish, based on this
model?
(c) After how many years will the fish population reach 5000 fish?
73
More Practice:
Find the solution(s) exactly.
1. 10x = 5
5.
10
=4
1 + ex
2. 21x = 3
6. x2 2x 2x = 0
3. 4 + 35x = 8
7. 4x3 e3x 3x4 e3x = 0
4. 2e2x+1 = 200
74
8. e2x 3ex = 2
12. log2 (x2 x 2) = 2
9. ex 12ex 1 = 0
13. log(x) + log(x 1) = log(4x)
10. ln(x) = 10
14. log5 (x + 1) log5 (x 1) = log5 (20).
11. log(x 2) = 1
75
15. log9 (x 5) + log9 (x + 3) = 1.
16. log2 (log4 (x)) = 1.
17. log2 (2x 3) = 1
76
Chapter 5: Trigonometric Functions: Unit Circle Approach

5.1: The Unit Circle
Topics
1. Unit Circle.
3. The reference number.
2. Terminal Points on the Unit Circle.

1. Unit Circle.
The unit circle
The unit circle (Ms. Hurs shorthand is S1 ) is the circle of radius 1 centered at the origin (0,0). Its
equation is
x2 + y 2 = 1.
We shall use the equation of the unit circle to either verify that a point is on the unit
circle, or perhaps to find the x or y coordinate on the unit circle given one of the two
coordinates and a quadrant.
q
q
3
4
is a point on the unit circle.
,
1. Show that
5
5
2. Find the point on the unit circle with x coordinate
1
3
in quadrant IV.
2. Terminal Points on the Unit Circle S1 .

Given a real number t (any decimal), we can imagine t as defining a distance along the circumference of a unit circle. positive meaning counterclockwise motion and negative meaning
clockwise motion.
There are some particularly nice values for t which give us easy to calculate terminal
points. Lets list some of those out:
77
Although we see that certain fractions of give exactly calculable terminal points, its not
always the case that we will be working with t that is exactly fractions of . For example, if
t is a time variable, it is common to use integer values. Keeping in mind our basic definition
of the terminal point, it is still reasonably easy to approximate values of the terminal point
and certainly the quadrant that t terminates in.
If possible, determine the terminal point exactly and state the quadrant. If not possible
to find exactly, use the above diagram to approximate the terminal point to the nearest 0.1
and state the quadrant.
1. t = 3/2
2. t = 11/3
3. t = 8
4. t = 3
78
3. The Reference Number
The reference number t
Let t be any real number. The reference number, denoted by t associated with t is the shortest
distance along the unit cicle between the terminal point and the x axis
1. For each of the following, determine the reference number:
(a) t = 3/2
(b) t = 11/3
(c) t = 8
(d) t = 3
(e) t = 31/5
2. If t corresponds to a terminal point (a, b) in quadrant I, find the terminal points for:
(a) + t
(b) t
(c)
+t
79
5.2: Trigonometric Functions of Real Numbers

Topics
1. The Trigonometric Functions.
3. Fundamental Identities.
2. Values of the Trigonometric Functions.

1. Unit Circle.
Definition of the Trigonometric Functions
Let t be any real number and P (x, y) be the terminal point on the unit circle determined by t. We
define:
sin(t) = y
csc(t) =
1
y
cos(t) = x
tan(t) =
y
x
1
x
cot(t) =
x
y
sec(t) =
In particular for sin(t), cos(t), and tan(t), we have really nice geometric interpretations of
the outputs of those functions:
For each of the following special angles, find the values of all the trig functions:
1. t = 0
2. t =
80
3. t = /2
4. t = /4
5. t = /3
6. t = /6
2. Values of the Trigonometric Functions.

To evaluate the trig functions at other values of t, drawing the unit circle, finding the point,
and using reference numbers can be very helpful. For each of the following angles, find the
values of all the trig functions:
1. t = 200
2. t = 10/4
3. t = 2/3
4. t = 5/6
81
3. Fundamental Identities.
Even-Odd Properties:
Fundamental Identities:
1. Given that cos(t) = 2/3 and t is in QIII, find the values of all the trig functions at t.
82
2. Given that tan(t) = 2 and t is in QIV, find the values of all the trig functions at t.
3. Write tan(t) in terms of cos(t) where t is in QII.
83
5.3: Trigonometric Graphs

Topics
1. Graphs of Sine and Cosine.
2. Graphs of Transformations of Sine and

Cosine.

0. Warmup.
Write the sin(t) and cos(t) values exactly for the following special values of t.
t
0
sin(t)
t
cos(t)
1. Graphs of Sine and Cosine.

Before diving into the graphs, we will note some nice algebraic/geometric properties first.
Two notable algebraic features include:
Symmetry
Periodicity.
Period of sin(t) and cos(t)
The functions sin(t) and cos(t) have period 2.
sin(t + 2k) = sin(t) and cos(t + 2k) = cos(t) for any integer k.
Intuitively:
Also, remembering that sin(t) = y and cos(t) = x are x and y coordinates of the terminal
point on the unit circle, domain and range are easy to determine too!
Domain of sin(t) and cos(t):
Range of sin(t) and cos(t):
84
Now, we shall draw sketches of each graph.
2. Graphs of Transformations of Sine and Cosine.

