Professional Documents
Culture Documents
He insisted on coming.
[preposition + verb -> 'ing']
- laugh at someone/something
People often laugh at him.
- listen to
I listened to the concert on the radio yesterday.
- look at (= look in the direction of)
Look at that lovely bird !
- look after (= take care of)
Will you look after my flowers while I'm away ?
- look for (= try to find)
I'm looking for a pen.
- talk about someone/something
They were talking about their holidays.
We're talking about organizing a party.
[preposition + verb -> 'ing']
- talk to / speak to someone
Mary is talking to her mother.
Could I speak to John, please ?
- think about (= reflect)
What are you thinking about?
I'm thinking about what you said to me.
- think of/about (= consider)
She's thinking of/about changing her job.
[preposition + verb -> 'ing']
- wait for
We're waiting for the bus.
- write to someone
I
You
He/she/it
It
We
You
They
Contr.
Affirmative Negative
Affirmative Negative
to
can
can
can
can
can
can
can
could
could
could
could
could
could
could
study
read
dance
write
swim
shave
go
cannot
cannot
cannot
cannot
cannot
cannot
cannot
can't
could not
could not
could not
could not
could not
could not
could not
couldn't
sleep
...
Conjugation:
Affirmative
Negative
I
You
He/she/it
We
You
They
Contr.
[= more informal]
Inf.
swim
study
read
write
speak
dive
see
...
[= informal]
[= more polite]
Present
Affirmative
I
You
He/she/it
We
You
They
may - might
may - might
may - might
may - might
may - might
may - might
Contr.
+
Negative
may not - might not
may not - might not
may not - might not
may not - might not
may not - might not
may not - might not
mightn't
--> possibility
without
smoke
leave
go away
speak
dance
read
write
We use may (as well as 'can' and 'could') to ask for permission.
Compare :
May I have some more jam, please ?
['may' is the most formal ]
Could I have the butter, please ?
['could' is polite ]
Can I have some more jam, please ?
['can' is informal ]
Return to top
We use may (and 'can') to give permission.
We use may not (and 'can't') to refuse permission or prohibit.
'May' and 'may not' are more formal, more respectful than 'can'
and cannot'.
Compare :
May I use the car ?
Yes, of course you may.
Yes, of course you can.
[= formal]
[= informal]
MUST
Present affirm.
I
You
He/she/it
We
You
They
+ Inf. without to
must
must
must
must
must
must
study
be polite
help her
go to school
go away
read books
Present
Past
Future
--------------------------------------------have to
had to
will have to
Infin.
read
You
He/she/it
We
You
They
have to
has to
have to
have to
have to
had to
had to
had to
had to
had to
will have to
will have to
will have to
will have to
will have to
speak
write
study
leave
help
have
have
have
have
got
got
got
got
to
to
to
to
He/she/it
has got to
Contracted forms
've
've
've
've
got
got
got
got
to
to
to
to
leave
paint it
write
help her
's got to
go away
Infinitive
[= more formal]
[= more formal]
+ Inf. without to
I
You
He/she/it
We
You
They
must not
must not
must not
must not
must not
must not
smoke
shout
speak
tell her
watch TV
buy it
Contr.
mustn't
dance
I
You
He/she/it
We
You
They
Negative forms
--------------------------------- ----------Present
Past
Future
(contracted)
(contracted) (contracted)
Infinitive
read
speak
study
come
leave
go
won't have to
won't have to
won't have to
won't have to
won't have to
won't have to
Comments
Have got to - conjugation
- comments
When 'have' is used with the 'to' infinitive to express obligation,
for the negative structures of the simple present and simple past,
we use the auxiliary do/does/did.
They don't have to go yet.
I didn't have to cut the grass.
- In question tags, we only repeat the auxiliary do, does or did.
I didn't have to go with him, did I?
HAVE GOT TO
Negative
-------------Present
(contracted)
I
You
He/she/it
We
You
They
haven't got to
haven't got to
hasn't got to
haven't got to
haven't got to
haven't got to
Infinitive
give it
show it
sit
say it
stand
wear it
Should / Conjugation
in the active.
