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SECTION 1.

AERODYNAMICS OF LIFTING SURFACES


THEME 2. WING AND AIRFOIL
Wing is the main aircraft lifting surface which creates lifting force. Together with
other structural members wing has to provide all aircraft qualifying standards. In
particular they include: producing minimal aerodynamic drag, specified characteristics
of longitudinal and directional stability and controllability. All these requirements are
provided with right choice of wing geometrical parameters.
The wing of modern aircraft, as usual, has a plane of symmetry coincided to basic
aircraft plane.
Basic wing characteristics are parameters of the airfoils from which the wing is
formed, wing planform, aerodynamic twist and cross-cut V.
2.1. Wing geometrical characteristics
As it was mentioned above, wing geometrical characteristics are determined by
airfoil geometrical parameters.
Airfoil is the wing cross section by plane perpendicular to its span and parallel to
the basic aircraft plane. Airfoil shape is determined by upper and low outlines. Let us
consider the main airfoil geometrical parameters (Fig. 2.1).
Segment AB of straight line connecting two most outlying points of airfoil is an
airfoil chord b . Segments, perpendicular to chord and located between top and low
outlines determine the airfoil thickness.

Fig. 2.1. Airfoil geometrical parameters.


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Maximum airfoil thickness c is determined by segment with maximum length.


Airfoil thickness ratio c is ratio of maximum airfoil thickness c to chord b :

c=

c
c
or in percents c = 100% .
b
b

Chordwise distance from leading point A to point corresponding to maximum


airfoil thickness is marked as x c and determined from chord proportion -

xc =

xc
x
or in percents x c = c 100% .
b
b

For airfoil concavity (camber) the center line of airfoil is drawn.


Center line of airfoil is the line passing through the centers of circles inscribed
into the airfoil.
Value of concavity or airfoil camber f will be determined by maximum
distance between center line of airfoil and its chord. Ratio of maximum airfoil camber to
airfoil chord f =
percents f =

f
is named as center-line camber. Usually this value is determined in
b

f
100% .
b

Position of maximum airfoil camber is determined by relative coordinate:

xf =

xf
b

or in percents x f =

xf
b

100% .

Some types of airfoils have center line which has back camber near trailing edge
(Fig. 2.2). Such airfoils are named as S - shaped.

Fig. 2.2. Center line of S - shaped airfoil.


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Thickness ratio c of modern aircraft airfoils usually lies in limits of 2% up to

14% . By c value airfoils by convention are divided into three groups: c 0 .08
( c 8% ) - thin; 0 .08 c 0 .12 ( 8% c 12% ) - medium; c 0 .12 ( c 12% ) - thick
airfoils. Thicker airfoils are used on subsonic aircraft, thinner - on supersonic. For
subsonic aircraft x c lies in limits 25K30% , for supersonic - 40K50% . Center-line
camber f usually is no more than 2% .
Let's consider the main parameters characterized wing planform (Fig. 2.3). Wing
planform is determined by wing projection onto wing base plane.
Wing
comprising

base

plan

the

center

is

the

plane

chord

and

perpendicular to base, aircraft plane. Base


plane of separate wing is perpendicular to
wing symmetry plane. (Plane is parallel to
plane x0 z ).
Angle of cross-cut V is determined
by angle between wing base plane and
quarter-chord line projection onto plane
perpendicular to center chord. (Plane is
parallel to plane y0 z ). Angle is usually
not more than

10 o

for contemporary

aircraft. At larger angles wing planform is


Fig. 2.3.

determined for straightened wing, that


means = 0 .

Wing planform are of great variety. The most widespread are tapered one (wing
with straight edges).
Aerodynamics uses such concepts as wing with ventral section, wing
comprised of outer panels (Fig. 2.4).

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The wing with ventral section is the wing which leading and trailing edges are
prolonged inside fuselage.
The wing formed by outer panels is the wing formed by aircraft air-flow parts
and separated from fuselage by side cross-sections. In case of wing location on fuselage
the concept of root chord is used.
Naturally, characteristics of such wings are different therefore it is necessary to
explain which wing type is under calculation.

a)

b)
Fig. 2.4. Wing:

- wing with ventral part; b - wing formed by outer panels


Geometrical characteristics of tapered wings. (Fig. 2.5).

l - wing span;
b0 - center (root) chord;
bw .t . - wing tip chord;

- sweep;
l .e . = 0 - leading edge sweep;
t .e . = 1 - trailing edge sweep;
Fig. 2.5.

m - sweep at m part-chord line.