To aid us in drawing the transformation of sine and cosine graphs (sometimes called sinusoidal graphs or harmonic motion), it helps to keep track of characteristics that are horizontal
(about the inputs) and those that are vertical (about the outputs).
Horizontal Characteristics:
Vertical Characteristics:
Base Graphs:
85
Lets explore a few simple examples before diving into more complex ones: For each of the
following, determine the period, phaseshift, average (midline), amplitude, max, and min.
Then draw a sketch of two cycles (two periods) of the graph.
1. y = cos(x) + 2
2. y = 3 cos(x)
3. y = sin(2x)
4. y = sin(x 1)
86
In general, to graph transformations of sin(t) or cos(t), we have the following procedure:

1. Identify the base graph.
2. Identify the period, phaseshift, average (midline), amplitude, max, and min.
3. Locate the starting point of the base graph on the transformed graph. Use the pattern of
the base graph to determine max/min/average points.
4. Smoothly connect the points plotted in step 3.
Particularly, for graphs of the form y = A cos(B(t C)) + D or y = A sin(B(t C)) + D, we have:
period
phaseshift
average (midline)
amplitude
max
min
For each of the following, determine the period, phaseshift, average (midline), amplitude,
max, and min. Then draw a sketch of two cycles (two periods) of the graph.
1. y = 3 cos(2x) 1
2. y = 0.5 cos(/3(x 1)) + 1.5
87
3. y = 2 sin(2x + /3) + 4
For each of the following, determine a formula in terms of sine or cosine for the given graph.
1.
2.
88
5.6: Modeling Harmonic Motion

Topics
1. Simple Harmonic Motion.
2. Damped Harmonic Motion.

1. Simple Harmonic Motion.
Simple Harmonic Motion
If the equation describing the displacement y of an object at time t is
y = a sin(t) or y = a cos(t)
then the object is in simple harmonic motion. In this case,
amplitude = |a| (maximum displacement of the object)
period = 2
(time required to complete one cycle)
frequency= 2
(number of cycles per unit of time)
More generally, we can define harmonic motion in which the function may be
shifted vertically or horizontally.
y = a sin((t c)) + b or y = a cos((t c)) + b
average y = b (average value)

phase shift= c (horizontal shift from base to final graph)
1. Suppose the displacement of a mass suspended by a spring is modeled by the function

y = 10 sin(4t)
Where y is measured in inches and t is in seconds.
(a) Find the amplitude, period, and frequency of the motion.
(b) Sketch a graph of the displacement of the mass.
89
2. A mass is suspended from a spring. The spring is compressed at a distance of 4 cm and
then released. It is observed that the mass returns to the compressed position after 31
second.
(a) Find a function that models the displacement of the mass.
(b) Sketch the graph of the displacement of the mass.
3. Suppose a ferris wheel has a radius of 10 m and the bottom of the wheel passes 2 m
above the ground.
If the ferris wheel makes one complete revolution every 20 seconds, find an equation
that gives the height above the ground of a person on the ferris wheel as a function of
time.
90
2. Damped Harmonic Motion.
To sketch transformations of Tangent, Cotangent, Secant,and Cosecant, we use our knowledge of the features and shapes of the base graphs.
Damped Harmonic Motion
If the equation describing the displacement y of an object at time t is
y = kect sin(t) or y = kect cos(t)
then the object is in damped harmonic motion. In this case,
damping constant = c (maximum displacement of the object)
initial amplitude= k
(time required to complete one cycle)
period (aka quasi-period)= 2
1. Two mass spring systems are experiencing damped harmonic motion, both at 0.5 cycles
per second with an initial maximum displacement of 10 cm. Suppose the damping
constant is 0.5 for the first spring and 0.1 for the second.
(a) Find functions of the form g(t) = kect cos(t) to model the displacement at time
t for each spring.
(b) Graph the two functions together for 0 < t < 15. How do they differ?
91
2. A tuning fork is struck and oscillates in damped harmonic motion. The amplitude of
that motion is measured and 3 seconds later it is found that the amplitude has dropped
to 1/4 of this value. Find the damping constant c for the tuning fork.
92
5.4: More Trigonometric Graphs

Topics
1. Graphs of Tangent, Cotangent, Secant,and Cosecant.
2. Graphs of Transformations of Tangent,

Cotangent, Secant,and Cosecant.

1. Tangent, Cotangent, Secant,and Cosecant.
Using the fact that tan(t) is just the slope of the terminal side of t, it is fairly simple to
sketch a good graph of tangent:
Graph of Tangent and Summary of Features
Based on the above graph, we can also determine the graph of Cotangent.
Graph of Cotangent and Summary of Features
93
To obtain graphs of Secant and Cosecant, it is often helpful to refer to graphs of Cosine and
Sine:
Graph of Secant and Summary of Features
Graph of Cosecant and Summary of Features
94
2. Graphs of Transformations of Tangent, Cotangent, Secant,and Cosecant.
To sketch transformations of Tangent, Cotangent, Secant,and Cosecant, we use our knowledge of the features and shapes of the base graphs.
Examples: Determine all features of the transformations. Sketch 2 cycles of each graph.
1. y = tan(x) + 1
2. y = cot(x).
95
3. y = 2 sec(2x)
4. y = 1/2 csc(x /4)
96
5.5: Inverse Trigonometric Functions and Their Graphs

Topics
1. Inverse Sine
4. Calculations with inverse trig functions.
2. Inverse Cosine
5. Inverse Secant, Cosecant, Cotangent

(*see text, not an emphasis for this
course)
3. Inverse Tangent
Recall, the inverse of a function f (x) can be thought of intuitively as:

Further recall, the inverse of a function exists only when the function is ONE-TO-ONE.
Since trig functions are periodic (values repeat an infinite number of times!), we have to
RESTRICT to an interval of arclengths t in order to construct an inverse function. Note
that the inverse only cancels the RESTRICTED portion of graph (i.e. f 1 (f (t)) = t ONLY
for t values in the restricted portion of the graph).
1. Inverse Sine
We can consider the appropriate restriction by looking at either the graph of y = sin(t) or
considering the unit circle.
Inverse Sine (aka Arcsine)
97
2. Inverse Cosine
We can consider the appropriate restriction by looking at either the graph of y = cos(t) or
considering the unit circle.
Inverse Cosine (aka Arccosine)
3. Inverse Tangent
We can consider the appropriate restriction by looking at the graph of y = tan(t) .
Inverse Tangent (aka Arctan)
4. Calculations with inverse trig functions

Find the exact value or expression, if it is defined.
1. sin1 (1/2)
2. arccos( 3/2)
98
3. tan1 (1)
6. sin(cos1 (0))
4. sin(sin1 (5))
7. tan(sin1 (0))
5. cos1 (cos(5))
8. sec( + tan1 ( 3)
99
Chapter 6: Trigonometric Functions: Right Triangle

Approach
6.1: Angle Measure
Topics
4. Area of a Circular Sector.
1. Angle Measure.
2. Angles in Standard Position.
3. Length of a Circular Arc.
5. Circular Motion.

