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7.1 Introduction
(1) In the previous chapters, we have studied various aspects of manufacturing, including
- Design: engineering design, design for manufacturing, design for quality and etc.
- Planning: process planning (feature recognition, optimization), and systems planning
(scheduling, bill of material, and Material Requirement Planning (MRP))
- Machine tools and control: CNC, PLC, bar code, smart card, and etc.
- Material handling: conveyor, AGV, warehouse and etc.
- Quality control: Taguchis quality loss, failure mode and effect analysis (FMEA),
statistic quality control (SPC) and etc.
(2) In this (last) chapter, we will study the manufacturing from a system point of view.
Tooling
design and
analysis
Machine
tool and
control
Design
analysis
customer
Design
Material
handling
Manufacturing
system
Manufacturing
Process
planning
Usage and
disposal
customer
Quality
control
7-1
As shown in Figure 7.2, such a system is a push system, in which the materials (solid
line) and information (dash line) flow in the same direction
Raw
material
Process 1
Process 1
Process 1
Finished
product
The push system is a open-loop system that may create following problems:
- It may lead to starvation or excessive stocks simultaneously at different stages
because of imbalances of stocks between the stages.
- It may lead to conditions of having excessive equipment and surplus of workers.
In Japan, the problem is called the 3 Ms problems:
- Muda (waste): waste for correction, waster of overproduction, waster for
processing, waste for inventory, waste of motion, waste for waiting,
- Mura (unevenness): uneven workload, uneven schedule,
- Muri (overburden): overburden machine, overburden process,
In order to solve these problems, Toyota developed a JIT manufacturing approach,
which is a pull system as shown below.
Raw
material
Process 1
Process 1
Process 1
Finished
product
Note that the information flow serves as a feedback loop that minimizes the 3 Ms
problem.
This approach is called the JIT manufacturing approach.
7-2
Fig.
7.3:
Through the Kanbans, the production plan is initiated backwards from the finished
product (pull system).
There are various types of Kanbans, and the following are the most important:
- Withdraw Kanbans, which is used to pass the authorization for movement of parts
from one process to another
- Production Kanbans, which is used to release an order to the preceding process to
build parts equal to the lot size specified
A typical example is shown below.
Fig.
7.4:
SPS No.
Part No.
Container
capacity
No. of
kanbans
Part No.
Container
capacity
Stock location
PPS No.
PPS No.
Stock location
Stock location
(a) withdraw kanban
PPS1
Withdrawal
kanban
f
f
e
e
Production kanban
7-3
where,
This implies that we can cut down the inventory by cut down the safety margin
Suppose = 0, which implies that a withdrawal kanban must always be delivered
on time, whenever parts are needed; then:
y = (500)(0.5)(1) / (50) = 5
at this time, the average inventory is:
(5)(50) = 250 units
This implies that we can cut down the inventory by cut down the manufacturing
lead time.
Suppose the production lead time is changed to 1 day, then the number of kanbans
needed is:
- The number of kanbans:
y = (500)(1)(1.4) / (50) = 14
at this time, the average inventory is:
7-4
WK-X
SAX
PK-Y
Process
Y
Subsequent
processes
Assembly
Z
WK-Y
SAY
(units / day)
(days)
Assembly stage
X
2000
1.0
0.00
Y
800
0.5
0.25
Manufacturing stage
X
2000
0.5
0.20
Y
800
1.0
0.00
-
Container
capacity
determining the withdrawal kanbans (the assembly process pulls from the
manufacturing process):
7-5
100
50
100
50
yX = (2000)(1.0)(1) / 100 = 20
yY = (800)(0.5)(1.25) / 50 = 10
-
determining the production kanbans (the manufacturing process pulls from the
supplier)
yX = (2000)(0.5)(1.2) / 100 = 12
yY = (800)(1)(1) / 50 = 16
now, let us assume that the assembly process is shipped to mainland. As a result, the
lead time increases to 4 days. The withdrawal kanbans will be:
yX = (2000)(4)(1) / 100 = 80
yY = (800)(4)(1.25) / 50 = 80
but the production kanbans remain the same. This implies that in order to keep the
same supply, we must increase the process capability a, which in turn, will increase
the total production cause.
The actual requirement for the kanbans, x is more than n, and the expected cost is:
Expected shortage cost = c s
( x n) p ( x)
x n 1
x 0
xn
TC (n) ch (n x) p ( x ) c s ( x n) p ( x)
-
It can be shown (in the textbook) that the optimal value n can be obtained from
the following equation:
Cs
P(n 1)
P ( n)
Ch Cs
n
where, P ( n) p ( x)
x 0
7-6
0
0
1
0.2
2
0.3
3
0.35
4
0.1
5
0.05
the holding cost and shortage cost per container per unit time are $50 and
$200 respectively
Solution:
- The cost ratio: (cs) / (cs + ch) = (200) / (200 + 50) = 0.8
- The probability function:
P(0) = 0, P(1) = 0.2, P(2) = 0.5, P(3) = 0.85, P(4) = 0.95, P(5) = 1
- hence, the optimal number of kanban is n = 3.