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Wing span l (both for wing formed by outer panels and wing with ventral part)
is the distance between two planes parallel to aircraft base plane (wing symmetry plane)
and touching to wing tips.
Center wing chord b0 is the chord ling in base aircraft plane. In case of separate
wing center chord lies in its plane of symmetry.
Wing area S is the area of wing projection onto its base plane.
Among non-dimensional parameters aspect ratio and taper are the most
important.
l2
Wing aspect ratio is determined as a ratio of span square to wing area =
.
S
Wing taper is the ratio of the center chord b0 to the tip chord bk : =
Sometimes the concept of backward taper =

b0
.
bk

is used.

While determining aspect ratio and taper it is necessary to choose carefully values
of wing span l and center chord b0 dependently on what type of wing is under viewing:
wing with ventral part or wing formed by outer panels.
Usually area of wing with ventral part is used as characteristic area at aircraft
aerodynamics calculations (Fig. 2.4).
Area of tapered wing is determined as: S =

1
( b + bk ) l .
2 0

For example. Wing of subsonic aircraft has the following relative parameters

6K12 ; 1 3 . For supersonic aircraft - 2K4 ; 10 . Optimal aspect


ratio for contemporary subsonic passenger-carrier airplane is equal to 6K8 .
There exists connection between sweep angles which is determined as
tg m = tg 0

4m 1
, 0 m 1.
+ 1

(2.1)

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Besides tapered wings contemporary aircraft use wings with the following
planform (Fig. 2.6): with curvilinear edges (a); edge with fracture (b); wing with
extension (c).

a)

b)

c)
. 2.6.

In some cases area of extensions is included in wing area. If total area of


extensions is no more than 20% from wing area then extensions are not taken into
account for and determination.
While calculating the longitudinal static stability and position of aerodynamic
center by angle of attack the concept of mean aerodynamic chord is used.
Mean aerodynamic chord (MAC) b A is the conventional chord of equivalent
wing which has the same aerodynamic characteristics M z , Y , X in its planform as the
initial wing. Ratio of distance between aerodynamic center and center of mass at angle
of attack changing to MAC b A is the universal characteristic of longitudinal static
stability. Let us determine b A and coordinate of MAC leading edge x A relatively to
wing nose by using moment M z equality for given and rectangular wing (Fig. 2.7). Let
us assume that coefficients of moment and normal force of cross-sections along
spanwise are constant. A coordinate of aerodynamic center calculated relatively to
MAC nose and related to MAC length is stable and it is expedient to use it to compare
an aerodynamic center position of wings having different planform.
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MAC length and coordinate of


MAC nose are determined in the following
way:
l

1
bA =
S

Fig. 2.7. Mean aerodynamic chord of wing


having a complex planform

b 2 ( z )dz ;

(2.2)

l2
l

1
xA =
S

b( z ) x( z )dz .

(2.3)

l2

While wing arrangement aerodynamic and geometric twist is used for the
improvement of aircraft aerodynamic characteristics.
Geometrically flat wing - all cross-sections chords are parallel to base aircraft
plane.
At geometrical twist local wing chords are turned relatively to each other and
form local twist angle ( z ) . Twist angle w is measured from center chord. At that
0( b0 ) ( z ) w( bw .t . ) . We distinguish linear and linear conical twist.

At linear twist law:

( z ) = w z , where z = 2 z .
l

(2.4)

The linear conical twist is characterized by the fact that leading and trailing
edges remain straight:

( z ) = w

z
.
1 + ( 1) z

(2.5)

Negative twist (that means leading edge of tip cross-section is lower then trailing
edge) w < 0 is usually used for real aircraft structures.
Aerodynamic twist means spanwise installation of different airfoils with different
concavity. Fig. 2.8. shows the changing of airfoil thickness ratio c , concavity f ,
concavity coordinate x f , and airfoil setting angle spanwise of wing outer panel of
TU-154B airplane.
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A wing has the following geometrical


parameters:

bb = 7 .45 m ;

bw .t . = 2 .183 m ;

S = 180 m 2 ;

l w = 37 .55 m ;

= 7 .83 ;

= 3 .41 .
Geometrical
approximately

parameters

placed

by

may

be

grade

of

importance as: , , keeping in mind


their

influence

onto

characteristics. Taper

aerodynamic
mainly affects

aerodynamic load distribution along wing


and therefore the center of pressure and
aerodynamic center positions and moment
characteristics Wing with 2K3 are
considered stub wing; wing with
corresponds to an airfoil.
If we have sweep at a quater-chord
line 1 20 o K25 o then wings are called
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non-tapered. The division of wings into


tapered and non-tapered is connected with
peculiarity of their air-flow about them and
appearance of new effects affected onto
Fig. 2.8. Wing of aircraft TU-154B

aerodynamic characteristics.
Twist also affects aerodynamic load

distribution along wing. The best air-flow of wing at large angles of attack, decreasing
of induced drag at fixed lifting force and necessary conditions for balancing may be
provided by twist.

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