You are on page 1of 111

After many verbs we use a particular preposition.

The prepositional object always comes just after the preposition.


Will you all listen to me carefully.
They looked after my grandmother very well.
If the preposition is followed by a verb, the verb must be used in
the gerund form (= 'ing' form).
I wouldn't dream of revealing a secret.
I insist on revising your verbs regularly.
List of common prepositional verbs :
- agree with someone
I agree with you.
- believe in something
I believe in God.
I believe in being punctual. [preposition + verb -> 'ing']
- belong to someone
This book belongs to me.
- take care of (= look after)
She takes care of her little sister when her mother goes out.
- die of an illness
He died of cancer.
- dream about (when asleep)
I often dream about the sea.
- dream of being or doing something (= imagine)
I sometimes dream of going to America.
[preposition + verb -> 'ing']
- fall off a wall, a horse
Be careful, or you will fall off the horse.
- insist on
The teacher insisted on the importance of prepositions.

He insisted on coming.
[preposition + verb -> 'ing']
- laugh at someone/something
People often laugh at him.
- listen to
I listened to the concert on the radio yesterday.
- look at (= look in the direction of)
Look at that lovely bird !
- look after (= take care of)
Will you look after my flowers while I'm away ?
- look for (= try to find)
I'm looking for a pen.
- talk about someone/something
They were talking about their holidays.
We're talking about organizing a party.
[preposition + verb -> 'ing']
- talk to / speak to someone
Mary is talking to her mother.
Could I speak to John, please ?
- think about (= reflect)
What are you thinking about?
I'm thinking about what you said to me.
- think of/about (= consider)
She's thinking of/about changing her job.
[preposition + verb -> 'ing']
- wait for
We're waiting for the bus.
- write to someone

I wrote to John for his birthday.

After some verbs we use an object followed by a particular preposition.


He explained the instructions to me.
I often borrow books from the library.
If a verb follows the preposition, we must put this verb
in the gerund form (= 'ing' form).
He accused the boy of breaking the window.
List of a few common verbs + object + preposition :
- accuse someone of (doing) something
He accused me of breaking the window.
[preposition + verb -> 'ing']
- borrow something from someone
I borrowed some money from the bank.
- explain something to someone
Will you explain this problem to me ?
- remind someone about something
Remind me about the party.
But : Remind me to bring back your book.
- spend (money) on something
You spend a lot of money on clothes.

A phrasal verb is a verb + a phrasal adverb that modifies the initial


meaning of the verb.
He came at six o'clock. [initial verb : to come]
He left for America and never came back.
[phrasal verb : to come back
= to return)

List of a few common intransitive phrasal verbs :


- come back (= to return)
What time will you come back from the office ?
- come in (= to enter)
Please come in, the doctor is expecting you.
- fall down (= to crumble)
The wall of the old church has fallen down.
- get up (= to get out of bed)
It's seven o'clock, it's time to get up !
- grow up (= to become adult)
Growing up is not always easy.
- look out/watch out (= to be careful)
Look out before crossing the street !
- stand up (= to rise from sitting to standing)
All the pupils stood up when the teacher came in.
- take off (= depart for a plane)
The plane takes off at 7.15 a.m.
- wake up (= rise from sleep)
I woke up very early this morning.

When a phrasal verb has an object, the object can be placed


before or after the phrasal adverb, but pronouns must come before
the phrasal adverb.
Call me back tomorrow.
I called back the bank manager the next day.
With a few transitive phrasal verbs ,the object, even a pronoun,
must come after the phrasal adverb.
He looks like me.
List of a few common transitive phrasal verbs :
- call/ring (someone) back (= telephone again)
I'll call him back in the evening.
- find (something) out (= discover)
Try and find out what happened.
- give (something) up (= abandon)
He gave up smoking a month ago.
- look like someone (= to resemble)
With this verb the object must come after the phrasal adverb.
He looks like his father.
He doesn't look like me.
- put (something) on (= to wear)
It's getting cold, put a pullover on.
- save (money) up (= put money aside)
He's saving up his pocket money to buy a tennis racket.
- take (something) off (= remove)
Take off your tee-shirt, it's dirty.
Take your tee-shirt off.
- wake (someone) up (= to raise from sleep)
Will you wake me up at seven o'clock ?
- wash (the dishes) up

I'll wash up the dishes after dinner.


I'll wash the dishes up after dinner.

I
You
He/she/it
It
We
You
They
Contr.

Affirmative Negative

Affirmative Negative

to

can
can
can
can
can
can
can

could
could
could
could
could
could
could

study
read
dance
write
swim
shave
go

cannot
cannot
cannot
cannot
cannot
cannot
cannot
can't

could not
could not
could not
could not
could not
could not
could not
couldn't

We use the modal verb can or can't to express


ability (= capacity) or inability to do something in the present.
I can do it.
He can't drive.
Can you swim ?

- We use the modal verb could or couldn't to talk


about general ability or inability to do something in the past.
I could swim when I was four.
My grandmother couldn't speak French.
- For questions in the past, we prefer to use
was/were able to + infinitive.
Were you able to lift the cupboard ?
Was he able to reach the top ?

Can in the future -> 'to be able to'


'Can' has no future form : we use the future form will be able to
to talk about ability in the future.
Conjugation of 'be able to'

sleep
...

Conjugation:
Affirmative

Negative

I
You
He/she/it
We
You
They

will be able to + inf.


will be able to + inf.
will be able to + inf.
will be able to + inf.
will be able to + inf.
will be able to + inf.

Contr.

'll be able to + inf.

won't be able to + inf.


won't be able to + inf.
won't be able to + inf.
won't be able to + inf.
won't be able to + inf.
won't be able to + inf.

I will soon be able to play again.


He'll be able to swim after a few lessons.
He won't be able to learn Spanish in 3 weeks.

You can vote when you are 18 in Belgium.


She can't leave before six o'clock.
They could use his tools.
We couldn't go out during the week.
N.B.: When 'could' is used to ask for permission, it is not only
the past of 'can'; it can also be used in the present
with a more polite meaning.
Can I take this chair ?

[= more informal]

'can' or 'could' express permission


- We use can or could to ask for permission,
but there is a difference :
- 'Can' is more common.
- 'Could' is more polite or hesitant.
Can I use your phone ?
[= informal]
Could I have your car for an hour, please ?
[= more polite]

Inf.
swim
study
read
write
speak
dive
see
...

- We use can (but not 'could') to give permission.


We use can't (but not 'couldn't') to refuse permission or
to prohibit.
Of course, you can use the phone.
No, you can't take my car now.
- Can is used to talk about permission in the present.
You can drive a car when you are 18.
You can't park your car here.
- Could is used to talk about permission in the past.
When we were children, we could watch TV at the week-end.
Young women couldn't go out without a chaperone.

Can and could are used to make requests.


'Could' is more polite than 'can'.
Can you give me the sugar ?
Could you give the sugar ?

[= informal]
[= more polite]

Can you come and help me, please ? [= informal]


Could you come and help me, please ? [= more polite]

Present
Affirmative
I
You
He/she/it
We
You
They

may - might
may - might
may - might
may - might
may - might
may - might

Contr.

+
Negative
may not - might not
may not - might not
may not - might not
may not - might not
may not - might not
may not - might not
mightn't

N.B. Might is not the past of may . It expresses a weaker


possibility.
It may rain tonight. [= possible]
It might rain tonight. [= not very likely]

'May' and 'might'

--> possibility

without
smoke
leave
go away
speak
dance
read
write

'May not' and 'might not' --> uncertainty


- May suggests a stronger possibility.
Might suggests a weaker possibility.
They may visit us this year.
[= they will probably come]
They might visit us this year.
[= it is possible, but not likely]
- May not suggests uncertainty.
Might not suggests stronger uncertainty.
They may not be there.
[= it is not certain]
They might not be there.

'May' ,'can' and 'could'---> permission


Asking for permission
Giving permission
Talking about permission

We use may (as well as 'can' and 'could') to ask for permission.
Compare :
May I have some more jam, please ?
['may' is the most formal ]
Could I have the butter, please ?
['could' is polite ]
Can I have some more jam, please ?
['can' is informal ]
Return to top
We use may (and 'can') to give permission.
We use may not (and 'can't') to refuse permission or prohibit.
'May' and 'may not' are more formal, more respectful than 'can'
and cannot'.

Compare :
May I use the car ?
Yes, of course you may.
Yes, of course you can.

[= formal]
[= informal]

No, I'm afraid you may not.


[= formal]
No, I'm afraid you cannot/can't. [= informal]

- To talk about permission in the present, we use can


(not 'may').
The children can go to bed late tonight.
- To talk about general permission in the past, we only use could
(not 'might').
In the past girls couldn't go to parties without a chaperone.

MUST
Present affirm.
I
You
He/she/it
We
You
They

+ Inf. without to

must
must
must
must
must
must

study
be polite
help her
go to school
go away
read books

He must go to the doctor's.


Like for all modal verbs, we do not use 'do' for interrogative
structures with must.
Must he go to the doctor's ?
Have to-conjugation
Have to-other forms
Have got to-conjugation
Have got to-other forms
HAVE TO
Affirmative

Present
Past
Future
--------------------------------------------have to
had to
will have to

Infin.

read

You
He/she/it
We
You
They

have to
has to
have to
have to
have to

had to
had to
had to
had to
had to

will have to
will have to
will have to
will have to
will have to

speak
write
study
leave
help

He has to go to the doctor's.


He had to go to the doctor's.
- For the interrogative structures of have to in the simple present
and the simple past we use the auxiliary do/does/did.
Does he have to go to the doctor's ?
Why did he have to go to the doctor's ?
- In question tags with have to, we only repeat the auxiliary don't,
doesn't or didn't.
He has to go to the doctor's, doesn't he ?
You had to call for her, didn't you ?
HAVE GOT TO
Present affirmative
I
You
We
They

have
have
have
have

got
got
got
got

to
to
to
to

He/she/it

has got to

Contracted forms
've
've
've
've

got
got
got
got

to
to
to
to

leave
paint it
write
help her

's got to

go away

He's got to go to the doctor's.


We've got to hurry.

- For the interrogative structure of 'have got to', we do not use


the auxiliary do.
Have I got to go now ?
Has she got to post that letter ?
- In question tags with have got to, we only repeat the auxiliary
'hasn't' or 'haven't'.

Infinitive

She has got to post that letter, hasn't she ?


They have got to travel a lot, haven't they ?

To talk about obligation or necessity in the present, we can use must,


have to or have got to , but there is a difference between them :
- When the obligation comes from the speaker, we normally use must.
He must go to the doctor's.
[= I think it is necessary]
You must drive carefully.
[= I insist]
They must all come next week.
[= I want them to]
I must go now.
[= I don't want to be late]
- When the obligation is exterior to the speaker, we normally use
have to.
He has to go to the doctor's at 10 o'clock.
[= He has an appointment]
You have to drive on the left in Britain.
[= That's the law]
We have to come next week.
[= There is no alternative]
I have to go now.
[= or I'll miss the train]
- Have got to + infinitive is often used instead of have to to talk
about obligation, but you should know the following points :
Have got to is more informal than 'have to'.
Have got to is only used in the simple present.
Have got to is mostly used in the contracted form.
Compare :
I have to go now.

[= more formal]

I've got to go now. [= more informal]

She has to leave at 9 o'clock.

[= more formal]

She's got to leave at 9 o'clock. [= more informal]

- 'Must' has no past tense.


To express obligation in the past, we use had to + infinitive.
I had to see him yesterday.
You had to be there at six o'clock.
- Don't forget to use did in interrogative and negative sentences.
Did he have to return the book on Monday?
I didn't have to come yesterday.

'Must' has no future form.


For future obligation we usually use shall/will have to.
I shall have to order the book, if I want it.
You will have to come later.