7-7
Fig.
7.7:
Raw
material
inventory
storage
Standard kanban
process
Work
center
Lot size
An example
- A stamping plant runs two shifts: 2 x 8 = 16 hrs. / day
- The press utilization is 80%: 16 x 0.8 = 12.8 hrs. / day
- The rest of the time (20%) is used for setup (die changes): 16 x 0.2 = 3.2 hrs. / day
- Average setup (die change) time is 32 min.: 32 / 60 hrs.
- The maximum number of possible setup is 2
- The demand for the parts, D: 1400 / day
- The safety factor: = 0.2
- The minimal lot size per setup is:
Minimum lot size per setup = (Demand)(safety) / (time of setup)
or
Minimum lot size per setup = (1400)(1.2) / (2) = 840.
- Suppose the size of the container is 100 parts, then the number of containers
needed is:
840 / 100 9
- The position of the production-order signal kanban is determined by the kanban
cycle time. The kanban cycle time, Tc, consists of several elements such as
waiting time, transfer time, and lot processing time. The formula to calculate the
position of the production-order signal kanban is as follows:
D (1 )Tc
Production signal kanban position
a
- Suppose the kanban cycle time is 3 hrs.: 3 / 16 days
- The production signal kanban is:
Production signal kanban position = (1400)(1.2)(3/16) / (100) = 3.15 4
containers.
- Similarly, we can calculate the material-ordering signal kanban.
7-8
The concept of kanban has been extended greatly to carry out various feedback
control functions in the manufacturing systems. They all use kanbans, such as
- Express kanban
- Emergency kanban
-
It is interesting to know that in additional to push and pull, there are other types of
manufacturing models such as:
- Periodic pull
- Constant work-in-process
- Long pull
-
Finally, there has been effort to combine JIT in purchasing.
7-9
Coding is for classification the process of categorization of a set of parts into part
families.
Various coding systems have been developed and these systems can be grouped into
three types:
- Monocode or hierarchical code: the structure of these codes is like a tree in which
each symbol amplifies the information provided in the previous digit.
- Polycode: also known as chain code in which each digit is independent and
describes a specific information
- Mixed-mode code: a combination of monocode and polycode.
We will present a few commonly used codes below.
6789
Supplementary code
ABCD
Secondary code
The code structure and the definition are shown in Figure 12.3 (in the textbook).
An example
Form code
Interpretation:
- First digit = 1: it is a rotation part with 0.5 < L / D < 3 (9.6 / 5 1.9)
- Second digit = 3: the external shape has a functional groove
- Third digit = 1: the internal shape has a through hole
- Fourth digit = 0: the plain surface does not exist
- Fifth digit = 6: there are spur gear teeth on the part.
- The part is shown in Figure 7.8
7-10
7-11
Example: The machines and components information (the output of Stages 1 and 2) is
as follows.
9
1
1
10
1
1
We use the Rank Order Clustering (ROC) algorithm for factory flow analysis and
use Single-Linkage Cluster Analysis (SLCA) algorithm for machine-component
group analysis.
Step 1 (ROC): assign binary weight and calculate a decimal weight for each row
and column using the formula below:
m
m p
Decimal weight for row i bip 2
p 1
n p
Decimal weight for column j b pj 2
p 1
where, bip (and bpj) are binary weights. If the jth machine is used to process pth
component, bip = 1; else bip = 0. For the data shown above, the resulting decimal
equivalents are as follows.
Table 3: The ROC column weighting of the example above
Components
1
2
3
4
5
6
Decimal
Binary weight
Machines equivalent 29
28
27
26
25
24
M1
1007
1
1
1
1
1
M2
451
1
1
1
M3
568
1
1
1
M4
455
1
1
1
M5
1020
1
1
1
1
1
1
10
23
1
22
1
21
1
1
20
1
1
1
1
1
1
7-12
10
23
1
1
1
22
1
1
21
20
1
1
11
1
1
11
28
26
Step 3 (RCO): re-arrange the columns by sorting the column decimal weights in
decreasing order. For the data above, the resulting matrix is as follows:
10
23
1
1
22
1
21
20
1
1
1
1
1
1
Step 4 (RCO): repeat steps 2 and 3 until there are no changes in row and column
positions. This completes the factory flow analysis. For the data above, there is no
change in further iteration.
Step 5 (SLCA): compute similarity coefficients for all possible pairs of machines.
Several similarity measures have been used, and one of them is the single-linkage
cluster analysis (SLCA). According to SLCA, the similarity coefficient between
two machines is defined as the ratio of the number of parts visiting both machines
and the number of parts visiting one of the two machines as follows:
N
S ij
X
Y
N
k 1
ik
k 1
ijk
Z jk X ijk
7-13
M3
M5
0.50
M4
M5
0.40
SVij
n X
k 1
n Y
N
k 1
ik
ijk
Z jk X ijk
Fig.
