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c=
c
c
or in percents c = 100% .
b
b
xc =
xc
x
or in percents x c = c 100% .
b
b
f
is named as center-line camber. Usually this value is determined in
b
f
100% .
b
xf =
xf
b
or in percents x f =
xf
b
100% .
Some types of airfoils have center line which has back camber near trailing edge
(Fig. 2.2). Such airfoils are named as S - shaped.
14% . By c value airfoils by convention are divided into three groups: c 0 .08
( c 8% ) - thin; 0 .08 c 0 .12 ( 8% c 12% ) - medium; c 0 .12 ( c 12% ) - thick
airfoils. Thicker airfoils are used on subsonic aircraft, thinner - on supersonic. For
subsonic aircraft x c lies in limits 25K30% , for supersonic - 40K50% . Center-line
camber f usually is no more than 2% .
Let's consider the main parameters characterized wing planform (Fig. 2.3). Wing
planform is determined by wing projection onto wing base plane.
Wing
comprising
base
plan
the
center
is
the
plane
chord
and
10 o
for contemporary
Wing planform are of great variety. The most widespread are tapered one (wing
with straight edges).
Aerodynamics uses such concepts as wing with ventral section, wing
comprised of outer panels (Fig. 2.4).
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The wing with ventral section is the wing which leading and trailing edges are
prolonged inside fuselage.
The wing formed by outer panels is the wing formed by aircraft air-flow parts
and separated from fuselage by side cross-sections. In case of wing location on fuselage
the concept of root chord is used.
Naturally, characteristics of such wings are different therefore it is necessary to
explain which wing type is under calculation.
a)
b)
Fig. 2.4. Wing:
l - wing span;
b0 - center (root) chord;
bw .t . - wing tip chord;
- sweep;
l .e . = 0 - leading edge sweep;
t .e . = 1 - trailing edge sweep;
Fig. 2.5.
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Wing span l (both for wing formed by outer panels and wing with ventral part)
is the distance between two planes parallel to aircraft base plane (wing symmetry plane)
and touching to wing tips.
Center wing chord b0 is the chord ling in base aircraft plane. In case of separate
wing center chord lies in its plane of symmetry.
Wing area S is the area of wing projection onto its base plane.
Among non-dimensional parameters aspect ratio and taper are the most
important.
l2
Wing aspect ratio is determined as a ratio of span square to wing area =
.
S
Wing taper is the ratio of the center chord b0 to the tip chord bk : =
Sometimes the concept of backward taper =
b0
.
bk
is used.
While determining aspect ratio and taper it is necessary to choose carefully values
of wing span l and center chord b0 dependently on what type of wing is under viewing:
wing with ventral part or wing formed by outer panels.
Usually area of wing with ventral part is used as characteristic area at aircraft
aerodynamics calculations (Fig. 2.4).
Area of tapered wing is determined as: S =
1
( b + bk ) l .
2 0
For example. Wing of subsonic aircraft has the following relative parameters
4m 1
, 0 m 1.
+ 1
(2.1)
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Besides tapered wings contemporary aircraft use wings with the following
planform (Fig. 2.6): with curvilinear edges (a); edge with fracture (b); wing with
extension (c).
a)
b)
c)
. 2.6.
1
bA =
S
b 2 ( z )dz ;
(2.2)
l2
l
1
xA =
S
b( z ) x( z )dz .
(2.3)
l2
While wing arrangement aerodynamic and geometric twist is used for the
improvement of aircraft aerodynamic characteristics.
Geometrically flat wing - all cross-sections chords are parallel to base aircraft
plane.
At geometrical twist local wing chords are turned relatively to each other and
form local twist angle ( z ) . Twist angle w is measured from center chord. At that
0( b0 ) ( z ) w( bw .t . ) . We distinguish linear and linear conical twist.
( z ) = w z , where z = 2 z .
l
(2.4)
The linear conical twist is characterized by the fact that leading and trailing
edges remain straight:
( z ) = w
z
.
1 + ( 1) z
(2.5)
Negative twist (that means leading edge of tip cross-section is lower then trailing
edge) w < 0 is usually used for real aircraft structures.
Aerodynamic twist means spanwise installation of different airfoils with different
concavity. Fig. 2.8. shows the changing of airfoil thickness ratio c , concavity f ,
concavity coordinate x f , and airfoil setting angle spanwise of wing outer panel of
TU-154B airplane.
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bb = 7 .45 m ;
bw .t . = 2 .183 m ;
S = 180 m 2 ;
l w = 37 .55 m ;
= 7 .83 ;
= 3 .41 .
Geometrical
approximately
parameters
placed
by
may
be
grade
of
influence
onto
characteristics. Taper
aerodynamic
mainly affects
aerodynamic characteristics.
Twist also affects aerodynamic load
distribution along wing. The best air-flow of wing at large angles of attack, decreasing
of induced drag at fixed lifting force and necessary conditions for balancing may be
provided by twist.
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