Mustn't / Prohibition : conjugation


Present - negative

+ Inf. without to

I
You
He/she/it
We
You
They

must not
must not
must not
must not
must not
must not

smoke
shout
speak
tell her
watch TV
buy it

Contr.

mustn't

dance

We use the negative form of 'must': mustn't or must not


to express prohibition or the obligation not to do something,
in the present and near future.
You mustn't get up today.
[ = Do not get up]
They mustn't arrive late.
[ = They are obliged not to arrive late]

You mustn't drive faster than 120 km per hour.


[ = It is not allowed]

Don't have to - haven't got to / Absence of obligation : conjug


HAVE TO

I
You
He/she/it
We
You
They

Negative forms
--------------------------------- ----------Present
Past
Future
(contracted)
(contracted) (contracted)

Infinitive

don't have to didn't have to


don't have to didn't have to
doesn't have to didn't have to
don't have to didn't have to
don't have to didn't have to
don't have to didn't have to

read
speak
study
come
leave
go

won't have to
won't have to
won't have to
won't have to
won't have to
won't have to

Comments
Have got to - conjugation
- comments
When 'have' is used with the 'to' infinitive to express obligation,
for the negative structures of the simple present and simple past,
we use the auxiliary do/does/did.
They don't have to go yet.
I didn't have to cut the grass.
- In question tags, we only repeat the auxiliary do, does or did.
I didn't have to go with him, did I?
HAVE GOT TO
Negative
-------------Present
(contracted)
I
You
He/she/it
We
You
They

haven't got to
haven't got to
hasn't got to
haven't got to
haven't got to
haven't got to

Infinitive

give it
show it
sit
say it
stand
wear it

In the negative structure, we do not use the auxiliary do or does.


You haven't got to wash your hair today.
She hasn't got to go to school today.
- In question tags, we only repeat the auxiliary has or have.
He hasn't got to tidy up, has he ?
We haven't got to call back, have we ?
Don't/doesn't have to + infinitive
Haven't/hasn't got to + infinitive
--> absence of obligation.
- In the present we use don't/doesn't have to
to say that it isn't necessary or compulsory to do something.
You don't have to get up early today.
[= It isn't necessary]
He doesn't have to do it now.
[= It isn't compulsory]
- Haven't/hasn't got to also expresses absence of obligation
in the present. It is a little less formal.
Compare :
You don't have to eat it all. [= more formal]
You haven't got to eat it all. [= less formal]
- We use didn't have to to express absence of obligation
in the past.
I didn't have to do it.
[= it wasn't necessary, so I didn't do it]
- We use won't have to to express absence of obligation
in the future.

After your exams, you won't have to work anymore

Must / Deduction : use


must + infinitive : for deductions in the present
- We use must + infinitive to express positive deductions
in the present.
She must be on holiday.
[She hasn't been to the office for three days]
They must be out.
[Because they don't answer the phone]
- For negative deductions in the present,
we use can't + infinitive.
They can't be hungry.
[They finished dinner half an hour ago

Must - have to - have got to / Recapitulation


Must, have to and have got to are modal verbs used to express
obligation, absence of obligation, prohibition or deduction.
- Obligation
You must be quiet.
[= I want you to]
We have to be quiet.
[= The baby is asleep]
We have got to be quiet.
[= more informal]
- Absence of obligation
We don't have to leave yet. [= more formal]
We haven't got to leave yet. [= less formal]
- Prohibition
You mustn't make so much noise.
- Deduction
It isn't mine, so it must be yours.

Should / Conjugation

in the active.
Examples
Examples:
- To talk about something which is in progress now,
we use the present continuous.
Someone is painting the house at the moment.
[= active]
-> The house is being painted now.
[= passive]
- To speak about a past event, we use the simple past.
We expected the prime minister to resign yesterday.
[= active]
-> The prime minister was expected to resign.
[= passive]

The passive / Summary table of active and passive verb for


Verb tense

Active form

Passive form

simple present
present continuous
simple past
past continuous
present perfect
past perfect
future simple
present infinitive
auxiliary + inf.
-ing form

writes
is writing
wrote
was writing
has written
had written
will write
(to) write
should write
writing

is written
is being written
was written
was being written
has been written
had been written
will be written
(to) be written
should be written
being written

The passive / Passive structures for verbs with a direct obje

-> The drug-dealer was caught in a night-club.


Someone has at last discovered a cure for AIDS.
-> A cure for AIDS has at last been discovered.

The passive / Passive structures for verbs with an indirect ob


When the active verb form is followed by an indirect object,
this indirect object becomes the subject of the passive sentence.
They asked me to do it.
-> I was asked to do it.

The passive / Passive structures with direct and indirect obj


- If an active verb is followed by both a direct and an indirect object,
it is more usual in English to make the personal object the subject
of the passive verb.
They have given Mary a book.
1. -> Mary has been given a book.
[= usual structure]
2. -> A book has been given to Marry.
[= not the usual structure]
She promised John 200.
1. -> John was promised 200.
[= usual structure]
2. -> 200 were promised to John.
[= not the usual structure]
- This structure is particularly true, if the personal object is
a pronoun, and the other object is a noun.
The object form of the pronoun will of course be replaced by
the subject form :
me -> I
you -> you
him -> he
her -> she
it -> it
us -> we
them -> they
People send him postcards by the dozen.
-> He is sent postcards by the dozen.

They have shown me the latest model.


-> I have been shown the latest model.
- This structure is especially common with :
ask - tell - give - offer - send - show - pay - promise.
Somebody offered my sister a free ticket.
-> My sister was offered a free ticket.
They promised the children an ice-cream.
-> The children were promised an ice-cream.

The passive / Passive structures with phrasal and prepositional


- Some verbs in English require a special preposition or phrasal
adverb :
to take care of - to laugh at - to find out ...
- With phrasal or prepositional verbs, the prepositional object
becomes the subject of the passive sentence.
The preposition or adverb particle remains immediately after
the verb.
They have turned off the radio.
--> The radio has been turned off.
We can rely on him.
--> He can be relied on.

The passive / Passive interrogative sentences


Passive interrogative sentences are formed by inverting the subject
and the first auxiliary verb.

Affirmative
| Interrogative
_______________________________________|_________________________________
This seat is taken.
| Is this seat taken ?
The house has been sold.
| Has the house been sold ?
He was seen in Dublin last week. | Where was he seen last week ?
The concert can be organized soon. | When can the concert be
| organized ?
|

The passive / Passive negative sentences

Passive negative sentences are formed by using not or the contracted


form n't after the first auxiliary verb.

Affirmative
|
Negative
___________________________________|_________________________________
This seat is taken.
| This seat isn't taken.
The house has been sold.
| The house hasn't been sold.
This meeting can be postponed. | This meeting can't be
| postponed.

The passive / The agent of a passive structure


To mention the agent of a passive verb, we use by + agent.
This poem was written by Keats.
The car was driven by a stuntman.
The match was spoilt by hooligans.

The passive / Use : when to use the passive form ?


We use the passive when :
- When we do not know who or what completes the action.
Someone has stolen my car.
--> My car has been stolen.
[I don't know who stole it]
- When we want to emphasize the action and not who completes it.
People speak English all over the world.
--> English is spoken all over the world.
[The fact of speaking English is more important
than who speaks it]
- When we do not want to say who completes the action.
My boss has left the front door open.
--> The front door has been left open.
[I don't want to say who left the door open]

The passive / Use of the agent

We normally do not mention an agent.


We only use by + agent when :
- It has some interest of its own :
He was caught by my neighbour !
[= and not by the police !]
- It is necessary to complete the meaning of the sentence.
This poem was written by Keats, not by Shelley.

The passive / Place of the adverb of manner


Usually immediately in front of the past participle
He was badly injured in a ski competition.
This chair is very well made.
The incident was quickly forgotten.

The passive / Recapitulation


The passive is formed with the auxiliary 'to be' followed
by the past participle of the main verb.
Bread is made with flour.
The direct or indirect object can become the subject of the passive
sentence.
If there are two objects, the preference is given to the person.
Someone gave a parcel to John. [= active sentence]
-> John was given a parcel. [= passive sentence]
A prepositional object may become the subject of the passive sentence.
The preposition or adverb particle remains immediately after the main
verb.
They always laugh at him. [= active sentence]
-> He is always laughed at.
The agent is introduced by the preposition 'by'.

This novel was written by Agatha Christie.


Adverbs of manner usually come in front of the past participle.
The spot was easily removed.

Infinitive / Plain infinitive : after modal verbs


The modal verbs can, could, may, might, must, will,
would, and should are followed by the plain infinitive.
He can speak Italian.
We mustn't be late.
Will you have dinner with us tomorrow ?

Infinitive / Plain infinitive : after let's


We use the plain infinitive after let's to make suggestions.
Let's go to the cinema.
Let's tell your parents the good news.

Infinitive / Plain infinitive : after I'd rather


- We use the plain infinitive after I/you/he...'d rather
to express a preference.
- Note that the contracted form 'd rather is always used
instead of would rather except in questions.
- The negative form is : 'd rather not + infinitive without 'to'.
Would you rather have tea or coffee ?
I'd rather have tea, please.
He'd rather not have coffee in the evening.

Infinitive / 'To' infinitive : after semi-auxiliaries

of obligation.
I have to leave now, it's getting late.
You don't have to do the washing up now.
I've got to finish this work today.
You haven't got to leave yet.
- Be going to expresses a prediction or an intention.
It's going to rain.
They are going to travel round the world.

Infinitive / Verbs + 'to' infinitive


afford - agree - decide - promise - refuse - seem - try
- These verbs followed by another verb require a 'to' infinitive
for the second verb.
They decided to sell their car.
He refused to come.
I'm trying to help you.
- In the negative the infinitive is introduced by 'not to'.
I promised not to say anything.
They agreed not to disturb him.

Infinitive / Verbs (+ object ) + 'to' infinitive


ask - help - want
- If the subject of the infinitive verb and the main verb are the same,
we use the structure verb + 'to' infinitive.
Jane wants to come to the party.
John will help to carry the luggage.
They asked to do it.
- If the subject of the infinitive is different from the main subject,
we use the structure verb + object (me, you, him...) + 'to' infin.
They wanted us to come to the party.
We asked John to carry the bags.

I'm helping him to do his work.


N.B. The verb to help can also be followed by a plain infinitive :
Susan will help you (to) lay the table.

Infinitive / Verbs + object + 'to' infinitive


persuade - remind - tell - warn
- When these verbs are followed by another verb, we use the structure
verb + object (me, you, him, Peter...) before the 'to' infinitive.
The teacher told them to read the text carefully.
I must remind Susan to post the letter.
- In the negative we use the structure
verb + object + not to + infinitive.
He warned me not to tease the dog.
He persuaded her not to come.

Infinitive / Verbs + 'to' infinitive of purpose


- 'To' + infinitive is used to express purpose.
He went to Oxford to study law.
I'm going out to do some shopping.
He's working hard to pass his exam.
- In a more formal style we use 'in order to + infinitive'.
He went to see the Dean in order to settle the problem.
- In negative sentences, we normally use 'in order not to +infinitive'.
Leave early in order not to be late.

Infinitive / Noun or pronoun + 'to' infinitive

Would you like something to eat ?


This structure is also possible after an adjective + noun :
He's got some important people to see.
It's a difficult problem to solve.

Infinitive / Adjective + 'to' infinitive


We can use the 'to infinitive' after a number of adjectives
- After pleased, glad, happy, we use the 'to' infinitive
to say how we feel about doing something.
I'm very pleased to meet you.
- After easy, difficult, impossible, hard, ... we can also use the
'to' infinitive.
It's impossible to finish all this work today !
It was easy to understand.