1. Angle Measure.
Radian Measure
The radian measure of an angle is simply the arclength on the unit circle when the angle is drawn
with the vertex at the center of the circle.
180 = rad
1. To convert from degrees to radian, multiply by
2. To convert from radian to degrees, multiply by
Complete the following table of radian and degree measure angles:
radian
degree 45
/3
7/6
1
1
30
330
2. Angles in Standard Position.

Standard Position:
An angle is in standard position if it is drawn in the xy-plane with both of the following conditions
satisfied:
1. The vertex of the angle is at the origin (0, 0).
2. The angles initial side is on the positive x-axis.
100
1. Draw each angle in standard position:
(a) /3
(b) 120
(c) 45
101
Coterminal Angles:
Two answers in standard position are coterminal if they have the SAME terminal side.
2. Find two angles that are coterminal to the given angle:
(a) /3
(b) 120
(c) 45
3. Length of a Circular Arc.

Length of a Circular Arc:
In a circle of radius r, the length s of an arc that subtends a central angle of radians is
s = r
3. Find the length of an arc that subtends a central angle of on a circle of radius r,
given:
(a) = 5/6 and r = 2 inches.
(b) = 120 and r = 3 inches.
102
4. Area of a Circular Sector.
Area of a Circular Sector:
In a circle of radius r, the area A of a sector with a central angle of radians is
1
A = r2
2
4. Find the area of the sector with a central angle of on a circle of radius r, given:
(a) = 5/6 and r = 2 inches.
(b) = 120 and r = 3 inches.
5. Determine the unknown quantity:

(a) s = 6 and r = 2. Find .
(b) = 120 and A = 18. Find r.
103
6. The top and bottom ends of a windshield wiper blade are 34 inches and 14 inches,
respectively, from the pivot point. While in operation, the wiper sweeps through 135 .
Find the area swept by the blade.
5. Circular Motion.
If an object moves along a circular wheel, there is a connection to the speed of the object
and how fast the wheel is rotating.
Linear and Angular:
The linear speed v is the rate at which the distance traveled is changing.
v=
d
t
If an object is traveling on wheels, the distance is travelled on the outside of the wheels. In other
words, d = r, so we have
r
v=
t
The angular speed is the rate at which the central angle is changing.
=
Finally, the connection between v and :
7. A ceiline fan with 16 inch blades rotates at 45 rpm.

(a) Find the angular speed of the fan in rad/min.
(b) Find the linear speed of the tips of the blades in inches/minute.
104
8. A cars wheels are 28 inches in diameter.
(a) How far (in miles) will the car travel if its wheels revolve 10,000 times without
slipping?
(b) What is the angular velocity in radian/hour if the car travels 35 miles per hour?
(c) What is the angular velocity in rpm?
9. Written homework problem (p 442, # 86) The sprockets and chain of a bicycle are
shown in the figure. The pedal sprocket has a radius of 4 inches, the wheel sprocket a
radius of 13 inches. The cyclist pedals at 40 rpm.
(a) Find the angular speed of the wheel sprocket.
(b) Find the speed of the bicycle. (Assume the wheel is a fixed wheel, not a free
wheel)
105
6.2: Trigonometry of Right Triangles

Topics
1. Trigonometric Ratios.
3. Applications of Trigonometry of Right

Triangles.
2. Special Triangles.
1. Trigonometric Ratios.
The Trigonometric Ratios:
sin() =
opposite
hypotenuse
cos() =
adjacent
hypotenuse
tan() =
opposite
adjacent
csc() =
hypotenuse
opposite
sec() =
hypotenuse
adjacent
cot() =
adjacent
opposite
For each of the following, find all 6 trig ratios:

1. The triangle with opposite side length 4 and hypotenuse length 5.
sin() =
cos() =
tan() =
csc() =
sec() =
cot() =
2. The triangle with opposite side length 1 and adjacent side length 3.
sin() =
cos() =
tan() =
csc() =
sec() =
cot() =
106
2. Special Triangles.
The Special Triangles:
A triangle has six parts (3 angles and 3 sides). To solve a triangle means to determine all of
its parts (all angles and all sides).
For the following, solve each triangle exactly.
1. The right triangle ABC, with A = 90 , B = 45 , AB = 2.
2. The right triangle ABC, with A = 30 , B = 60 , AB = 5.
107
3. The right triangle ABC, with A = 20 , B = 90 , AC = 3.
4. The right triangle ABC, with A = 90 , B = , AC = h.
3. Applications of Trigonometry of Right Triangles.

Angle of Elevation vs. Angle of Depression:
1. A water tower is located 325 feet from a building. From a window in the building, an
observer notes that the angle of elevation to the top of the tower is 40 and the angle
of depression to the bottom of the tower is 25 .
(a) Draw a diagram that shows this scenario.
(b) How tall is the tower?
(c) How high is the window?
108
2. A hot air balloon is floating above a straight road. To estimate their height above
the ground, the balloonists simultaneously measure the angle of depression to two
consecutive mileposts on the road on the same side of the balloon. The angles of
depression are found to be 20 and 22 .
(a) Draw a diagram that shows this scenario.
(b) How high is the balloon?
3. (p 451, Written Homework Problem # 62)

When the moon is seen at its zenith at a point A on the earth, it is observed to be at
the horizon from point B. Points A and B are 6155 miles apart, and the radius of the
earth is approximately 3960 miles.
(a) Find the angle in degrees.
(b) Estimate the distance from point A to the moon.
109
6.3: Trigonometry Functions of Angles