7.10:
The
Step 6 (SLCA): select the machine pair that has the largest similarity and use
them to form the first cell. For the data above, it is M2 M4.
Step 7 (SLCA): select the machine pair that the second largest similarity and use
them to form the second cell. Note that if one of the machines has been used for a
cell, form the cell by using the machine and the cell. For the data above, it is M1
M5.
Step 8 (SLCA): repeat Step 7. For the data above, in the first iteration the cell
formation is M4 M2 and M5 M1. In the second iteration, the cell formation is
made of M5 (M4 M2) and M5 M1. The result is a dendrogram as shown in
Figure 7.10. The final cell formation is shown in the table as well.
M4
M2
M5
M1
M3
1.00
0.83
0.70
0.67
0.50
0.30
0.00
7-14
The actual cell formation depends on the threshold value. For example, if the
threshold is set at 0.8, only M4 and M2 will form a cell. On the other hand, if the
threshold is set at 0.5, all the machines will form a cell. The following table
summarizes all the possible cell configurations.
Table 7: A summary of different cell configurations
Similarity
Number of cells
Cell configuration
coefficient
formed
1.00
5
(M1), (M2), (M3), (M4), (M5)
0.83
4
(M2, M4), (M5), (M1), (M3)
0.70
3
(M2, M4), (M1, M5), (M3)
0.67
2
((M1, M2, M4, M5), M3
0.5
1
(M1, M2, M3, M4, M5)
(7) Evaluation of cell design.
- In the previous section, the remaining problem is to determine which cell design is
the best.
- The goal of cell design is to minimize the part motion cost during the manufacturing.
Note that there are two types of moves:
- Inter-cellular moves: parts move within a cell
- Intra-cellular moves: parts move among the cells
They bear different cost of motions.
- The following factors influence the part motion cost:
- The layout of machines in a group
- The layout of machine groups
- The sequences of parts through machines and machine groups
- In general, the expected distance a part moves between two machines:
D = dk
where, k = number of moves between two machines, d = expected distance moved
between two machines, In particular, for a straight line layout, the expected distance
moved is:
d
N 1
3
where, N is number of machines in the group. For rectangle layout, the expected
distance moved is:
d
M L
3
where, M is number of rows and L is number of machines in each row. For square
layout, the expected distance moved is:
d 2
N
3
The total distance moved in jth cell for the ith configuration:
7-15
TDi d ij kij
j
The total cost of inter- and intra-cellular movements (TC) for the ith configuration:
m
TC i C1 N i C 2 d ij k ij
j
Total cost
(2)(22)+(1)(0) = 44
(2)(18)+(1)(5) = 41
(2)(10)+(1)(12) = 32
(2)(4)+(1)(30) = 38
(2)(0)+(1)(44) = 44
7-16
(2) Flexibility
- Flexibility can be defined as a collection of properties of a manufacturing system that
support changes in production activities or capabilities
- A number of types of flexibility have been discussed including
- Machine flexibility: use multi-purpose CNC machines
- Routing flexibility: use CAPP
- Process flexibility: use multi-purpose CNC machines
- Product flexibility
- Production flexibility
- Expansion flexibility
(3) Volume-Variety
- There are five types of manufacturing systems:
- Transfer line
- Stand-alone CNC machine
- Manufacturing cell
- Special manufacturing system
- Flexible manufacturing system.
- Different systems have different characteristics and hence, suit for different products
and production types.
- Key characteristics of various manufacturing systems
- Transfer line
- Flexible manufacturing module
- Manufacturing cell
- Special manufacturing systems
- Flexible manufacturing systems
7-17
productivity
Fig.
7.7
The
Transfer
line
FMS
CNC machines
flexibility
bic
dc = number of slots required to hold tools in the tool magazine of each machine
7-18
1
0
1
0
zi
yc
subject to:
yc 1
PR CT
PT NP
7-19
7-20
The network access control: there are several commonly used method for network
access control
- Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) or Ethernet
(IEEE 802.3 standard). Physically, two ethernet coaxial cables are connected
together using a repeater (an amplifier). Through the cables, the ethernet cards can
send and receive packets. Figure 7.10 shows the format of CSMA/CD. It is a
series communication link. While one computer sends a message the other one
waits. While two computers sends message together, it may crash. CSMA/CD is
widely used in manufacturing because of its simplicity.
Bytes
Fig.
7.10:
7
preamble
2 or 6
Destination
address
Start of frame
delimiter
2 or 6
Source
address
0-1500
data
0-46
pad
4
Check
-sum
Length of data
field
Token ring (IEEE 802.5 standard) and Token bus (IEEE 802.4 standard) are
designed to resolve the communication crash problem. They use multiple coaxial
cables to connect the computers into a ring. So when a communication path is
busy the other one can take over.
7-21
A ai
i 1
On the other hand, suppose the n components are connected in parallel, the
system availability is:
n
A 1 ai
i 1
the response time is determined by the summation of service time and waiting.
7-22
7-23
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
7-24