Infinitive / 'To' infinitive : recapitulation


'To infinitive' after semi-auxiliaries, e.g. have to,
have got to, be going to
I've got to run, or I'll miss my train.
Take an umbrella, it's going to rain.
'Verbs + 'to' infinitive'
He promised to be home at 11 o'clock.
I can't afford to buy a new car now.
They decided not to sell their car.
'Verbs + 'to' infinitive or + object + 'to' infinitive'
She wanted to be the first on the list.
She wanted John to help her.
'Verbs + object + 'to' infinitive'
Remind me to collect the children.
He told me not to be late.

'Verbs + 'to' infinitive of purpose' (or + in order to + infinitive)


I'll do my best to pass the exam.
He came to see me in order to borrow some money.
'Noun or pronoun + 'to' infinitive
I have something to tell you.
This is an easy problem to solve.
'Adjective + 'to' infinitive'
I'm happy to be back home again.
It's important to do your work well.

Present participle / Part of a conjugated verb


Used with the auxiliary 'to be' to form the continuous tenses.
Sally was playing tennis with Anne.
[= past continuous]
I 've been painting the bedroom.
[= present perfect continuous]

Present participle / As adjective


- Participles can also be used as adjectives.
It was a frightening experience.
The film we saw yesterday, was thrilling.
- There are many pairs of participle adjectives.
interesting / interested
exciting / excited
surprising / surprised
frightening / frightened
boring
/ bored
- Participle adjectives ending with -ing describe the person or thing
that produces the feeling.
This work is interesting.
It was an exciting story.
The play was boring.

- Participle adjectives ending with -ed describe a person's feelings :


I'm interested in this work.
We were all very excited.
The children were bored, because the play was too difficult.

The gerund / Definition


The form of the verb ending with '-ing' is a gerund
when the '-ing' form is used as a noun.
- The gerund can be a subject.
Playing golf is very expensive.
- The gerund can be an object.
I don't like swimming.
- The gerund can be a prepositional object.
He's fond of horse-riding.

The gerund / As subject


The gerund form is required when a verb is used as subject
of the sentence.
Smoking is bad for your health.
Travelling broadens the mind.

The gerund / As subject


The gerund form is required when a verb is used as subject
of the sentence.
Smoking is bad for your health.
Travelling broadens the mind.

The gerund / As object after certain verbs

feel like - enjoy - finish - go - come - do


- If the verbs to feel like, to enjoy, or to finish are followed
by another verb, the structure is normally : verb + gerund form.
Have you finished cleaning your room ?
I don't feel like going out tonight.
We enjoyed meeting your friends.
- We can also use this structure with to go and to come to talk
about sports and free time activities.
We all went swimming yesterday.
He didn't come climbing with us.
- We can use the gerund form after to do to talk about some kind
of work. The gerund is used with an article.
If you do the washing up, I'll do the cleaning.
Must we do all the shopping this afternoon ?
Who's going to do the cooking ?
- The negative form is the following : verb + not + gerund
I enjoy not getting up early on Sundays.

The gerund / After a preposition


If a verb follows a preposition, it is used as a prepositional object
and must always be in the gerund form.
After leaving school he went to university.
Brush your teeth before going to bed.
She left without saying anything.
Are you interested in learning languages ?
What about leaving now ?
I'm tired of listening to you.

The gerund / Verbs + preposition + gerund


Certain verbs require a preposition. If they are followed by another
verb, this verb must be used in the gerund form.
Are you thinking of buying a new house ?
I often dream of being rich.
We must go on helping him.

The gerund / After some expressions


Verbs that follow these idiomatic expressions
must be used in the gerund form.
- It's no use + gerund
It's no use crying, it won't help.
- It's worth + gerund
This film is really worth seeing.
- Can't help + gerund
I can't help laughing when I see him.
- Feel like + gerund
I feel like having an apple.
- Go + gerund for a number of activities, especially sports
-> go fishing - go swimming - go skiing - go shopping ...
We're going shopping this afternoon.
Where did you go skiing this winter ?

Verbs + gerund or 'to' infinitive / No change in meaning


start - begin - continue
These verbs can be followed by an '-ing' form or a 'to' infinitive
without any change in meaning.
It started to rain/raining.
He began to paint/painting the house.
They continued to work/working hard.

Verbs + gerund or 'to' infinitive / Alternative use

like - love - hate - prefer


- After like, love, hate and prefer conjugated in a tense other than
the conditional, we can use either the gerund or the infinitive,
but the gerund is more common.
I have always loved to read/reading in front of a fire.
She likes to have/having tea in front of the television.
He prefers to go/going to the theatre.
He hated to get up/getting up early.
- After would like, would love, would prefer and would hate,
we must use the infinitive.
I'd love to go with you.
He'd prefer to come another day.

Verbs + gerund or 'to' infinitive / Remember and forget


remember - forget + -ing form : after we've done it
remember - forget + 'to' inf. : before we have to do it
After 'to remember' and 'to forget', we use the 'ing form'
or the 'to infinitive', but with a change in meaning :
- When we remember or forget something after we've done it,
we use 'remember' and 'forget' with '-ing form'.
I remember visiting this place before.
I'll never forget shaking hands with the King.
- When we think about something before we have to do it,
we use 'remember' and 'forget' with the 'to' infinitive.
Remember to lock the door.
I forgot to give him the message.
Don't forget to give him the message.

Verbs + gerund or 'to' infinitive / Stop


stop -> + 'ing' form
Stop + 'ing' form means we stop what we are busy doing.
Will you please stop making so much noise.

He stopped smoking a month ago.


stop -> + infinitive
Stop + 'to' infinitive indicates a new action after stopping,
or a purpose.
I stopped (the car) to pick up the children.
[= I stopped in order to pick up the children]
Let's stop (working) to have lunch.
[= Let's stop in order to have lunch]

Verbs + gerund or 'to' infinitive / Recapitulation


- No change in meaning : to start, to begin, to continue
We started to eat/eating because we were hungry.
- Gerund or 'to' infinitive according to the tense of the verb.
to love, to like, to hate, and to prefer
- In all tenses except the conditional the gerund is more usual.
She likes swimming in the sea.
- In the conditional tense the 'to infinitive' is required.
We'd like to visit Athens.
- Change in meaning (1) : to remember and to forget
Remember to post the letter.
[= something we still have to do]
I remember giving you the letter.
[= something we have already done]
- Change in meaning (2) : to stop
Stop pushing me. [= stop an action we were busy doing]
He stopped (reading) to listen to the news.
[= stop one action to begin a new action]

List of prepositional verbs / Verbs + preposition


After many verbs we use a particular preposition.
The prepositional object always comes just after the preposition.

Will you all listen to me carefully.


They looked after my grandmother very well.
If the preposition is followed by a verb, the verb must be used in
the gerund form (= 'ing' form).
I wouldn't dream of revealing a secret.
I insist on revising your verbs regularly.
List of common prepositional verbs :
- agree with someone
I agree with you.
- believe in something
I believe in God.
I believe in being punctual. [preposition + verb -> 'ing']
- belong to someone
This book belongs to me.
- take care of (= look after)
She takes care of her little sister when her mother goes out.
- die of an illness
He died of cancer.
- dream about (when asleep)
I often dream about the sea.
- dream of being or doing something (= imagine)
I sometimes dream of going to America.
[preposition + verb -> 'ing']
- fall off a wall, a horse
Be careful, or you will fall off the horse.
- insist on
The teacher insisted on the importance of prepositions.
He insisted on coming.
[preposition + verb -> 'ing']

- laugh at someone/something
People often laugh at him.
- listen to
I listened to the concert on the radio yesterday.
- look at (= look in the direction of)
Look at that lovely bird !
- look after (= take care of)
Will you look after my flowers while I'm away ?
- look for (= try to find)
I'm looking for a pen.
- talk about someone/something
They were talking about their holidays.
We're talking about organizing a party.
[preposition + verb -> 'ing']
- talk to / speak to someone
Mary is talking to her mother.
Could I speak to John, please ?
- think about (= reflect)
What are you thinking about?
I'm thinking about what you said to me.
- think of/about (= consider)
She's thinking of/about changing her job.
[preposition + verb -> 'ing']
- wait for
We're waiting for the bus.
- write to someone
I wrote to John for his birthday.

List of prepositional verbs / Verbs + object + preposition

After some verbs we use an object followed by a particular preposition.


He explained the instructions to me.
I often borrow books from the library.
If a verb follows the preposition, we must put this verb
in the gerund form (= 'ing' form).
He accused the boy of breaking the window.
List of a few common verbs + object + preposition :
- accuse someone of (doing) something
He accused me of breaking the window.
[preposition + verb -> 'ing']
- borrow something from someone
I borrowed some money from the bank.
- explain something to someone
Will you explain this problem to me ?
- remind someone about something
Remind me about the party.
But : Remind me to bring back your book.
- spend (money) on something
You spend a lot of money on clothes.

Phrasal verbs / Definition


A phrasal verb is a verb + a phrasal adverb that modifies the initial
meaning of the verb.
He came at six o'clock. [initial verb : to come]
He left for America and never came back.
[phrasal verb : to come back
= to return)

Phrasal verbs / Intransitive phrasal verbs


List of a few common intransitive phrasal verbs :

- come back (= to return)


What time will you come back from the office ?
- come in (= to enter)
Please come in, the doctor is expecting you.
- fall down (= to crumble)
The wall of the old church has fallen down.
- get up (= to get out of bed)
It's seven o'clock, it's time to get up !
- grow up (= to become adult)
Growing up is not always easy.
- look out/watch out (= to be careful)
Look out before crossing the street !
- stand up (= to rise from sitting to standing)
All the pupils stood up when the teacher came in.
- take off (= depart for a plane)
The plane takes off at 7.15 a.m.
- wake up (= rise from sleep)
I woke up very early this morning.

Phrasal verbs / Transitive phrasal verbs


When a phrasal verb has an object, the object can be placed
before or after the phrasal adverb, but pronouns must come before
the phrasal adverb.
Call me back tomorrow.
I called back the bank manager the next day.
With a few transitive phrasal verbs ,the object, even a pronoun,
must come after the phrasal adverb.

He looks like me.


List of a few common transitive phrasal verbs :
- call/ring (someone) back (= telephone again)
I'll call him back in the evening.
- find (something) out (= discover)
Try and find out what happened.
- give (something) up (= abandon)
He gave up smoking a month ago.
- look like someone (= to resemble)
With this verb the object must come after the phrasal adverb.
He looks like his father.
He doesn't look like me.
- put (something) on (= to wear)
It's getting cold, put a pullover on.
- save (money) up (= put money aside)
He's saving up his pocket money to buy a tennis racket.
- take (something) off (= remove)
Take off your tee-shirt, it's dirty.
Take your tee-shirt off.
- wake (someone) up (= to raise from sleep)
Will you wake me up at seven o'clock ?
- wash (the dishes) up
I'll wash up the dishes after dinner.
I'll wash the dishes up after dinner.

Nouns / The plural - General rule.


-s

Most nouns form their plural by adding -s to the singular noun.


a car - three cars.
a cup - the cups.
a boy - two boys.

Nouns / The plural - Nouns ending in a sibilant.


-es
After sibilants, i.e. after -ch, -sh, -s, -ss, -z and -x we add -es
to form the plural.
a glass - glasses.
a watch - watches.
a brush - brushes.
a box - boxes.

Nouns / The plural - Nouns ending in -y preceded by a conson


-ies
Nouns ending in -y preceded by a consonant change into -ies to form
the plural.

a baby - babies.
a lavatory - lavatories.
But :
a boy
a day

- boys ('y' is not preceded by a consonant).


- days ('y' is not preceded by a consonant).

Nouns / The plural - Nouns ending in -f or -fe.


-ves
Nouns ending in -f or -fe change into -ves to form the plural.
a knife

- knives.

a wife - wives.
a thief - thieves.
a life - lives.