Topics
1. Trigonometric Functions of Angles.
3. Areas of Triangles.
2. Trigonometric Identities.
1. Trigonometric Functions of Angles.
The Trigonometric Functions:
Let p
be an angle in standard position and let P (x, y) be any point on the terminal side. If
r = x2 + y 2 is the distance from the origin to the point P (x, y), then
sin() =
y
r
cos() =
x
r
tan() =
y
x
csc() =
r
y
sec() =
r
x
cot() =
x
y
As with unit circle trig, it is convenient to determine the reference number, and use the fact
that the associated terminal points are the same up to sign.
Reference Angle:
Let be an angle in standard position. The reference angle associated with is the acute angle
formed by the terminal side of and the x axis.
1. Determine the reference angle (in the same units as the original angle). Evaluate the
following exactly:
(a) cos(135 )
(b) cot(390 )
(c) sec(10/3)
(d) csc(11/4)
110
2. Trigonometric Identities.
Quotient Identity
Reciprocal Identities
Pythagorean Identities
Negative Angle Identities (aka Even-Odd Identities)
2. Express csc() in terms of cos(), given that terminates in QII.
111
3. If csc() = 1/4 and terminates in QIII, find all 6 trig values:

sin() =
cos() =
tan() =
csc() =
sec() =
cot() =
4. If tan() = 2 and terminates in QIV, find all 6 trig values:

sin() =
cos() =
tan() =
csc() =
sec() =
cot() =
3. Areas of Triangles.
The area of a triangle with side lengths a and b with included angle is
5. Find the area of a triangle ABC that has side lengths AB = 10cm, BC = 4cm, and
included angle 120 .
112
6.4: Inverse Trigonometric Functions and Right Triangles

Topics
1. The Inverse Since, Inverse Cosin, and
Inverse Tangent Functions.
3. Evaluating Expressions Involving Inverse Trigonometric Functions.
2. Solving for Angles in Right Triangles.
4. Basic Solving Equations.

1. The Inverse Sine, Inverse Cosins, and Inverse Tangent Functions.
Inverse Trig Functions:
2. Solving for Angles in Right Triangles.

1. Solve the triangle:
113
2. Find all angles between 0 and 180 with sin() = 1/2.
3. Find all angles between 0 and 180 with sin() = 0.3.
4. An observer views the space shuttle from a distance of 2 miles from the launch pad.
(a) Express the height of the space shuttle as a function of the angle of elevation .
(b) Express the angle of elevation as a function of the height h of the space shuttle.
114
3. Evaluating Expressions Involving Inverse Trigonometric Functions.
1. Evaluate cos(sin1 (4/5)) exactly.
2. Evaluate sec(sin1 (12/13)) exactly.
3. Rewrite the expression as an algebraic expression in x.

cos(sin1 (x))
4. Rewrite the expression as an algebraic expression in x.

sec(tan1 (x))
115
4. Basic Solving Equations.
1. Find all solutions
between 0 and 360 .
sin(x) = 2 3
2. Find all solutions

between 0 and 360 .
2
cos(x) = 2
3. Find all solutions between 0 and 360 .

tan(x) = 1

sin(x) = 1/4

tan(x) = 2
116
Chapter 7: Analytic Trigonometry

7.1: Trigonometric Identities
Topics
1. Building our toolbox of identities.
3. Proving Identities.
2. Simplifying Trig Expressions.

1. Building Our Toolbox of Identities.
We introduce here another set of useful identities below, called the Co-function identities.
The Co in co-function can be thought of as COmplementary. Here we motivate the identities
by focusing on right triangles; however, these identities hold for ANY angle (radian, degree,
big, small, positive or negative).
117
Quotient Identity
Reciprocal Identities
Pythagorean Identities
Negative Angle Identities (aka Even-Odd Identities)
Cofunction Identities
2. Simplifying Trig Expressions.

Simplify the following completely:
1. cos(t) + tan(t) sin(t)
2.
sin()
cos()
cos()
1+sin()
118
3.
1
sec(v)+tan(v)
4.
cos(t) sec(t)
tan(t)
3. Proving Identities.
To prove identities, there are two mathematically accepted methods of doing so:
Simplify one side of the identity until you reach the other side of the identity.
Simplify each side SEPARATELY to the same expression.
Prove each identity using one of the above methods:
1. sin2 () + cos2 () + tan2 () = sec2 ()
2.
(sin(t)+cos(t))2
sin(t) cos(t)
3.
1+sin(x)
1sin(x)
= 2 + sec(t) csc(t)
= (tan(x) + sec(x))2
119
7.2: Addition and Subtraction Formulas

Topics
1. Addition and Subtraction Formulas.
2. Evaluating Expressions Involving Inverse Trig Functions.
3. Expressions of the form A sin x + B cos x
1. Addition and Subtraction Formulas.
Addition and Subtraction Formulas:
Evaluate the following EXACTLY:

(a) cos(75 )
(c) sin(20 ) cos(40 ) + cos(20 ) sin(40 )
(b) sin(/12)
120
Prove the identity:

1 + tan(x)
= tan
+x
1 tan(x)
4

Simplify the following completely:
1. sin(cos1 (1/3) + tan1 (2))
2. sin(cos1 (1/3) tan1 (2))
3. cos(sin1 (1/x) + tan1 (x))
121
4. cos(sin1 (1/x) tan1 (x))
3. Expressions of the form A sin x + B cos x.

Sums of Sines and Cosines
If A and B are real numbers, then
A sin x + B cos x = k sin(x + )
where k =
A2 + B 2 and satisfies
cos() =
A
B
and sin() =
A2 + B 2
A2 + B 2
Express each of the following in the form k sin(x + )
1. y = sin(x) + 3 cos(x)
2. sin(x) + cos(x)
122
7.3: Double Angle Formulas

Topics
1. Double Angle Formulas.
3. Power Reduction Formulas.
In our course, we are covering a very specific subset of these topics from this section. We
WILL cover double angle and power reduction formulas. We will not cover other topics (like
half angle and product to sum).
1. Double Angle Formulas.
We can derive these from the sum and difference formulas from last section:
Double Angle Formulas:
Now lets practice putting these identities to use:
123
1. Given that sin(x) =
(a) sin(2x)
4
5
and cos(x) = 35 , find