Examples
Examples:
- To talk about something which is in progress now,
we use the present continuous.
Someone is painting the house at the moment.
[= active]
-> The house is being painted now.
[= passive]
- To speak about a past event, we use the simple past.
We expected the prime minister to resign yesterday.
[= active]
-> The prime minister was expected to resign.
[= passive]
Active form
Passive form
simple present
present continuous
simple past
past continuous
present perfect
past perfect
future simple
present infinitive
auxiliary + inf.
-ing form
writes
is writing
wrote
was writing
has written
had written
will write
(to) write
should write
writing
is written
is being written
was written
was being written
has been written
had been written
will be written
(to) be written
should be written
being written
Affirmative
| Interrogative
_______________________________________|_________________________________
This seat is taken.
| Is this seat taken ?
The house has been sold.
| Has the house been sold ?
He was seen in Dublin last week. | Where was he seen last week ?
The concert can be organized soon. | When can the concert be
| organized ?
|
Affirmative
|
Negative
___________________________________|_________________________________
This seat is taken.
| This seat isn't taken.
The house has been sold.
| The house hasn't been sold.
This meeting can be postponed. | This meeting can't be
| postponed.
of obligation.
I have to leave now, it's getting late.
You don't have to do the washing up now.
I've got to finish this work today.
You haven't got to leave yet.
- Be going to expresses a prediction or an intention.
It's going to rain.
They are going to travel round the world.
- laugh at someone/something
People often laugh at him.
- listen to
I listened to the concert on the radio yesterday.
- look at (= look in the direction of)
Look at that lovely bird !
- look after (= take care of)
Will you look after my flowers while I'm away ?
- look for (= try to find)
I'm looking for a pen.
- talk about someone/something
They were talking about their holidays.
We're talking about organizing a party.
[preposition + verb -> 'ing']
- talk to / speak to someone
Mary is talking to her mother.
Could I speak to John, please ?
- think about (= reflect)
What are you thinking about?
I'm thinking about what you said to me.
- think of/about (= consider)
She's thinking of/about changing her job.
[preposition + verb -> 'ing']
- wait for
We're waiting for the bus.
- write to someone
I wrote to John for his birthday.
a baby - babies.
a lavatory - lavatories.
But :
a boy
a day
- knives.
a wife - wives.
a thief - thieves.
a life - lives.
[z].
dogs [z].
letters [z].
three or more
syllables
COMPARATIVE
-er
more + adj.
(except adj. end.
in -er, -y and
in -e )
more + adj.
SUPERLATIVE
the -est
the + most + adj.
better
worse
farther
further
little
less
much
more
many
more
the best
the worst
the farthest (proper meaning)
the furthest (proper and figurative m.)
the least
the most
the most
not as + adj. + as
not so + adj. + as
This car is less expensive than I thought.
This car is not as expensive as I thought.
This car is not so expensive as I thought
The superlative (things are the highest or the lowest on a scale) :
the + adj. + est / the most + adj.
The shortest way.
The most expensive toy.
COMPARATIVE
one syllable
two syllables
or more
-er
more + adv.
SUPERLAT
the -est
the + most +
better
worse
earlier
farther
further
less
more
the best
the worst
the earliest
the farthest (proper meaning)
the furthest (proper and figurative m.)
the least
the most
some
- sentences
any
? sentences
Examples
'No' instead of 'not any'
Countables and uncontables
books
cars
few
pencils
cups
many teachers
people
...
Uncountables
a little money
courage
little bread
water
much
help
tea
...
Explanations
We use 'a few', 'few' and 'many' with countables (nouns that we
can count).
Give me a few pencils.
I saw few people.
Here are many examples.
- We use 'a little', 'little' and 'much' with uncountables (nouns
that we cannot count).
Give me a little money.
He gave me little help.
She needs much courage.