- The pronunciation is [iz] after sibilants, i.e. with -ches, -shes,


-ses, -sses, -zes and -xes.
houses [iz].
watches [iz].
glasses [iz].
- The pronunciation is [s] after k, p, t.
socks [s].
pots [s].
cups [s].
- The pronunciation is [z] in the other cases.
cars

[z].

dogs [z].
letters [z].

Nouns / The plural - Irregular plurals.


Basic irregular plurals are :
child - children
foot - feet
mouse - mice
man - men
tooth - teeth
woman - women
He has five children.
My feet are dirty.
This child has only 11 teeth.
There were many men and women.

Nouns / The plural - Nouns used only in the plural.

Basic nouns only used in the plural are :


glasses (when this word refers to a pair of spectacles)
people (when this word refers to persons in general)
police
scissors
trousers
I don't remember where I have put my glasses.
There weren't many people.
We need new scissors to cut this piece of cloth.
The police have arrested the two thieves.
I need some new trousers.

Nouns / The plural - Nouns only in the sing.: the uncountabl


Uncountables : - abstract nouns
- nouns of material
- 'information', 'furniture', 'news'
Plural forms of uncountables
Some nouns in English cannot be counted :
- abstract nouns (courage, love ...).
- nouns of material (gold, coffee, sugar ...).
- the words 'information', 'furniture', 'news'.

Nouns / The plural - Nouns only in the sing.: the uncountabl


Uncountables : - abstract nouns
- nouns of material
- 'information', 'furniture', 'news'
Plural forms of uncountables
Some nouns in English cannot be counted :
- abstract nouns (courage, love ...).
- nouns of material (gold, coffee, sugar ...).
- the words 'information', 'furniture', 'news'.

Nouns / The plural - Nouns only in the sing. : hair, luggage/bag


Hair, luggage/baggage (US) : only used in the singular

We use hair, luggage/baggage (US) only in the singular.


They are followed by a verb in the singular.
My hair is too long.
His luggage is too heavy.

Nouns / The possessive (genitive) : form.


singular nouns
: 's
plural nouns in -s and -es : '
other plural nouns
: 's
- After a singular noun, we add 's.
N.B. No 'the' before people's names .
It is John's book.
Peter's hair.
Doris's hat.
- After a plural noun ending in -s and -es, we add only '.
The students' books.
The girls' clothes.
- After a plural noun not ending in -s, we add 's.
They're the children's books.
Women's fashions.

Nouns / The possessive (genitive) : use.


- With the names of people or animals (esp. domestic pets)
- in time expressions
- in geographical references
We use the possessive (genitive) :
with people and animals (especially pets).
John's pencils.
The cat's name is Pussy.
in time expressions.

I met him at last week's party.


I'll see her at tomorrow's meeting.
in geographical references.
I bought it at the butcher's.
In the afternoon we went to St Paul's.

- The indefinite article is 'a' before words that begin with a


consonant and 'an' before words that begin with a vowel sound.
N.B. : It is the sound which is the deciding factor.
She's a nurse (consonant).
He's an office worker (vowel).
I'm a European (consonant sound ->['ju@r@'pi:@n])
- In the plural there are no indefinite articles.
a book -> books.
a knife -> knives.
- The definite article is 'the'. We pronounce [ @] before a consonant and
[ i] before a vowel. Here again it is the sound which is the deciding
factor.
The car in the garage is new -> [ @].
The eyes of Mary -> [ i].
We went to the Alps -> [ i].

Articles / Use : general rule.


General reality : no article
Particular reality : article needed
- When we talk about something in general, we don't use any article.
Do you like carrots ?
He is studying geography.
Cats like meat.
- When we talk about something in particular, we use the article.

Do you like the carrots of my mother ?


He is studying the geography of Spain.
The cats of my street eat a lot of meat.

Articles / Use : exceptions (idiomatic uses).


No article in some idiomatic expressions
We don't use any article in some idiomatic expressions.
Remember the following :
to go to school, to church, to bed, to go home.
to be at home, school, in hospital, in bed.
to have breakfast, lunch, dinner.
to watch television.
before/after/at ... breakfast, lunch, dinner, school ...
at night, last night, next week ...

Adjectives are invariable


Adjectives are invariable : they only have one form, which we use with
singular and plural nouns (predicatively and attributively).
It's a nice book.
Those houses are nice.

Adjectives / Comparison of adjectives - Forms : general rul


ADJECTIVE
one syllable
two syllables

three or more
syllables

COMPARATIVE
-er
more + adj.
(except adj. end.
in -er, -y and
in -e )
more + adj.

Adjectives of one syllable


Adjectives of three syllables or more

SUPERLATIVE
the -est
the + most + adj.

the + most + adj.

Adjectives of two syllables


Spelling changes

Adjectives of one syllable form their comparative and superlative


by adding -er and -est to the base.
big - bigger - the biggest.
dark - darker - the darkest.
Adjectives of three syllables or more form their comparative by
putting the adverb more in front of the adjective, and their
superlative by putting most in front.
expensive - more expensive - the most expensive.
beautiful - more beautiful - the most beautiful.
Adjectives of two syllables form their comparative and superlative
in the same way as adjectives of three syllables (or more) by putting
more and most in front except those ending in -er, -e and -y
which usually form their comparative and superlative by adding
-er and -est to the base.
open - more open - the most open.
pretty - prettier - the prettiest (ending in -y).
clever - cleverer - the cleverest ( ending in -er).
late - later - the latest (ending in -e).
Note the following changes in spelling before -er and -est :
a final -y preceded by a consonant changes to -i.
happy - happier - the happiest.
pretty - prettier - the prettiest
if an adjective ends in -e, we drop it.
late - later - the latest
final consonants are doubled after a stressed single vowel.

big - bigger - the biggest.


hot - hotter - the hottest.

Adjectives / Comparison of adjectives - Forms : irregular for


good
bad
far

better
worse
farther
further
little
less
much
more
many
more

the best
the worst
the farthest (proper meaning)
the furthest (proper and figurative m.)
the least
the most
the most

My car is better than yours.


He has the worst results.
Oslo is farther/further than Berlin (proper meaning).
I want to have further details (figurative meaning).
I've got less books than John.
John has got more money than Jeff.
Liz has got more books than Sandra.

Adjectives / Comparison of adjectives - Use.


- The comparative of equality (things are equal) :
as + adj. + as
He is as tall as his father.
She is as old as me.
The comparative of superiority
The comparative of inferiority
The superlative

The comparative of superiority (things are higher on a scale) :


adj. + er / more + adj. + than
He is a faster driver than John.
This book is more interesting than that one.
The comparative of inferiority (things are lower on a scale) :
less + adj. + than

not as + adj. + as
not so + adj. + as
This car is less expensive than I thought.
This car is not as expensive as I thought.
This car is not so expensive as I thought
The superlative (things are the highest or the lowest on a scale) :
the + adj. + est / the most + adj.
The shortest way.
The most expensive toy.

Adverbs / Forms : general rule.


-ly
- In general, adverbs are derived from adjectives by adding -ly.
rapid - rapidly.
beautiful - beautifully.
nice - nicely.
- Adjectives ending in -y change to -i in the process.
happy - happily.
funny - funnily.

Adverbs / Forms : exceptions.


- Some adverbs - in general short and familiar - have the same form as
the corresponding adjective.
early early
fast
fast
hard
hard
late
late
long
long
daily daily
weekly weekly
monthly monthly
yearly yearly
An early train

Adverbs not derived from adjectives


Very, quite, too
Well

-> It leaves early.

A fast worker -> He works fast.


A hard worker -> He works hard.
A late train
-> It leaves late.
A long stay
-> He stayed long.
A weekly magazine -> This magazine comes out weekly.

Adverbs / Degrees of comparison - Forms : general rule.


ADVERB

COMPARATIVE

one syllable
two syllables
or more

-er
more + adv.

SUPERLAT
the -est
the + most +

- Adverbs of one syllable form their comparative and superlative by


adding -er and -est to the base.
fast - faster - the fastest.
- Adverbs of two syllables or more form their comparative with more
and their superlative with most.
slowly - more slowly - the most slowly.

Adverbs / Degrees of comparison - Forms : irregular forms


well
badly
early
far
little
much

better
worse
earlier
farther
further
less
more

the best
the worst
the earliest
the farthest (proper meaning)
the furthest (proper and figurative m.)
the least
the most

He speaks better than John.


She worked worse than all the others.
He got up the earliest.
I drove farther/further than Sheila (proper meaning).
Her analysis went the furthest (figurative meaning).
John helped less than the others.
I'm going to do the most of it.

Quantifiers / Some, any, no.


+ sentences

some

- sentences

any

? sentences

some (if we expect a


'yes' answer)
any ( if we expect a
'no' answer or if
we do not expect
any particular
answer)

Examples
'No' instead of 'not any'
Countables and uncontables

I've got some sugar. [affirmative sentence]


There are some books left. [affirmative sentence]
I haven't got any magazines. [negative sentence]
There aren't any books left. [negative sentence]
Would you like some magazines ? [expecting a 'yes' answer]
Have you got any books ? [expecting a 'no' answer or no
particular answer]
No = not any (insisting)
'No' has the same meaning as 'not any' but it sounds more emphatic.
She hasn't got any car -> She has no car.
They haven't got any paper -> They have no paper.
Countables Uncountables
===
===
some
any
no
'Some', 'any' and 'no' can precede both uncountables (nouns that we
cannot count like 'milk', 'sugar', 'bread') and countables (nouns that
we can count like 'student', 'book').

She lends me some books / She lends me some money.


I want no cigarettes / I want no bread.
Do you need some pencils / Do you need some help ?

Quantifiers / A little, little - a few, few - much - many.


Countables
a few

books
cars
few
pencils
cups
many teachers
people
...

Uncountables
a little money
courage
little bread
water
much
help
tea
...

Explanations

We use 'a few', 'few' and 'many' with countables (nouns that we
can count).
Give me a few pencils.
I saw few people.
Here are many examples.
- We use 'a little', 'little' and 'much' with uncountables (nouns
that we cannot count).
Give me a little money.
He gave me little help.
She needs much courage.

Quantifiers / A lot of.


Countables

Uncountables

books
pencils
many students
teachers
roads
...

money
bread
much
sugar
violence
time
...

books
bread
a lot of students
violence
pencils
...

'A lot of + countable or uncountable' or 'a lot of' can replace both
'many + countable' and 'much + uncountable'.
Peter has got many friends -> Peter has got a lot of friends.
Sheila needs much money
We laughed much

-> Sheila needs a lot of money.


-> We laughed a lot.

Quantifiers / Every, several, all.


Countables

Uncountables

every + singular
several + plural
all + plural

all + singular

- 'Every'+ singular countable.


We see him every week.
- 'Several'+ plural countable.
Several weeks have passed.
- 'All' + plural countable.
All cats like meat.
- 'All' + singular uncountable.
All violence is bad.

Quantifiers / Table (according to quantity).


Countables

Uncountables

all + pl.
every + sing.

all + sing.
|
|

many

much

|
several + plur. |
|
some
|
some
|
a few
|
a little
|
few
|
little
any
no
Examples
All dogs bark.

All violence is avoidable.

Every student needs paper.


There were many people.
I see some girls.

How much of the bread have you eaten ?

I need some money

He bought several pens.


Only a few people came.

I want a little wine.

The few words he spoke were He gave us little help.


well-chosen.
I don't want any apple.
I want no apple.

Possessives.