(b)cos(2x)
(c) tan(2x)
2. Given that cot(x) = 1/3 and x terminates in QII, find

(a) sin(2x)
(b)cos(2x)
(c) tan(2x)
3. Given that csc(x) = c and x terminates in QII, find

(a) sin(2x)
(b)cos(2x)
(c) tan(2x)
4. Prove the following identity:

2 tan(x)
= sin(2x)
1 + tan2 (x)
124
5. Prove the following identity:
cos4 x sin4 x = cos(2x)

Just as in the previous section, drawing a diagram makes these problems much simpler than
they appear!
1. sin(2 cos1 (2/3))
2. cos(2 tan1 (x))
3. cos(2 sin1 (1/x))
125
3. Power Reduction Formulas.
The power reduction formulas are derived from the double angle identities for cosine:
Power Reduction Formulas:
Use the formulas for lowering powers to rewrite the expression in terms of the first power of
cosine.
(a) sin4 (x)
(b) cos2 (x) sin2 (x)
126
7.4: Basic Trigonometric Equations

Topics
1. Basic Trigonometric Equations.
2. Solving Trigonometric Equations By Factoring.
1. Basic Trigonometric Equations.
Find all solutions in [0, 2) exactly.
(a) cos() = 1/2
(b) sin() = 2/2
(c) tan() = 1
(d) sin() = 1/5
(e) 3 cos() = 1
(f) cot() = 2
127
Find all solutions exactly.
(a) cos() = 1/2
(b) sin() = 2/2
(c) tan() = 1
(d) sin() = 1/5
(e) 3 cos() = 1
(f) cot() = 2
In general, find all solutions in one period. Then find all remaining solutions using the period.
2. Solving Trigonometric Equations By Factoring.

Find all solutions exactly.
1. 2 cos2 () 1 = 0
128
2. 3 tan() sin() 2 tan() = 0.
3. 2 cos2 () 7 cos() + 3 = 0.
4. 2 sin2 () sin() 1 = 0.
129
7.5: More Trigonometric Equations

Topics
1. Solving Trig Equations By Using Identities.
2. Equations with Trig Functions of Multiple Angles.
3. Summary of all Trig Identities (only Sum/Diff given on the test; others must be memorized!)
1. Solving Trig Equations By Using Identities.
(i) Find all solutions. (ii) Find the solutions in the interval in [0, 2).
(a) 2 cos2 (x) + sin(x) = 1
(b) csc2 () = cot() + 3
(c) cos(2) = 3 sin() 1
(d) 2 sin() tan() tan() = 1 2 sin()
130
2. Equations with Trig Functions of Multiple Angles.
(i) Find all solutions.
(ii) Find the solutions in the interval
in [0, 2).
(a) 2 cos(2) = 2
(b) 3 tan(4) = 1
(c) sec(3) 2 = 0
(d) sin(2) = 1/3
131
3. Summary of all Trig Identities used in Math 120R
Quotient
Reciprocal
Pythagorean
Negative Angle
Cofunction
Sum and Difference
Double Angle
Power Reduction
132
Appendix: Fundamental Algebra Skills Review

1.3: Algebraic Expressions
Topics
1. Adding and Subtracting Polynomials.
2. Multiplying Algebraic Expressions.
3. Special Product Formulas.
4. Factoring Common Factors.
5. Factoring Trinomials.
6. Special Factoring Formulas.
7. Factoring by Grouping.
Warm-Up
Given f (x) = 2x3 4x + 1 and g(x) = x 1, expand and simplify the following:
1. f (x) + g(x) =
2. g(x) f (x) =
3. f (x)g(x) =

1. Adding and Subtracting Polynomials
How does one add or subtract polynomials?
2. Multiplying Polynomials
How does one multiply two polynomials?
133
3. Special Product Formulas:
Use the scratch work space below to complete the below list of special product formulas.
If A and B are any numbers or algebraic expressions, then
1. (A + B)(A B) =
2. (A + B)2 =
3. (A B)2 =
4. (A + B)3 =
5. (A B)3 =
Scratch work:
4. Factoring Common Factors:

If all terms of a sum have a common factor (multiple), then one may pull out the common
factor. For example, factor the following completely:
1. 3x2 6x =
134
2. 2x3 2x =
3. 8x4 y 2 + 6x2 y 3 2xy 4 =
5. Factoring Trinomials:
To factor a trinomial of the form ax2 + bx + c (if a factorization exists), we generally do so
by trial and error. The key in rewriting has to do with checking that when foiled out, our
factorization must give us ax2 + bx + c . This is best seen by example:
For each of the following, factor completely:
1. x2 + 7x + 12
3. 6x2 + 7x 5
2. x2 3x 10
4. 8x2 13x 15
135
6. Special Factoring Formulas:
1. A2 B 2 = (A B)(A + B)
2. A2 + 2AB + B 2 = (A + B)2
3. A2 2AB + B 2 = (AB )2
4. A3 B 3 = (A B)(A2 + AB + B 2 )
5. A3 + B 3 = (A + B)(A2 AB + B 2 )
For each of the following, factor completely:
1. x2 + 6x + 9
3. 2x4 8x2
2. 4x2 4xy + y 2
4. x5 y 2 xy 6
7. Factoring by Grouping:
We shall explore this tool via example. Factor the following completely.
1. x3 + x2 + 4x + 4
2. x3 2x2 3x + 6
136
8. Factoring by least powers
Factor by first factoring out the lowest power of each common factor
1. 2x2 (x + 1) 6x(x + 1)2
3. x3/2 + 2x1/2 + x1/2
2. x1/2 x5/2
4. x1/2 (x + 1)1/2 + x1/2 (x + 1)1/2
137
1.4: Rational Expressions

Topics
1. Domain of an Algebraic Expression.
2. Simplifying Rational Expressions.
3. Multiplying and Dividing Rational Expressions.
4. Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions.
5. Compound Fractions.
6. Rationalizing the Denominator or Numerator.
7. Avoiding Common Errors.
Warm-Up
When dividing, what is the only number that we cannot divide by?
When square-rooting, what types of numbers are not square-rootable?