Uncountables
books
pencils
many students
teachers
roads
...
money
bread
much
sugar
violence
time
...
books
bread
a lot of students
violence
pencils
...
'A lot of + countable or uncountable' or 'a lot of' can replace both
'many + countable' and 'much + uncountable'.
Peter has got many friends -> Peter has got a lot of friends.
Sheila needs much money
We laughed much
Uncountables
every + singular
several + plural
all + plural
all + singular
Uncountables
all + pl.
every + sing.
all + sing.
|
|
many
much
|
several + plur. |
|
some
|
some
|
a few
|
a little
|
few
|
little
any
no
Examples
All dogs bark.
Possessives.
1st pers.sing.
2nd pers.sing.
3rd pers.sing.masc.
fem.
neutral
1st pers.plur.
2nd pers.plur.
3rd pers. plur.
adjectives
------------my
your
his
her
its
our
your
their
pronouns
-----------mine
yours
his
hers
ours
yours
theirs
Demonstratives.
SITUATION
SINGULAR
PLURAL
person(s) or object(s)
close to the speaker
this
these
remote person(s) or
object(s)
that
those
- This and these refer to people and objects that are close to the
speaker in space and time.
- That and those refer to more remote people and objects in space
Interrogatives / Whose.
'Whose' can be both an interrogative adjective and pronoun.
As an interrogative 'whose' refers to persons only. It is usually
followed by the noun it determines.
Whose car is it ? - It's John's.
Whose is it ? - It's Mary's.
Whose house have you bought ? - Jane's.
1st pers.sing.
2nd pers.sing.
3rd pers.sing.masc.
fem.
neutral
1st pers.plur.
2nd pers.plur.
3rd pers. plur.
subject form
------------I
you
he
she
it
we
you
they
Examples
Subjects and objects forms
I see you - She sees me.
|____________________|
You like dancing - I like dancing with you.
object form
-----------me
you
him
her
it
us
you
them
|______________________________________|
He goes shopping - I go shopping with him.
|______________________________________|
She likes cats - Cats like her too !
|___________________________|
The house is nice - I can see it.
|________________________|
We go to London - They come with us.
|_________________________________|
You saw the students - The students saw you too !
|_______________________________________|
They studied quite a lot - You studied with them.
|_____________________________________________|
The object form is usually preferred except when the personal pronoun
is clearly the subject of the sentence.
It's her ['she' would be pedantic].
He is bigger than him.
He says that she is sick [clearly subjects].
- Mind :
(3) three - (13) thirteen - (30) thirty.
(4) four - (14) fourteen - (40) forty.
(5) five - (15) fifteen - (50) fifty.
the tens
the units
(291)
(a.m.)
(p.m.)
five
-> fifth.
-> ninth.
four
-> 1st
-> 2nd
-> 3rd
Numerals / Dates.
- Names of months :
January, February, March, April, May, June,
July, August, September, October, November, December
Names of months have a capital letter.
- Years are usually read in the following way :
1991 : nineteen ninety-one
N.B. 0 is pronounced like the letter O
or
(May the first nineteen ninety-three).
8.2.1979
is
seems
ill.
a nice boy.
NOTE 1 :
These forms are used in formal English.
In everyday English short forms are used :
He hasn't finished.
She isn't singing.
I won't come tomorrow.
NOTE 2 :
The negative of 'can' is 'cannot', in one word :
I cannot speak Russian.
The contraction is 'can't'.
I can't speak Russian.
NOTE 3 :
When there are two or more auxiliaries
the negation NOT comes after the first auxiliary :
I have not been living here for a long time.
He will not have finished in time.
I have no money.
Nobody told me.
No one
Nothing has changed.
I have never seen his girlfriend.
He has nowhere to go.
The words 'no, nobody, no one, nothing, never, nowhere'
are already negative !
So, they can't be used with a negative verb.
In English a negative sentence can contain
one negative word only ! So, we can say :
I have NEVER seen his girlfriend.
or
I haveN'T EVER seen his girlfriend.