1st pers.sing.
2nd pers.sing.
3rd pers.sing.masc.
fem.
neutral
1st pers.plur.
2nd pers.plur.
3rd pers. plur.

adjectives
------------my
your
his
her
its
our
your
their

This is my book - This book is mine.


|_______________________|
This is your book - This book is yours.
|_______________________|
This is his book - This book is his.
|_______________________|
This is her book - This book is hers.
|_______________________|
This is its book.

pronouns
-----------mine
yours
his
hers
ours
yours
theirs

This is our book - This book is ours.


|________________________|
This is your book - This book is yours.
|________________________|
This is their book - This book is theirs.
|________________________|
Possessives are invariable.
my mother - my parents.
her book - her books.
- In the third person singular, possessives depend on the possessor
and not on the person or thing possessed.
He asked me about my book : its price and its subject.
|______|_____________|
My mother likes her cat.
|___________|
I don't know if he has taken his book.
|_____________|
- Note the following idiomatic use of the possessive pronoun :
a friend of mine.
this book of yours.

Demonstratives.
SITUATION

SINGULAR

PLURAL

person(s) or object(s)
close to the speaker

this

these

remote person(s) or
object(s)

that

those

- This and these refer to people and objects that are close to the
speaker in space and time.
- That and those refer to more remote people and objects in space

and time; they can have some emotional connotation.


This is my book and that is his.
These are my children, those are Mary's.
Do you remember that moment ?
Oh, that telephone again !

Interrogatives / Interrogative pronouns.


WHO : persons
WHAT : things (general use)
WHICH : persons and things (case of choice)
- Who is used for persons only.
Who told you that ? - John did.
- What as an interrogative pronoun is used for things only.
What did you tell him ? - The story.
- Which is used for people and things when there is
a restricted choice.
Which works better : Sandra or Janet ? - Janet.
(N.B. 'Who' is also correct for people ).
Which is your book : the one on the left or the one on the right ?

Interrogatives / Interrogative adjectives.


WHAT + noun : persons and things without any specific choice.
WHICH + noun : persons and things with a restricted choice.
- What + noun is used for people and things without any specific
choice (general use).
What price did you pay ?
What boys have arrived ?
What time is it ?
- Which + noun is used for people and things when there is
a restricted choice.
Which book did you borrow : Peter's or Sandra's ?
Which girl do you prefer here ?

Which dictionary did you look up : Harraps' or Collins' ?

Interrogatives / Whose.
'Whose' can be both an interrogative adjective and pronoun.
As an interrogative 'whose' refers to persons only. It is usually
followed by the noun it determines.
Whose car is it ? - It's John's.
Whose is it ? - It's Mary's.
Whose house have you bought ? - Jane's.

Interrogatives / Interrogative adverbs.


Interrogative adverbs are 'why', 'when', 'where' and 'how'.
Why have you come so late ? - Because my mother is sick.
|_______________________________|
When did you leave ? - Last week.
|_________________________|
Where were you ? - In the kitchen.
|______________________|
How did you go there ? - By car.
|_________________________|

Personal pronouns / Forms.

1st pers.sing.
2nd pers.sing.
3rd pers.sing.masc.
fem.
neutral
1st pers.plur.
2nd pers.plur.
3rd pers. plur.

subject form
------------I
you
he
she
it
we
you
they

Examples
Subjects and objects forms
I see you - She sees me.
|____________________|
You like dancing - I like dancing with you.

object form
-----------me
you
him
her
it
us
you
them

|______________________________________|
He goes shopping - I go shopping with him.
|______________________________________|
She likes cats - Cats like her too !
|___________________________|
The house is nice - I can see it.
|________________________|
We go to London - They come with us.
|_________________________________|
You saw the students - The students saw you too !
|_______________________________________|
They studied quite a lot - You studied with them.
|_____________________________________________|
The object form is usually preferred except when the personal pronoun
is clearly the subject of the sentence.
It's her ['she' would be pedantic].
He is bigger than him.
He says that she is sick [clearly subjects].

Numerals / Cardinal numbers : from 0 to 99.


(0) nought (10) ten
(20) twenty (30) thirty (40) forty
US zero
(1) one (11) eleven (21) twenty-one
(2) two (12) twelve (22) twenty-two
(3) three (13) thirteen (23) twenty-three
(4) four (14) fourteen (24) twenty-four
(5) five (15) fifteen (25) twenty-five
(6) six (16) sixteen (26) twenty-six
(7) seven (17) seventeen(27) twenty-seven
(8) eight (18) eighteen (28) twenty-eight
(9) nine (19) nineteen (29) twenty-nine
(50) fifty (60) sixty (70) seventy (80) eighty (90) ninety

- Mind :
(3) three - (13) thirteen - (30) thirty.
(4) four - (14) fourteen - (40) forty.
(5) five - (15) fifteen - (50) fifty.

(8) eight - (18) eighteen - (80) eighty.


- Between the tens and the units there is a hyphen (-) .
(22) twenty-two.
(74) seventy-four.

Numerals / Cardinal numbers : from 100 to 10,000,000.


(100) a/one hundred (101) a/one hundred and one
(200) two hundred (202) two hundred and two
(300) three hundred (303) three hundred and three
...
(1,000) a/one thousand (1,001) a/one thousand and one
(5,000) five thousand (5,005) five thousand and five
...
(1,000,000) a/one million
(5,000,000) five million
...

The words 'hundred', 'thousand' and 'million' are invariable except


when they are followed by 'of'.
two hundred people - hundreds of people.
-

three thousand letters - thousands of letters.


-

five million dollars - millions of dollars.

We put 'and' between :


the hundreds
and
the thousands
(274)

the tens
the units

two hundred and seventy-four.

(7,002) seven thousand and two.


(318)

three hundred and eighteen.

(291)

two hundred and ninety-one.

The comma is used to divide thousands from hundreds, millions from


thousands etc.
7,004

(seven thousand and four).

1,000,000 ( a/one million).

Numerals / Cardinal numbers : time of day.


It's 7 (o'clock)
10 TO 7
5 PAST 7
(a) QUARTER TO 7
(a) QUARTER PAST 7
HALF PAST 7

(a.m.)
(p.m.)

(14.58) -> two to three (p.m.).


(3.15) -> (a) quarter past three (a.m.).
(9.30) -> half past nine (a.m.).
(19.07) -> seven past seven (p.m.).

Numerals / Ordinal numbers : from 1st to 99th.


(10-) tenth
(20-) twentieth (30-) thirtieth
(1-) first (11-) eleventh (21-) twenty-first
(2-) second (12-) twelfth (22-) twenty-second
(3-) third (13-) thirteenth (23-) twenty-third
(4-) fourth (14-) fourteenth (24-) twenty-fourth
(5-) fifth (15-) fifteenth (25-) twenty-fifth
(6-) sixth (16-) sixteenth (26-) twenty-sixth
(7-) seventh (17-) seventeenth (27-) twenty-seventh
(8-) eighth (18-) eighteenth (28-) twenty-eighth
(9-) ninth (19-) nineteenth (29-) twenty-ninth
(40-) fortieth (50-) fiftieth (60-) sixtieth
(70-) seventieth (80-) eightieth (90-) ninetieth

five

-> fifth.

eight -> eighth.


nine

-> ninth.

four

-> fourth - fourteenth - fortieth.

- Ordinal numbers are shortened by adding the last two letters

to the corresponding number.


first
second
third

-> 1st
-> 2nd
-> 3rd

thirty-first -> 31st

Numerals / Dates.
- Names of months :
January, February, March, April, May, June,
July, August, September, October, November, December
Names of months have a capital letter.
- Years are usually read in the following way :
1991 : nineteen ninety-one
N.B. 0 is pronounced like the letter O

Dates can be WRITTEN in five different ways :


- 14 November 1991 - 14th November 1991 - November 14th, 1991
- November 14, 1991 - { 14.11.1991 (GB)
{ 11.14.1991 (US)
N.B. In American English the month usually comes first.
Dates are READ in two different ways :
the (ordinal number) of (month) (year)
or
(month) the (year)
14.11.1990 -> (The fourteenth of November nineteen ninety).
or
(November the fourteenth nineteen ninety).
1.5.1993

-> (The first of May nineteen ninety-three).

or
(May the first nineteen ninety-three).
8.2.1979

-> (The eighth of February nineteen seventy-nine).


or
(February the eighth nineteen seventy-nine).

Declarative sentences / Positive sentences.


In positive sentences the usual word order is the following :
subject + verb (phrase)
My leg hurts.
Mike
is waiting.
verb
= one word
verb phrase = two or more words
subject + verb (phrase) + object
(direct or indirect)
I
have
three friends.
He
can play
tennis.
Ann
will speak
to him.
subject + verb (phrase) + complement
John
He

is
seems

ill.
a nice boy.

subject + verb (phrase) + adverbial


He
drives
carefully.
My mother is sitting
in the garden.
Peter went
to London.

Declarative sentences / Negative sentences : with 'be' and auxilia


subject + | 'be'
+ NOT
| auxiliary verb

Jack is not there.


He has not finished.
I have not read that book.
She is not singing.
I will not come tomorrow.
They would not agree.
You must not smoke in the theatre.

NOTE 1 :
These forms are used in formal English.
In everyday English short forms are used :
He hasn't finished.
She isn't singing.
I won't come tomorrow.
NOTE 2 :
The negative of 'can' is 'cannot', in one word :
I cannot speak Russian.
The contraction is 'can't'.
I can't speak Russian.
NOTE 3 :
When there are two or more auxiliaries
the negation NOT comes after the first auxiliary :
I have not been living here for a long time.
He will not have finished in time.

Declarative sentences / Negative sentences : with ordinary ve


DO
subject + DOES + NOT + verb (without 'to')
DID
I do not like fish.
He does not believe you.
You did not understand the problem.
NOTE :
Some negative sentences contain no negative verb :

I have no money.
Nobody told me.
No one
Nothing has changed.
I have never seen his girlfriend.
He has nowhere to go.
The words 'no, nobody, no one, nothing, never, nowhere'
are already negative !
So, they can't be used with a negative verb.
In English a negative sentence can contain
one negative word only ! So, we can say :
I have NEVER seen his girlfriend.
or
I haveN'T EVER seen his girlfriend.

I have NO money.
or
I haveN'T ANY money.

Interrogative sentences / Inversion questions : with 'be' and auxili


| 'be'
+ subject
| auxiliary verb
So, there is an inversion !
Are you coming tomorrow ?
Have they finished ?
Will he be at home ?
Can she speak English ?
NOTE :
If there are two or more auxiliaries the subject is placed
after the first auxiliary :
Have they been working ?
Would she have helped me ?

Interrogative sentences / Inversion questions : with ordinary v


DO

DOES + subject + verb (without 'to')


DID
So, there is also an inversion !
Do you smoke ?
Does Mary live in Oxford ?
Did he see the manager yesterday ?

Interrog. sentences / Question-word questions : with 'be' and auxil


question-word + | 'be'
+ subject
(+ noun)
| auxiliary verb
Those questions always start with the question-word
and there must be an inversion !
Who are you calling ?
What has happened ?
Where can I go now ?
Why should I tell him ?
When is the last bus ?
Which dress have you chosen : the blue or the red one ?
Whose car is this ?

Interrog. sentences / Question-word questions : with 'be' and auxil


question-word + | 'be'
+ subject
(+ noun)
| auxiliary verb
Those questions always start with the question-word
and there must be an inversion !
Who are you calling ?
What has happened ?
Where can I go now ?
Why should I tell him ?
When is the last bus ?
Which dress have you chosen : the blue or the red one ?
Whose car is this ?

nterrogative sentences / Question-word questions : with ordinar

DO
question-word + DOES + subject + verb
(+ noun)
DID
(without 'to')
Those questions always start with the question-word
and there must be an inversion !
Where do you live ?
What does it mean ?
Who did he phone that night ?
What time do you usually get up ?
Which train did you take this morning ?