1. Domain of an Algebraic Expression
For each of the following expressions, find the domain.
x2 x
3. 3 1 x
1. cx
2 +x
2.
x5
4.
x
x3 x
138
2. Simplifying Rational Expressions.
To simplify rational expressions, one often uses methods like factoring and common denominators. We shall review by example:
Simplify the following expressions completely.
1.
3x2x2
14x21
3.
x+2
x1
+7
2.
z 2 +z6
4(z+2)z 2 (z+2)
4.
6
n7
2n
n+1
3. Multiplying and Dividing Rational Expressions.

Some basic rules to remember about multiplying and dividing rational expressions:
To multiply rational expressions, we simply
To divide rational expressions, we simply
Given f (x) =
x
x+1
1. (f g) (x)
and g(x) =
2 1
x
,
x
.
.
complete the following operations and simplify.

2. fg (x)
139
4. Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions.
To add or subtract rational expressions, we simply
Given f (x) =
x+1
x2 2x
and g(x) =
3
,
x2 x2
complete the following operations and simplify.

2. (f g) (x))
1. (f + g) (x)
5. Compound Fractions.
Write each expression in simplified form.
1.
2.
3
4+h
3
4
k 2 k 1
k 3
3. (x1 + y 1 )
140
6. Rationalizing the Denominator or Numerator.
We use a
trick involving what is referred to as the conjugate radical. A + B C is conjugate
to A B C and vice versa.
1. Rationalize the denominator:

1
1+ 2
2. Rationalize the numerator:
4+h2
h
7. Avoiding Common Errors.

See the box of common errors on pg 41 of the text. Short story: only multiplication/division
distribute over addition and only exponentiation/radicals distribute over products.
141
1.5: Equations
Topics
1. Solving Linear Equations.
2. Solving Quadratic Equations.
3. Solving other Types of Equations.
1. Solving Linear Equations.
Solve the following linear equations:
1. 3x + 2 = 12 x
2.
1
x
3
1
6
=x+
1
12
Briefly summarize your technique for solving linear equations here:
2. Solving Quadratic Equations.

Solve the following quadratic equations exactly:
1. x2 2x = 8
3. (x 1)(x + 2) = 10
2. 2x2 x 1 = 0
4. x2 + x 1 = 0
Briefly summarize your techniques for solving quadratic equations here (there are two particularly useful methods):
142
3. Solving other Types of Equations.

Solve the following equations exactly, below each solution state a short description of your
tactic:
1.
5
3
+
=2
x x+2
2. 2x = 1
3. x4 8x2 + 8 = 0
4. |2x 5| = 3
2x
More Practice
1. Solve exactly: 5y 2 (4y 7)(y + 2) = 0
4. Solve for r: V = 34 r3
2. Solve exactly: t3 = 7t
5. Solve for S:
3. Solve exactly: 2y =
3y 2 + 1
1
R
1
S
1
T
6. Solve exactly: |x + 2| = 1.
143
1.6: Modeling with Equations

Topics
4. Problems about the Time Needed to Do

a Job.
2. Problems about Area or Length.

3. Problems about Mixtures.
5. Problems about Distance, Rate, and

Time.

We will follow these guidelines to have an organized approach at handling word problems.
Guidelines for Modeling with Equations
1. Identify the variable (the quantity we are trying to solve for!).
2. Translate from words into algebra. Often a diagram or table can help us with
this step.
3. Set up the Model. Find the simple formula for the given quantity or quantities.
4. Solve the equation and check your answer. Be sure to include units in your final
answer!
2. Problems about Area or Length.

1. A square garden has a walkway 3 feet wide around its outer edge. If the area of the
entire garden, including the walkway, is 18,000 square feet, what are the dimensions of
the planted area?
144
2. A rectangular lot is 8 feet longer than it is wide and has an area of 2900 square feet.
Find the dimensions of the lot.
3. A 20 foot ladder leans against a building. If the base of the ladder is 8 feet away from
the building, how high up on the building does the ladder reach? Give an exact answer.
3. Problems about Mixtures.

1. What quantity of a 60% acid solution must be mixed with a 30% solution to produce
300 mL of a 50% solution?
145
2. A 100 gallon container is full with a 2% concentration of bleach. How much should be
drained and replaced with pure bleach in order to strengthen the contents to 5%?
4. Problems about the Time Needed to Do a Job.

1. Hank and Sally can mow their property in 60 minutes when they work together. Since
Hank uses a riding mower while Sally uses a push mower, Hank works twice as fast.
How long does it take Hank to mow the lawn by himself?
2. Betty and Karen have been hired to paint the houses in a new development. Working
together, the women can paint a house in two thirds the time that it takes Karen
working along. Betty takes 6 hours to paint a house alone. How long does it take
Karen to paint a house working alone?
146
5. Problems about Distance, Rate, and Time.
1. Amy travels 450 miles in her car at a certain speed. If the car had gone 15 mph faster,
the trip would have taken 1 hour less. Determine the speed of her car.
2. A boat travels down a river with a current. Travelling with the current, a trip of 58
miles takes 3 hours while the return trip travelling against the current takes 4 hours.
How fast is the current?
147
1.7: Inequalities
Topics
1. Solving Linear Inequalities.
3. Solving Non-linear Inequalities.
2. Absolute Value Inequalities.
4. Modeling with Inequalities.