I have NO money.
or
I haveN'T ANY money.
DO
question-word + DOES + subject + verb
(+ noun)
DID
(without 'to')
Those questions always start with the question-word
and there must be an inversion !
Where do you live ?
What does it mean ?
Who did he phone that night ?
What time do you usually get up ?
Which train did you take this morning ?
EXCEPTION :
question-word = subject
DO
!!! do not use DOES
DID
When the question-word is the subject of the verb,
DO
no DOES is used to form the question :
DID
Who told you that ?
|___|
Which bus goes to Piccadilly Circus ?
|_________|
Whose son won the championship ?
|_________|
Compare :
Who loves Terry ? (someone loves Terry)
and
Who does Terry love ? (Terry loves someone)
Who saw you ? (somebody saw you)
and
Who did you see ? (you saw somebody)
WHAT
WHO
WHEN
WHY
HOW
Badly !
'How' means : IN WHAT WAY ?
what is different from which
WHAT KIND OF
What kind of sport do you practise ?
SORT OF
sort of
Football.
WHAT TIME
WHAT ABOUT
I'm tired. What about you ?
Yes, me too.
HOW LONG AGO How long ago did you meet her ?
Six months ago.
'How long ago' asks about a POINT IN TIME.
NOTE 1 : 'When' can also be used :
When did you meet her ?
NOTE 2 : Do NOT confuse with 'since when'
which indicates the starting point
of a period :
Since when have you known her ?
Since the beginning of September.
HOW MUCH
How much coffee is left ?
Not much, I'm afraid.
'How much' asks about QUANTITY
for UNCOUNTABLE (or mass) NOUNS,
for example 'coffee, milk, sugar,
butter, courage, energy, pleasure,...'
HOW MANY
How many children do you have ?
Two.
How many bottles of wine are left ?
Only three.
'How many' asks about a NUMBER of things or people.
It is used with COUNTABLE NOUNS in the PLURAL,
for example 'chairs, tables, cars, pencils,...'
HOW OLD
How old are you ?
I am 20 (years old).
HOW FAR
How far is the station from here ?
Only one kilometre.
'How far' asks about DISTANCE.
HOW TALL
How tall is he ?
He is almost two metres tall.
'How tall' is used for PEOPLE.
HOW HIGH
How high is Mount Everest ?
It is more than 8,OOO metres high.
'How high' is used for THINGS.
HOW BIG
->
->
TO DANCE WITH
TO LOOK AT
TO TALK ABOUT
->
TO BE INTERESTED IN ->
POSITIVE
NEGATIVE
go
let's go
don't go
let's not go
The second person has the form of the infinitive without 'to' :
Shut that door !
It is preceded by don't in the negative,
except when the adverb 'never' is used :
Don't forget !
Never say that again !
NOTE : 'don't' is used in the spoken language,
'do not' may be used in written instructions :
Do not park here !
In the first person let's precedes the infinitive without 'to' :
Let's go to the pictures tonight.
In the negative the infinitive is preceded by let's not :
Let's not stay here, it's dangerous.
Exclamatory sentences.
'How' + adjective
How interesting !
How lovely she is !
How funny it was !
'What' + noun phrase
What a surprise !
What a lovely day !
What nice people !
What beautiful flowers !
subject + auxiliary
Agreement with a positive remark :
I think Peter is washing the car. Yes, he is.
Janet works very hard. Yes, she does.
They have read a lot of books. Yes, they have.
He can play the piano very well. Yes, he can.
Agreement with a negative remark :
Amanda isn't very happy. No, she isn't.
John doesn't play cards very well. No, he doesn't.
They won't go abroad this summer. No, they won't.
I think so
= one word
is
seems
ill.
a nice boy.
Note 2 - Examples
indirect object + direct object
The indirect object without 'to' or 'for'
comes before the direct object :
John gave his brother two books.
He gave him two books.
John bought his girlfriend a new dress.