EXCEPTION :
question-word = subject
DO
!!! do not use DOES
DID
When the question-word is the subject of the verb,
DO
no DOES is used to form the question :
DID
Who told you that ?
|___|
Which bus goes to Piccadilly Circus ?
|_________|
Whose son won the championship ?
|_________|
Compare :
Who loves Terry ? (someone loves Terry)
and
Who does Terry love ? (Terry loves someone)
Who saw you ? (somebody saw you)
and
Who did you see ? (you saw somebody)

Interrogative sentences / The most common question-word

WHAT

What are you doing ?


I'm writing a letter.

WHO

Who is that man with Jennifer ?


That's my brother.

WHERE Where were you born ?


I was born in Brussels.
NOTE :
'Where' can be used with the preposition 'to'
to indicate movement, direction :
Where are you going (to) ?

'Where' is used with the preposition 'from'


to indicate origin :
Where do you come from ?
Note that in both cases the preposition
is at the end of the sentence.

WHEN

When did you meet him ?


Yesterday afternoon.

WHY

Why did you marry her ?


I don't know...

WHOSE Whose (car) is it ?


It's John's.
Whose (keys) are these ?
They're mine.
'Whose' asks about POSSESSION.

HOW

How did you come this morning ?


By train.
How does he drive ?

Badly !
'How' means : IN WHAT WAY ?
what is different from which

Compare the following sentences :

What is your favourite colour ?


Blue.
BUT
Which colour do you prefer : red, blue or yellow ?
Blue.

What would you like to have ?


An orange juice, please.
BUT
I have got orange juice, beer or water.
Which would you like to have ?
An orange juice, please.

So, we use 'which' when there is a LIMITED CHOICE.

combinations with what

WHAT KIND OF
What kind of sport do you practise ?
SORT OF
sort of
Football.

WHAT TIME

What time does your train leave ?


At two pm.
Note : 'When' is also possible :
When does it leave ?

WHAT ABOUT
I'm tired. What about you ?
Yes, me too.

What about your trip ?


Oh, it was fantastic !
'What about' is used to ask for INFORMATION
concerning somebody or something.

Note : Do NOT confuse with


'what about (+ing)'
which makes a suggestion :
What about (having) a drink ?
combinations with how
HOW LONG How long did you live in Africa ?
Ten years.
How long have you been working here ?
For twenty years now.
'How long' asks for a PERIOD OF TIME.

HOW LONG AGO How long ago did you meet her ?
Six months ago.
'How long ago' asks about a POINT IN TIME.
NOTE 1 : 'When' can also be used :
When did you meet her ?
NOTE 2 : Do NOT confuse with 'since when'
which indicates the starting point
of a period :
Since when have you known her ?
Since the beginning of September.

HOW OFTEN How often do you play tennis ?


Twice a week.
How often do you travel by plane ?
Every month.
'How often' asks about the FREQUENCY of an action.

HOW MUCH
How much coffee is left ?
Not much, I'm afraid.
'How much' asks about QUANTITY
for UNCOUNTABLE (or mass) NOUNS,
for example 'coffee, milk, sugar,
butter, courage, energy, pleasure,...'

How much is that T-shirt ?


Ten pounds.
We always use 'how much' to ask about MONEY.

HOW MANY
How many children do you have ?
Two.
How many bottles of wine are left ?
Only three.
'How many' asks about a NUMBER of things or people.
It is used with COUNTABLE NOUNS in the PLURAL,
for example 'chairs, tables, cars, pencils,...'

HOW OLD
How old are you ?
I am 20 (years old).

HOW FAR
How far is the station from here ?
Only one kilometre.
'How far' asks about DISTANCE.
HOW TALL
How tall is he ?
He is almost two metres tall.
'How tall' is used for PEOPLE.

HOW HIGH
How high is Mount Everest ?
It is more than 8,OOO metres high.
'How high' is used for THINGS.

HOW BIG

How big is his flat ?


Very big, I think.

Interrogative sentences / Question-word questions with prepos


All those questions start with the question-word,
and the preposition comes at the end :
TO GIVE TO
TO WAIT FOR

->
->

TO DANCE WITH
TO LOOK AT
TO TALK ABOUT

Who did you give it to ?


Who are you waiting for ?
->

->

Who did you dance with ?

What are you looking at ?


->

What are you talking about ?

TO BE INTERESTED IN ->

What are you interested in ?

Interrogative sentences / Negative questions.


These questions are either inversion questions or question-word
questions, but are of the negative type :
Haven't you understood ?
Can't he speak English ?
Don't you like ice-cream ?
Didn't he write to you ?
Who hasn't finished ?
Why isn't she happy ?
Why don't you apologize ?
Why didn't they go on holiday ?
NOTE :
With ordinary verbs the auxiliary DO is of course used
in a negative question, even if the question-word
is the subject of the verb :
Compare :
Who saw the accident ?
Who DIDN'T see the accident ?

Imperative sentences / Use.


The imperative is used for making requests, suggestions or offers,

for expressing wishes, and for giving orders and instructions :


Be careful, please !
Have a cigarette.
Enjoy yourself !
Sit down immediately !
Go straight ahead and then turn right.

The construction with 'let's' generally expresses a suggestion


rather than an order :
I'm thirsty. Let's have a drink.
Let's go to the museum this afternoon.

Imperative sentences / Formation.

2nd pers. (sg or pl)


1st pers. (pl)

POSITIVE

NEGATIVE

go
let's go

don't go
let's not go

The second person has the form of the infinitive without 'to' :
Shut that door !
It is preceded by don't in the negative,
except when the adverb 'never' is used :
Don't forget !
Never say that again !
NOTE : 'don't' is used in the spoken language,
'do not' may be used in written instructions :
Do not park here !
In the first person let's precedes the infinitive without 'to' :
Let's go to the pictures tonight.
In the negative the infinitive is preceded by let's not :
Let's not stay here, it's dangerous.

Exclamatory sentences.
'How' + adjective
How interesting !
How lovely she is !
How funny it was !
'What' + noun phrase
What a surprise !
What a lovely day !
What nice people !
What beautiful flowers !

Short answers and responses / Forms and use.


Short answers are used to avoid the repetition of the verb.
They contain a subject and an auxiliary :
Can you swim ?
Yes, I can [swim].
No, I can't [swim].
In the negative, contracted forms must be used :
Will he be there ? No, he won't.
Can you speak Japanese ? No, I can't.
NOTES :
If the question contains 'have got', we use 'have'
in the short answer :
Have you got a dog ? Yes, I have.
If there are two or more auxiliaries, we use
the FIRST auxiliary in the short answer :
Have you been running ? Yes, I have.
If the question contains the verb 'to be',
'to be' is used in the short answer :
Is he ill ? No, he isn't.
With ordinary verbs we use 'do/does' in present simple

short answers and 'did' in past simple short answers :


Do you smoke ? Yes, I do.
Does he live in Rome ? Yes, he does.
Did they go on holiday ? Yes, they did.

Short answers / 'yes' or 'no' answer.


subject + auxiliary
Will you see him tomorrow ? Yes, I will.
No, I won't.
Can he speak Spanish ? Yes, he can.
No, he can't.
Do you smoke ? Yes, I do.
No, I don't.
Did he go on holiday last year ? Yes, he did.
No, he didn't.

Short answers / Question with question-word.


subject + auxiliary
Who will be there tomorrow ? Peter will.
Who can swim here ? I can.
Who doesn't like football ? I don't.
My friend doesn't.

Short answers / Question with question-word.


subject + auxiliary
Who will be there tomorrow ? Peter will.
Who can swim here ? I can.
Who doesn't like football ? I don't.
My friend doesn't.

Short answers expressing agreement.

subject + auxiliary
Agreement with a positive remark :
I think Peter is washing the car. Yes, he is.
Janet works very hard. Yes, she does.
They have read a lot of books. Yes, they have.
He can play the piano very well. Yes, he can.
Agreement with a negative remark :
Amanda isn't very happy. No, she isn't.
John doesn't play cards very well. No, he doesn't.
They won't go abroad this summer. No, they won't.

Short answers expressing disagreement.


subject + auxiliary
Disagreement with a positive remark :
It is raining again. No, it isn't !
Sarah lives in Paris. No, she doesn't.
He will help her. No, he won't.
You spoke to Susan last night. I didn't !
Disagreement with a negative remark :
You haven't brushed your teeth ! Oh, yes, I have !
He can't drive a car. Yes, he can.
She won't come ! Yes, she will !
They don't like football. Oh, yes, they do !

Short answers and responses / Additions expressing a parall


INVERSION -> auxiliary + subject
With 'so', meaning 'also' :
I'm afraid. So am I !
I have seen that film. So has my mother.
He plays the piano and so does his brother.

They came by train. So did we !


With the negative construction parallel to the preceding one,
using 'neither' :
I haven't understood. Neither has my friend.
Mike doesn't like fish. Neither does Jim.
They can't answer my question. Neither can you.
You didn't drink tea. Neither did I.

Short answers and responses / Additions expressing a contra


subject + auxiliary
Negative additions to positive sentences :
+ but I live in Brussels but he doesn't.
He can speak English but his sister can't.
They went to the theatre yesterday. But I didn't.
She'll travel by plane but he won't.
Positive additions to negative sentences :
- but +
My brother doesn't like shopping. But I do !
I can't play the guitar but Michael can.
You didn't see the accident but she did.
They won't visit Rome but we will.

Short answers and responses / Short questions for surprise or in


These short questions have the same form as question-tags.
They are QUESTIONS, so we have an inversion
and there is a question mark at the end,
not a full stop or an exclamation mark !
auxiliary + subject ?
I saw Prince last night. Did you ?
He can't find a job. Oh, can't he ?

She's going to Spain next week. Is she ?


He gets up at 5 am every day. Does he ?

Short answers / Exceptions : 'to think', 'hope' and 'suppose


Those verbs are sometimes used as short answers.
They are exceptional because there is no auxiliary in the short answer.
Indeed, 'to think', 'to hope' and 'to suppose' are no auxiliaries,
but ordinary verbs.
Positive form :
subject + verb + 'so'
Is she English ? I think so.
Will Tom come ? I hope so.
I suppose so.
Negative form :
the structure depends on the verb

I think so

-> I don't think so

I hope so -> I hope not


I suppose so -> I suppose not
Is he American ? I don't think so.
Is it going to rain ? I hope not.
Will Sheila be there ? I suppose not.

Word order / Basic patterns.


In positive sentences the usual word order is the following :
subject + verb (phrase)
My leg hurts.
Mike
is waiting.
verb

= one word

verb phrase = two or more words


subject + verb (phrase) + object
(direct or indirect)
I
have
three friends.
He
can play
tennis.
Ann
will speak
to him.
subject + verb (phrase) + complement
John
He

is
seems

ill.
a nice boy.

subject + verb (phrase) + adverbial


He
drives
carefully.
My mother is sitting
in the garden.
Peter went
to London.

Word order / Verb + direct object.


verb + direct object
In English we do NOT separate the verb from its object.
We do NOT put other words between them :
I like children very much.
She speaks English well.
He watches TV every day.
Jack often plays tennis.
They phone him regularly.
He also bought a car.

Word order / Verb + direct and indirect objects.


Indirect object + direct object
Direct object + 'to/for' + indirect object
Note 1 - 'to' or 'for' ?
Note 2 - 'to' + indirect object

Note 2 - Examples
indirect object + direct object
The indirect object without 'to' or 'for'
comes before the direct object :
John gave his brother two books.
He gave him two books.
John bought his girlfriend a new dress.
He bought her a new dress.
direct object + 'to' + indirect object
'for'
The indirect object with 'to' or 'for'
comes after the direct object :
He gave the books to his brother.
He gave them to his brother.
He gave them to him.
He bought the new dress for his girlfriend.
He bought it for his girlfriend.
He bought it for her.
NOTE 1 :
'To' is used with the following verbs :
bring, give, lend, offer, pass, pay, promise,
read, sell, send, show, teach, tell, write.
'For' is used with the verbs :
book, build, buy, cook, find, get, keep,
leave, make, order, reserve, save.
NOTE 2 :
With some verbs we must use the structure with 'to'
when there is an indirect object in the sentence :

She

announced
complained
described
explained
indicated
introduced
mentioned
proposed

to me

repeated
replied
reported
said
shouted
spoke
suggested
talked

Word order / Manner, place and time : with a direct objec


Adverbials of manner, place and time normally go
after the direct object.
We do NOT usually separate the verb from its direct object :
verb + direct object + adverbial
He drove his new car carefully.
We met Andrew at the station.
She watched TV last night.