1. Solving Linear Inequalities.
Linear inequalities are the simplest to work with. We may solve these in the same way we
would an equality with one big caveat:
Now lets go through some examples from the accompanying worksheet of this type (2 a,b,c).
2. Absolute Value Inequalities.
We use the definition of absolute value to handle these types of inequalities. Intuitively, lets
think about what the absolute value function does:
For POSITIVE numbers x, how can we simplify |x|?
For NEGATIVE numbers x, how can we simplify |x|?
We can write this more compactly as follows:
Now lets go through some examples from the accompanying worksheet of this type (2 d,e,f).
3. Solving Non-linear Inequalities.
Since there are so many types of non-linear functions, it is difficult to set one method of
solving every kind of non-linear inequality. A general rule that works in many cases is
148
Now lets go through some examples from the accompanying worksheet of this type (pages
2-3 #1-13).
4. Modeling with Inequalities.
We shall combine our methods from 1.6 with our inequality solving skills from this section:
1. A charter airline finds that on its Saturday flight from Philadelphia to London a;; 120
seats will be sold if the ticket price is $200. However, for each $3 increas in price, the
number of seats sold decreases by 1.
(a) Find a formula for the number of seats sold if the ticket price is P dollars.
(b) Over a certain period, the number of seats sold for this flight ranged from 90 to
115. Based on your formula, what do you estimate the corresponding range of
ticket price to be?
(c) Find a formula for the revenue if the ticket price is P dollars.
(d) If operational costs for the flight total about $10, 000, what price range should
the tickets be priced at?
149
1.8: Coordinate Geometry

Topics
1. The Distance and Midpoint Formulas.
3. Circles.
2. Graphs of Equations in Two Variables

and intercepts.
4. Symmetry.

1. The Distance and Midpoint Formulas.
Distance Formula:
The distance between the points A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ) in the plane is
d(A, B) =
p
(x2 x1 )2 + (y2 y1 )2
Midpoint Formula:
The midpoint between the points A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ) in the plane is

x1 + x2 y1 + y2
,
2
2
Find the distance of the line segment that joins the points given. Then find the midpoint of
the line segment.
1. (3, 7) and (4, 7).
2. (a, b) and (b, a).
2. Graphs of Equations in Two Variables and Intercepts.

The graph of an equation in x and y simply is the set of all points (x, y) that satisfy the
equation. We can sketch graphs by evaluating at certain x (or y) values to find corresponding
y (or x) values. Then plot the points and connect them by a continuous curve to create a
reasonable sketch. This task can be time-consuming, so in Chapter 3, we will study graphs
of special types of functions more closely to avoid graphing by plotting points.
150
1. Sketch y = x2 2 by plotting at least 5 points.
2. Sketch x = |y| by plotting at least 5 points.
Points on the graph that fall on the x or y axes often play an important role, so we give
those points a special name: x and y intercepts.
To find y intercept(s):
To find x intercept(s):
3. Circles.
Now, we shall find the equation for a circle. So lets understand this via an example and
then summarize our general results below.
Lets start by finding the equation of a circle of radius 2 centered at the point (1,3).
151
Our construction of the circle above extends to a general equation:
Standard Form of the Equation of a Circle:
An equation of the circle with center (h, k) and radius r is
Find the equation of the circle in standard form.

1. The circle of radius 3 centered at (-1,2).
2. The circle with a diameter formed by the line segment (1, 3) and (2, 1).
3. The circle with equation x2 + 2x + y 2 6x = 6.
152
4. Symmetry.
In general, there are 3 types of symmetries for graphs in the x-y plane.
Type of Symmetry
Algebraic Test
Example Sketch
Graphical Test
Test for symmetry:

(a) y = x3 + x.
(b) x = |y| + y 2 .
(c) y = x3 .
(d) xy = 2.
Complete the graph based on the information provided:

(a) The graph is symmetric about the x axis. (b) The graph is symmetric about the y axis.
(c) The graph is symmetric about the origin.
153
1.9: Graphing Calculators; Solving Equations and Inequalities Graphically

Topics
1. Graphing functions.
3. Window.
2. Table.
4. Calc Menu

1. Graphing functions.
To graph a function y = f (x), we begin by pressing the Y = key, located at the top left of
the calculator. Here you will enter in the formula carefully, inserting parentheses as appropriate to ensure the calculator knows the proper order of operations.
For our examples in this tutorial, please put into:
1/3
\Y1 = the function f (x) = x x2100
+2
10
\Y2 = the function E(v) = 2.73v 3 v5
Once the functions are in, you may press the GRAPH button located at the top right of
the calculator.
2. Table.
Sometimes graphs do not show up in the standard window well. One could be a little lazy
and try out the ZOOM button options, but often times we can save some time by using
the table.
To change the options on our table settings, we push 2nd then WINDOW , to access the
TBLSET (table settings).
TblStart indicates which X value the table should start at.
Tbl indicates how big of a jump should be placed between subsequent X values.
Indpnt: If set to Auto, the table will automatically fill the X values with the above
settings. If set to Ask, the table will be empty and wait for you to enter the values for X.
Depend: ALWAYS leave this on Auto.
Now lets make tables for both Y1 and Y2 . This will lead us naturally to the next part of
the tutorial.
154
3. Window
The WINDOW button will play a critical part in getting a good, usable graph of our
functions.
Xmin is the smallest X value that appears on the graph (far left)
Xmax is the largest X value that appears on the graph (far right)
Xscl is the width between the marks on the X axis.
Ymin, Ymax, and Yscl are similarly defined, just for Y values (and down/up).
Based on our tables from the previous part, lets choose some decent guesses for good windows
for the two functions Y1 and Y2 :
Good window for Y1
Good window for Y2
Xmin=
Xmin=
Xmax=
Xmax=
Xscl=
Xscl=
Ymin=
Ymin=
Ymax=
Ymax=
Yscl=
Yscl=
4. Calc Menu
Once we have a good window, we can use the calc menu to get good approximations for
intercepts, intersection points, and maximum/minimum values. To access the calc menu,
simply press 2nd then TRACE .
For Y1 :
1. Find the intervals on which the function is greater than -30.
2. Find the coordinates of the minimum.
For Y2 :
1. Approximate when E(v) = 200.
2. Find the coordinates of the minimum (of the positive E values).
155
1.10: Lines
Topics
1. Slope of a Line.
2. Equations of lines (Forms).
3. Horizontal and Vertical Lines.
4. Parallel and Perpendicular Lines.

5. Modeling with Linear Equations; Interpreting Linear Coefficients.

1. Slope of a Line.
Formula for the slope m:
m=
1. Find the slope of the line that goes through (1, 2) and (4, 7).
2. What kind of line has m = 0?
3. What kind of line has m undefined?
2. Equations of lines (Forms).