He bought her a new dress.
direct object + 'to' + indirect object
'for'
The indirect object with 'to' or 'for'
comes after the direct object :
He gave the books to his brother.
He gave them to his brother.
He gave them to him.
He bought the new dress for his girlfriend.
He bought it for his girlfriend.
He bought it for her.
NOTE 1 :
'To' is used with the following verbs :
bring, give, lend, offer, pass, pay, promise,
read, sell, send, show, teach, tell, write.
'For' is used with the verbs :
book, build, buy, cook, find, get, keep,
leave, make, order, reserve, save.
NOTE 2 :
With some verbs we must use the structure with 'to'
when there is an indirect object in the sentence :
She
announced
complained
described
explained
indicated
introduced
mentioned
proposed
to me
repeated
replied
reported
said
shouted
spoke
suggested
talked
Word order / Manner, place and time : more than one adverb
If there is more than one adverbial, the usual order is :
NOTE 3 :
More precise frequency adverbials such as 'daily', 'weekly',
'monthly', 'yearly' and 'annually' always appear
at the end of a sentence :
He pays all the bills monthly.
They meet yearly.
Modifying a verb
Degree adverbials may modify an adjective or another adverbial.
They are then placed before the adjective or adverbial :
It was almost impossible to work.
That was a very good match !
He's too stupid to understand.
Our trip was absolutely marvellous !
She sings so beautifully !
But she drives terribly badly !
Some degree adverbials can also modify a verb.
They are then placed :
before the ordinary verb :
I quite understand.
after the verb 'be' :
He's just crazy.
after the (first) auxiliary :
They've nearly finished.
before nouns :
There isn't enough milk.
Take enough money with you !
opinion + fact
IT
subject
who, that
which , that
object
that, 0
that, 0
preposition
that ... to
0 ... to
that ... to
0 ... to
possessive
whose
whose, of which
The most commonly used form is 'that', but 'which' is also used.
The sign '0' indicates the absence of pronoun.
Connectives / Definition.
Connectives are a vital part of speech.
They express the logical link between our ideas.
There is no reasoning without connectives.
They may connect parts of sentences, sentences
or even paragraphs together.
Connectives may express different ideas :
time, comparison and contrast, alternatives,
reason and result, purpose, condition, opinion,
addition, explanations and examples,
and summary.
when
short action
while / as long action
while
long action
same
one after
the other
order
same
sentence
----------2 sentences
same
sentence or
2 sentences
although (= though),
whereas (= while)
+ subject + verb
in spite of (= despite), instead of
+ noun
2 sentences
however (= nevertheless),
on the contrary,
on the one hand ... on the other (hand)
+ ,
'Or'
'Either ... or'
'Rather than'
'Neither ... nor'
because, as (= since)
+ subject + verb
because of, thanks to
+ noun
2 sentences
so (= therefore) + ,
that's why
Connectives of condition.
Connectives of condition normally link
2 parts of the same sentence :
'if'
+ subject + verb
'even if'
We can go to the swimming pool if you want.
He'll buy that car even if it's expensive !
'unless' + subject + positive verb
'Unless' means if not and is always followed by a positive verb !
You can't watch this film unless you are 18.
We will go for a walk unless it rains.
'provided (that)' + subject + verb
'as long as'
You can use my car provided (that) you are very careful.
as long as
'in case' + subject + verb
Take your umbrella in case it rains.
I'll leave a message in case he comes back.
otherwise
=
+ subject + verb
or else
Connectives of opinion.
Connectives of opinion are mostly used in the following structure :
he is handsome !
NOTE :
There is a comma in front of 'that is' and
there are commas in front and after 'in other words'.
When we want to give one or more examples we can use :
for example = for instance
such as = like
He met a lot of famous actors,
for example Michael Douglas and Al Pacino.
for instance
She likes wild animals, like
Connectives of summary.
Those connectives are normally used as follows :
SENTENCE 1. In short, SENTENCE 2.
In brief,
They stole his car, drove too quickly
and finally had a crash with it.
In short, one should always lock one's car.
In brief,