Word order / Manner, place and time : no direct object.


If there is no direct object, the adverbial normally goes
after the verb :
He drives quickly.
He works there.

Word order / Manner, place and time : more than one adverb
If there is more than one adverbial, the usual order is :

manner, place, time


She sang very well yesterday. (manner + time)
I lived in London last year. (place + time)
John worked hard at home this morning.
(manner + place + time)
EXCEPTION :
With verbs of movement, the adverbial of place
comes immediately after the verb :
I went to Brighton by train. (place + manner)

When there are two or more time/place adverbials,


the more precise comes first :

He was born at 6 am, on June 18th, 1970.


I left it on my desk at the office.

Word order / Insistence on manner, place or time.


Some adverbials of manner, place or time can also be placed
at the beginning of a sentence.
We do this when we want to insist on manner, place or time :

Slowly, he read the letter.


In Cambridge, we visited a big museum.
Tomorrow, I'll go to the bank.

Word order / Adverbials of frequency : list.


They answer the question : how often ?
The most common are :

never, rarely, seldom, occasionally, often,


normally, usually, generally, frequently,

mostly, always, ever.

Word order / Adverbials of frequency : normal position.


Before an ordinary verb :
adverbial + verb
I always get up at 6.
He never eats fish.
They often travel.

After the verb 'be' :


'be' + adverbial
He's always late.
They are sometimes abroad.
After the (first) auxiliary :
(first) auxiliary + adverbial
He has never visited Venice.
She has always lived in Mexico.
Have you ever been in a plane ?
I don't usually watch TV.
NOTE 1 :
'Sometimes', 'usually', 'normally', 'frequently', 'often'
and 'occasionally' can also go at the beginning
or end of a sentence.
This position is used to insist on the adverbial :
Sometimes I take a taxi.
Do you come here often ?
NOTE 2 :
Long frequency adverbials normally go at the end of a sentence,
or at the beginning when we want to insist :
They go to the cinema every week.
Every week , they go to the cinema.
I go to the doctor's once a year.

Once a year , I go to the doctor's.

NOTE 3 :
More precise frequency adverbials such as 'daily', 'weekly',
'monthly', 'yearly' and 'annually' always appear
at the end of a sentence :
He pays all the bills monthly.
They meet yearly.

Word order / Adverbials of frequency : exceptions.


EXCEPTION 1 :
The adverbial comes before the modal auxiliaries
'have to' and 'used to' :
I often have to travel by train.
She never used to smoke when she was young.
EXCEPTION 2 :
The adverbial also precedes the auxiliary :
in short answers and responses :
Does he play tennis ?
He sometimes does.
in additions to avoid any repetition of the verb :
My brother drives very fast but I never do.
Sarah is often late but I rarely am.

Word order / Adverbials of probability : list.


They say how sure we are about something.

The most common are :


certainly, maybe, obviously,
perhaps, probably, surely.

Word order / Adverbials of probability : normal position.

Before an ordinary verb :


He certainly needs some practice.
You probably know that story.
After the verb 'be' :
She's obviously angry !
After the (first) auxiliary :
He'll surely win the match.
They've probably forgotten our appointment.

Word order / Adverbials of probability : exceptions.


EXCEPTION 1 :
In negative sentences, probability adverbials
normally go before the negative verb or auxiliary :
I probably won't be there.
WRONG !!! 'I won't probably...'
He certainly isn't rich enough.
They surely haven't forgotten !
EXCEPTION 2 :
'Perhaps' and 'maybe' normally go at the beginning of a sentence :
Perhaps he will find a new job.
Maybe you should tell her.

Word order / Adverbials of degree : list.


The most common adverbials of degree are :
hardly, quite, rather, nearly, almost, partly,
practically, just, very, really, too, so, terribly,
absolutely, entirely, completely, totally, extremely.

Word order / Adverbials of degree : normal position.


Modifying an adjective or another adverbial

Modifying a verb
Degree adverbials may modify an adjective or another adverbial.
They are then placed before the adjective or adverbial :
It was almost impossible to work.
That was a very good match !
He's too stupid to understand.
Our trip was absolutely marvellous !
She sings so beautifully !
But she drives terribly badly !
Some degree adverbials can also modify a verb.
They are then placed :
before the ordinary verb :
I quite understand.
after the verb 'be' :
He's just crazy.
after the (first) auxiliary :
They've nearly finished.

Word order / Adverbials of degree : 'quite', 'rather' and 'enou


NOTE 1 : QUITE - RATHER
Those adverbials modify adjectives or other adverbials
and are placed in front of them :
That book is quite interesting.
I know him quite well.
This car is rather expensive.
He answered rather stupidly.
QUITE
It is a confusing word because it has two meanings :
completely or relatively.

It means completely when it is used :


with words that express the idea of completeness :
full, empty, finished, true,
wrong, right, all right, dead,
sure, certain, ready,...
The bus was quite full.
= COMPLETELY full
I'm quite sure about it !
= COMPLETELY sure
with a very strong adjective or adverbial :
perfect, wonderful, horrible, extraordinary,...
That film was quite horrible !
= COMPLETELY horrible
When used with other adjectives or adverbials
'quite' means relatively .
So, 'quite good' is less complimentary than 'good'.
His grammar is quite good.
= RELATIVELY good
The problem was quite simple.
= RELATIVELY simple
The system works quite well.
= RELATIVELY well
RATHER
It always means relatively and is often preferred
with negative adjectives and adverbials :
bad, stupid, difficult,...
He drives rather badly.
She's rather stupid.
That job is rather difficult.
NOTE 2 : ENOUGH
That degree adverbial goes :
after adjectives and adverbials :
He's old enough to go to school.
I know her well enough.

before nouns :
There isn't enough milk.
Take enough money with you !

Word order / Adverbials of degree : 'still', 'yet' and 'already


These are time adverbials.
STILL and YET mean 'until now' and we often use them
in the present perfect.
We use STILL to insist on continuity
in affirmative and interrogative sentences :
He is still working in the garden.
Is your brother still here ?
STILL comes :
before the ordinary verb :
He still loves her.
after the verb 'be' :
He's still in London.
after the (first) auxiliary :
He's still working.
We can also use STILL in negative sentences
to insist strongly :
He still hasn't finished !
STILL then precedes the negative verb or auxiliary.
We use YET at the end of interrogative
and negative sentences :
Have you had breakfast yet ?
No, not yet. John hasn't arrived yet.
I'm waiting for him.
ALREADY means 'before now' or 'so soon'.
We use it in affirmative and interrogative sentences,

but NOT in negative sentences.


We can put it :
in the middle of the sentence :
- before the ordinary verb :
I already know Max.
- after the verb 'be' :
It is already five o'clock.
- after the (first) auxiliary :
He has already finished.
Have you already visited London ?
or at the end of the sentence to insist :
I know Max already !
Have you visited London already ?

Word order / Adverbials of degree : 'also', 'too' and 'as wel


Also comes :
- before the ordinary verb :
He also plays the piano.
- after the verb 'be' :
He is also good at languages.
- after the (first) auxiliary :
He can also dance very well.
Too and as well come at the end of the sentence :

He plays the piano too.


as well.
He can drive a car too.
as well.

Sentence adverbials refer to the whole sentence,


not just part of it.
They tell us about the speaker's attitude
to what he is going to say.
The most common are :
frankly, honestly, naturally, of course,
really, (un)fortunately.
Sentence adverbials usually come at the beginning
of the sentence and are normally followed by a comma :
Honestly, I prefer the first machine.
Of course, he lost his umbrella !
Fortunately, the weather was good.

Word order / Adjectives.


Opinion + fact
Two or more fact adjectives
Ordinal + cardinal

opinion + fact

When we use two or more adjectives together,


'opinion' adjectives (nice, beautiful,...)
come before 'fact' adjectives (sunny, blue,...) :
A nice sunny day.
A beautiful blue dress.
An intelligent young man.

When two or more 'fact' adjectives come before a noun,


they are used in the following order :
size + age + shape + colour + origin + material + purpose
A large metal box. (size + material)
An old American car. (age + origin)
A new green cotton T-shirt. (age + colour + material)
A tall fat boy. (size + shape)
Big blue eyes. (size + colour)
A white plastic shopping bag. (colour + material + purpose)
When cardinals and ordinals come before a noun,
ordinals go before cardinals :
ordinal + cardinal
The first two days.
The last five boys.
The next two months.
The other four criminals.
Another three weeks.

Defining relative clauses / General characteristics.


In this chapter we will concentrate on defining relative clauses only.
And we will only remember the forms used in conversational English.
No formal style will be analysed.
What is a defining relative clause ?
Such a clause defines the antecedent,
it tells us which person or thing the speaker means :
The man [who is sitting there] is my boss.
We are not talking about any man,
but about the man who is sitting there !

Such a clause is an essential part of the sentence.


It cannot be omitted.
We can't say 'The man is my boss.'
We can say 'This man is my boss.'
or 'That man is my boss.'
but NOT 'The man ...'

Defining relative clauses / General table.


HE / SHE

IT

subject

who, that

which , that

object

that, 0

that, 0

preposition

that ... to
0 ... to

that ... to
0 ... to

possessive

whose

whose, of which

The most commonly used form is 'that', but 'which' is also used.
The sign '0' indicates the absence of pronoun.

Defining relative clauses / Invariability of relatives.


Relative pronouns do NOT change
when they refer to masculine, feminine, singular or plural :
The boy |
The girl | who / that ...
The 2 boys |
The 2 girls |

Defining relative clauses / How many possibilities ?


In the general table we often have
two equivalent possibilities for the same case :
The boy who / that is speaking is my son.
The boy that / 0 you met yesterday is my son.

Defining relative clauses / The antecedent : person or thin


The choice of the relative pronoun also depends
on the antecedent, on whether it is a person (he/she)
or a thing (it) :
The girl who / that is with Peter is my sister.
The chair which / that is in the corner is mine.
WRONG !!! 'who'

Defining relative clauses / The function of the relative prono


The choice of the relative pronoun of course depends
on the function it has in the clause :
The man who / that is waiting there is my doctor.
(subject)
The man that / 0 you see is my doctor.
(object)
The man that / 0 you are speaking to is my doctor.
(preposition)
The man whose car was stolen yesterday is my doctor.
(possessive)
NOTE 1 : use of prepositions
In everyday English, when there is a preposition
in the relative clause, we use the following structure :
that / 0 ... preposition
The preposition always comes at the end of the clause :
The man that / 0 you are looking at is my boss.
The lady that / 0 you are talking about
was taken to hospital.
Do you know the people that / 0 I work with ?
I have found the key that / 0 you were looking for .
The hotel that / 0 we stayed at was very pleasant.
The antecedent may be a person or a thing,
the correct relative pronouns will always be that or 0.

NOTE 2 : possessive forms


antecedent = a person -> whose
antecedent = a thing -> whose
of which
The man whose car was stolen yesterday is my doctor.
'whose' + a noun without article !
'whose car'
WRONG !!! 'whose the car'

The house | whose windows


| the windows of which are broken
will be demolished next week.
Two possibilities :
whose + a noun without article
OR
'the' + a noun + of which
That order must be respected !