For lines with a defined slope (i.e. m is a real number), there are two particularly useful forms:
Slope-Intercept
Point-Slope
For any line (even those with an undefined slope), we can write the equation for the line in:
General Form
156
3. Horizontal and Vertical Lines.
Horizontal Line Equation Form
Vertical Line Equation Form
Find the equation of the line:

1. The line that goes through (0, 3) and (2, 13).
2. The line that goes through (1, 2) and (4, 7).
3. The line that goes through (1, 1) and (2, 1)
4. The line that goes through (2, 1) and (2, 4)
4. Parallel and Perpendicular Lines.

For two lines with defined slopes m1 and m2 , we have the following criteria to test if the
lines are parallel or perpendicular:
Two lines with slopes m1 and m2 are...
parallel if
perpendicular if
Find the equation of the line:

1. The line that is perpendicular to y = 12 x + 6 and goes through the point (1, 2).
157
2. The line that goes through (1, 1) and is parallel to the line containing (2, 2) and
(4, 14).
3. The line that is perpendicular to 2x + 3y = 4 and goes through (0, 2).
4. The line perpendicular to x = 4 and goes through (1, 8).
5. The line parallel to x = 4 and goes through (3, 7).
5. Modeling with Linear Equations; Interpreting Linear Coefficients.

For application problems, the coefficients m and b often have a real-life meaning. In general:
b is the
m is the
We should always strive to word things in the scenario for application problems as naturally
as possible. Lets look at these last few examples.
1. A manager of a weekend flea market knows from past experience that if she charges x
(in tens of dollars) for a rental space at the flea market, then the number y of spaces
she can rent is given by the equation y = 200 4x.
(a) What does the y intercept represent?
(b) What does the slope represent?
158
2. The relationship between Farhenheit and Celcius temperatures is given by F = 95 C+32.
(a) What does the y intercept represent?
(b) What does the slope represent?
159
1.11: Making Models Using Variation

Topics
1. Direct Variation.
3. Joint Variation.
2. Inverse Variation.
1. Direct Variation.
If the quantities x and y are related by an equation
y = kx
for some constant k 6= 0, we say that y varies directly as x or y is proportional to x.
The constant k is called the constant of proportionality.
2. Inverse Variation.
If the quantities x and y are related by an equation
y=
k
x
for some constant k 6= 0, we say that y is inversely proportional to x or y varies inversely

as x. The constant k is called the constant of proportionality.
3. Joint Variation.
If the quantities x, y, and z are related by the equation
z = kxy
for some constant k 6= 0, we say that z varies directly as x and y or z is jointly proportional to x and y. The constant k is called the constant of proportionality.
Now lets put these definitions to work:
1. Write an equation that expresses the statement. Use the given information to find the
constant of proportionality:
(a) P is directly proportional to w. If w = 100, then P = 10.
160
(b) v is inversely proportional to z. If z = 14 , then v = 2.
(c) y is jointly proportional to s and inversely proportional to t. If s = 2 and t = 3,

then v = 8.
2. Boyles Law states that the pressure P of a gas is directly proportional to the temperature T and inversely proportional to the volume V .
(a) Write Boyles Law.
(b) What would happen to the pressure if you doubled the volume?
3. A car is travelling on curve that forms a circular arc. The force F needed to keep the
car from skidding is jointly proportional to the weight w of the car and the square of
its speed s and inversely proportional to the radius r of the curve.
(a) Write an equation that expresses this variation.
(b) What would happen to the force needed if the car is going twice as fast?

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Section #:

Math 120R Class Notes

Math 120R: Pre-calculus

Chapter 4: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Chapter 5: Trigonometric Functions: Unit Circle Approach

Chapter 6: Trigonometric Functions: Right Triangle Approach

Chapter 7: Analytic Trigonometry

Appendix: Fundamental Algebra Skills Review

2. Four ways to Represent a Function.

4. Piecewise Defined Functions.

Class Notes and Examples

2. Four ways to Represent a Function.

4. Verbal (Description written in words)

4. Verbal (Description written in words)

2. Write the absolute value function in piecewise defined function notation:

evaluate F (0), F (1) and F (2).

2.2: Graphs of Functions

3. Graphing Piecewise Defined Functions.

4. Equations that Define Functions.

Class Notes and Examples

Power Functions: f (x) = xn

Reciprocal Functions: f (x) =

Absolute Value Function: f (x) = |x|

3. Graphing Piecewise Defined Functions.

2.3: Getting Information from the Graph of a Function

4. Increasing and Decreasing Functions.

Class Notes and Examples

The range is:

2. Intervals of Positive and Negative.

f is negative on an interval I if f (a) is negative for all a in I.

3. Zeros / Horizontal Intercepts.

What is the connection between zeros/horizontal intercepts and intervals of positive

4. Increasing and Decreasing Functions.

f is decreasing on an interval I if f (a) > f (b) whenever a < b in I.

5. Local Maximum and Minimum Values of a Function.

The function value f (a) is a local minimum value of f if

For each of the graphs, find the following:

1. Domain and Range

1. Domain and Range

2. Intervals of Positive and Negative.

2. Intervals of Positive and Negative.

3. Zeros / Horizontal Intercepts.

3. Zeros / Horizontal Intercepts.

4. Increasing and Decreasing Functions.

4. Increasing and Decreasing Functions.

5. Local Maximum and Minimum Values

5. Local Maximum and Minimum Values.

Calculator example: Consider y = x 6 x. Use your graphing calculator to help your

2. Intervals of Positive and Negative.

3. Zeros / Horizontal Intercepts.

4. Increasing and Decreasing Functions.

5. Local Maximum and Minimum Values

Highway Engineering Example: A highway engineer wants to estimate the maximum

2.4: Average Rate of Change of a Function

4. Interpreting ARC in Application Problems.

Class Notes and Examples

What should be true about ARC for linear functions?

over (1, 2).

5. y = 3 + 2x x2 over (x, x + h).

x over (x, x + h).

over (a, b).

4. Interpreting ARC in Application Problems.

2.5: Transformations of Functions

4. Even and Odd Functions