Relative clauses / 'Which' referring to a whole clause.


Study this example :
John lost the match. This surprised everybody.
John lost the match , which surprised everybody.
Here, the antecedent of 'which' is the whole preceding clause
(the fact that John lost the match).
Each time the relative pronoun refers back to a whole clause,
we use 'which'.
!!! NEVER use 'what'.
He came late , which was impolite.
WRONG !!! 'what...'
Note that there is always a comma before 'which',
to separate it from the clause it refers to.

Connectives / Definition.
Connectives are a vital part of speech.
They express the logical link between our ideas.
There is no reasoning without connectives.
They may connect parts of sentences, sentences
or even paragraphs together.
Connectives may express different ideas :
time, comparison and contrast, alternatives,
reason and result, purpose, condition, opinion,
addition, explanations and examples,
and summary.

Connectives of time / Things happening at the same time


When things happen at the same time, we can use :
when, as, while + subject + verb
Those connectives link 2 parts of the same sentence.
They tend to be used as follows :
long action
short action
long action

when
short action
while / as long action
while
long action

I was explaining the problem when John interrupted.


She fell asleep while / as she was watching TV.
Brian was playing the piano while she was singing.
NOTE : during
It is used when something happens inside a period.
It also links 2 parts of one sentence :
during + noun

During the holidays I went to Paris.


He came during my absence.

Connectives of time / Things happening one after the othe


When things happen one after the other, we can use :
A few connectives that link 2 parts of the same sentence :
when, as soon as, as long as, before, after
+ subject + verb
I will tell him when I see him.
I will call you as soon as I need help.
He will stay here as long as he has a job.
John had left before I arrived.
After he had drunk a glass of milk, he went to bed.
NOTE 1 : before and after
They can also be used with a noun :
Can you call me before lunch ?
I will meet him after the holidays.
NOTE 2 : since
It is used to indicate the starting point of something.
It also links 2 parts of the same sentence together :
since + subject + verb
I have been thinking about him since I saw him.
since + noun or adverb
I have been thinking about him since last week.
yesterday.
NOTE 3 : until = till
It means 'up to the time when...'
and links 2 parts of the same sentence together :
until / till + subject + verb
Don't move until / till the doctor comes.
until / till + noun or adverb

I'll wait until / till next Friday.


tomorrow.

Connectives that link 2 sentences together :


the synonyms after that and afterwards.
They are usually found in the following structure :
SENTENCE 1. After that, SENTENCE 2.
Afterwards,
He phoned Mary and read the newspaper.
After that, he went to the cinema.
Afterwards,
NOTE :
Those connectives may also link 2 parts of the same sentence
together but must be preceded by 'and' :
He phoned Mary, read the newspaper
and after that, he went to the cinema.
afterwards,

When we want to indicate the order in which things happen,


we can use :
first (= firstly), secondly, thirdly,
and then (= and next), finally
They may link 2 parts of the same sentence
or 2 sentences together :
He failed his exam firstly because he was not good at
mathematics, secondly because he never went to the lessons,
thirdly because he did not study enough and finally
because he was impolite to the teacher.
First, we went to the museum. And then, to the zoo.
And next,

Connectives of time / Recapitulation.


same time

same

when, as, while + subject + verb

one after
the other

order

same
sentence

----------2 sentences

when, as soon as, as long as,


before, after, since, until (= till)
+ subject + verb
before, after, since, until (= till)
+ noun
and after that (= and afterwards)
+ ,
----------------------------------------after that (= afterwards) + ,

same
sentence or
2 sentences

first (= firstly), secondly,


thirdly, and then (= and next),
finally

Connectives of comparison and contrast / Two parts of one sen


Connective + subject + verb
Connective + noun
connective + subject + verb
ALTHOUGH = THOUGH
They had a walk, although it was raining.
Though it was Christmas day, a few shops were open.
WHEREAS = WHILE
Yoko is Japanese, whereas Natacha is Russian.
He can sing very well, while his brother can't sing a note
connective + noun
IN SPITE OF = DESPITE
In spite of the cold, we went to the park.
He became a priest, despite his father's objections.
INSTEAD OF (it means 'in place of')

We had tea in the garden instead of in the house.


Would you like wine instead of beer today ?

Connectives of comparison and contrast / Two sentences


SENTENCE 1. Connective, SENTENCE 2.
HOWEVER = NEVERTHELESS
It was very cold. However, we went for a walk.
He was sick. Nevertheless, he continued working.
ON THE CONTRARY
This boy is really stupid.
On the contrary, he is very clever !
ON THE ONE HAND ...
ON THE OTHER (HAND) ...
This is used to indicate contrasted points of view,
arguments, etc...
What do you think of this house ? Shall I buy it ?
On the one hand it's very nice and comfortable,
(but) on the other (hand) it is very expensive !

Connectives of comparison and contrast / Recapitulation.


same sentence

although (= though),
whereas (= while)
+ subject + verb
in spite of (= despite), instead of
+ noun

2 sentences

however (= nevertheless),
on the contrary,
on the one hand ... on the other (hand)
+ ,

Connectives expressing alternatives.


How to express an alternative

'Or'
'Either ... or'
'Rather than'
'Neither ... nor'

To express an alternative we can use :


positive alternative : or
either ... or
rather than
negative alternative : neither ... nor
All those connectives link 2 parts of the same sentence.
or = positive alternative
It is the most common way of expressing an alternative :
Would you like beer or wine ?
If there are more than two alternatives,
'or' precedes the final element in the list ;
the other items are separated by commas :
Would you like beer , whisky or wine ?
either ... or = positive alternative
It insists on the fact that there are only two alternatives :
You can go there either by bus or by train.
Either help me or go away.
When used with two singular nouns which are the subject
of the sentence, the following verb is normally singular :
Either Janet or Sarah is going to organize the party.

rather than = positive alternative


It expresses an idea of preference :
I would offer her some flowers rather than a book !

Connectives of reason and result / Two parts of one senten


Connective + subject + verb
Connective + nouns

connective + subject + verb


BECAUSE
It expresses a reason and tends to be used when the speaker
thinks the listener does not know the reason.
It is generally used in the second part of the sentence :
He didn't come because he was ill.
AS = SINCE
They also express a reason but they tend to imply
that the listener already knows the reason and therefore
give more importance to the result.
They are often used at the beginning of the sentence :
As you can't come, we'll have to go without you.
Since we have no money, we can't buy it.
connective + noun
BECAUSE OF
It's the most commonly used preposition to express reason :

He can't walk fast because of his bad leg.


THANKS TO
It has a more positive meaning than 'because of'.
It expresses gratitude :
Thanks to you, I arrived on time.
Thanks to his help, I succeeded.

Connectives of reason and result / Two sentences.


SENTENCE 1. Connective, SENTENCE 2.
SO = THEREFORE
They express a result :
Is was raining. So, we stayed at home.
He lost his wallet. Therefore, he had to go to the police.
THAT'S WHY
It also introduces a result but at the same time
insists on the reason just mentioned :
It was raining. That's why we stayed at home.
He did not study at all. That's why he failed his exam.
Note that there is no comma after 'that's why'.

Connectives of reason and result / Recapitulation.


same sentence

because, as (= since)
+ subject + verb
because of, thanks to
+ noun

2 sentences

so (= therefore) + ,
that's why

Connectives of purpose / 'To' + infinitive.


'to' + infinitive
links 2 parts of the same sentence
We use it to talk about a person's purpose,
why someone does something :
He came to help me.
She phoned Peter to thank him.
In a more formal style we use 'in order to' :
He came in order to help me.
She phoned Peter in order to thank him.
NOTE 1 :
After the imperative of the verbs go and come
a second imperative introduced by and is normally
used instead of 'to + infinitive' :
Go and buy some flowers for your mother.
Come and help me.
NOTE 2 :
In negative sentences we use in order not to :
WRONG !!! 'not to'
He took a taxi in order not to be late.
WRONG !!! 'not to be late

Connectives of purpose / 'For' + noun.


'for' + noun
links 2 parts of the same sentence
We use it to talk about a person's purpose,
but only when it is followed by a noun,
not by a verb !
He reads for pleasure.
I'm going out for a walk.

Connectives of condition.
Connectives of condition normally link
2 parts of the same sentence :
'if'
+ subject + verb
'even if'
We can go to the swimming pool if you want.
He'll buy that car even if it's expensive !
'unless' + subject + positive verb
'Unless' means if not and is always followed by a positive verb !
You can't watch this film unless you are 18.
We will go for a walk unless it rains.
'provided (that)' + subject + verb
'as long as'
You can use my car provided (that) you are very careful.
as long as
'in case' + subject + verb
Take your umbrella in case it rains.
I'll leave a message in case he comes back.

otherwise
=
+ subject + verb
or else

Do not forget the comma in front of 'otherwise' and 'or else' :


Go and apologize, otherwise she will be angry !
or else
Don't stay there, otherwise you will be run over by a car !
or else

Connectives of opinion.
Connectives of opinion are mostly used in the following structure :

SENTENCE 1. Connective, SENTENCE 2.


IN MY OPINION = AS FAR AS I'M CONCERNED
What do you think of Bob ?
In my opinion, he is very clever.
As far as I'm concerned, I like him very much !
NOTE 1 : personally
It is also possible to use 'personally', but it must
be followed by such verbs as 'I think / I believe' :
What do you think of Bob ?
Personally, I think he is very clever.
I believe
NOTE 2 : according to
'According to' can never be used with a first person !
When did it happen ?
According to the police, it happened yesterday.
him
WRONG !!! 'According to me,...'
ACTUALLY = IN FACT
How do you know that ?
Actually, I saw everything.
In fact,
ANYWAY
Hurry up, you'll miss your plane !
Anyway, it's too late, it's already half past ten !
IN ANY CASE
In any case, if you want to become a doctor,
you'll have to study for many years !
THAT'S ALL VERY WELL, BUT...
I'd like a diamond ring and a new satin dress.
That's all very well, but who is going to pay ?
(UN)FORTUNATELY

He forgot to lock his car yesterday.


Fortunately, nobody stole it.
I wanted to talk to Mary.
Unfortunately, she had already left.

Connectives of addition / Two parts of one sentence.


'besides'
=
+ noun / ing-form
'in addition to'
Besides speaking Russian he can also speak Japanese !
In addition to the police there were also a lot of journalists.
'apart from' + noun / ing-form
Apart from my sister everybody was happy !
Apart from phoning John there is nothing else to do today.

Connectives of addition / Two sentences.


SENTENCE 1. Connective, SENTENCE 2.
BESIDES = MOREOVER = IN ADDITION TO THAT
Besides,
He is clever. Moreover,
In addition to that,

he is handsome !

APART FROM THAT


She is a little jealous.
Apart from that, she is a nice girl.
BY THE WAY
By the way, have you heard about Janet ?
No, what has happened ?
Well, she has just lost her job.

Connectives of addition / Recapitulation.


same sentence
2 sentences

besides (= in addition to), apart from


+ noun / ing-form
besides (= moreover = in addition to that),
apart from that, by the way,
+ ,

Connectives of explanations and examples.


Explanations
Examples

When we want to explain or paraphrase something we can use :


that is
in other words
He was a tsar, that is a Russian emperor.
She is under the weather today, in other words,
she doesn't feel well.

NOTE :
There is a comma in front of 'that is' and
there are commas in front and after 'in other words'.
When we want to give one or more examples we can use :
for example = for instance
such as = like
He met a lot of famous actors,
for example Michael Douglas and Al Pacino.
for instance
She likes wild animals, like

lions and tigers.

Connectives of summary.
Those connectives are normally used as follows :
SENTENCE 1. In short, SENTENCE 2.
In brief,
They stole his car, drove too quickly
and finally had a crash with it.
In short, one should always lock one's car.
In brief,

You might also like