Eddy-current testing - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Eddy-current testing
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Eddy-current testing (also commonly seen as eddy current testing and ECT) is one of many electromagnetic testing methods used in
nondestructive testing (NDT) making use of electromagnetic induction to detect and characterize surface and sub-surface flaws in
conductive materials.

Contents
1 History
2 ECT principle
3 Applications[6][7]
3.1 ECT on surfaces
3.2 Other applications
4 Other eddy current testing techniques
4.1 Pulsed eddy current
4.2 Eddy current array
5 See also
6 References
7 External links

History
Eddy current testing (ECT) as a technique for testing finds its roots in electromagnetism. Eddy currents were first observed by Franois
Arago in 1824, but French physicist Lon Foucault is credited with discovering eddy currents in 1855. ECT began largely as a result of
the English scientist Michael Faraday's discovery of electromagnetic induction in 1831. Simply put, Faraday discovered that when there
is a closed path through which the current can circulate and that a magnetic field passes through a conductor (or vice versa), an electric
current flows through this conductor.
In 1879, another English-born scientist, David Edward Hughes, demonstrated how the properties of a coil change when placed in
contact with metals of different conductivity and permeability, which was applied to metallurgical sorting tests.[1]
Although there were a number of encouraging developments in the 19th century, much of the actual development of ECT as an NDT
technique for industrial applications was carried out during World War II in Germany. Professor Friedrich Frster while working for the
Kaiser-Wilhelm Institute (now the Kaiser Wilhelm Society) adapted eddy current technology to industrial use, developing instruments
measuring conductivity and sorting mixed ferrous components. After the War, in 1948, Frster founded a company known today the
Foerster Group (http://www.foerstergroup.com/) where he made great strides in developing practical ECT instruments and marketing
them.[2]
Eddy current testing is now a widely used and well understood inspection technique for flaw detection, as well as thickness and
conductivity measurements.
Frost & Sullivan analysis in the global NDT equipment market in 2012 estimated the magnetic and electromagnetic NDT equipment
market at $220 million, which includes conventional eddy current, magnetic particle inspection, eddy current array, and remote-field
testing. This market is projected to grow at 7.5% compounded annual growth rate to approximately $315 million by 2016.[3]

ECT principle
In its most basic form the single-element ECT probe a coil of conductive wire is excited with an alternating electrical current. This
wire coil produces an alternating magnetic field around itself in the direction ascertained by the right-hand rule. The magnetic field
oscillates at the same frequency as the current running through the coil. When the coil approaches a conductive material, currents
opposed to the ones in the coil are induced in the material eddy currents.
Variations in the electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability of the test object, and the presence of defects causes a change in
eddy current and a corresponding change in phase and amplitude that can be detected by measuring the impedance changes in the
coil, which is a telltale sign of the presence of defects.[4] This is the basis of standard (pancake coil) ECT.
ECT has a very wide range of applications. Because ECT is electrical in nature, it is limited to conductive material. There are also
physical limits to generating eddy currents and depth of penetration (skin depth).[5]

Applications[6][7]
The two major applications of eddy current testing are surface inspection and tubing inspections. Surface inspection is used extensively
in the aerospace industry. The technique is very sensitive and can detect tight cracks. Surface inspection can be performed both on
ferromagnetic and non-ferromagnetic materials.
Tubing inspection is generally limited to non-ferromagnetic tubing and is known as conventional eddy current testing. Conventional ECT
is used for inspecting steam generator tubing in nuclear plants and heat exchangers tubing in power and petrochemical industries. The
technique is very sensitive to detect and size pits. Wall loss or corrosion can be detected but sizing is not accurate.

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A variation of conventional ECT for partially magnetic materials is full saturation ECT. In this technique, permeability variations are
suppressed by applying a magnetic field. he saturation probes contain conventional eddy current coils and magnets. This inspection is
used on partially ferromagnetic materials such as nickel alloys, duplex alloys, and thin-ferromagnetic materials such as ferritic chromium
molybdenum stainless steel. The application of a saturation eddy current technique depends on the permeability of the material, tube
thickness, and diameter.[8]
A method used for carbon steel tubing is remote field eddy current testing. This method is sensitive to general wall loss and not sensitive
to small pits and cracks.

ECT on surfaces
When it comes to surface applications, the performance of any given inspection technique depends greatly on the specific conditions
mostly the types of materials and defects, but also surface conditions, etc. However, in most situations, the following are true:
Effective on coatings/paint: yes
Computerized record keeping: partial
3D/Advanced imaging: none
User dependence: high
Speed: low
Post-inspection analysis: none
Requires chemicals/consumables: no

Other applications
ECT is also useful in making electrical conductivity and coating thickness measurements, among others.

Other eddy current testing techniques

To circumvent some of the shortcomings of conventional ECT, other eddy current testing techniques were developed with various
successes.

Pulsed eddy current

Conventional ECT uses sinusoidal alternating current of a particular frequency to excite the probe. Pulsed eddy current (PEC) testing
uses a step function voltage to excite the probe. The advantage of using a step function voltage is that such a voltage contains a range
of frequencies. As a result, the electromagnetic response to several different frequencies can be measured with just a single step.
Since depth of penetration depends on the excitation frequency, information from a range of depths can be obtained all at once. If
measurements are made in the time domain (that is, by looking at the strength of the signal as a function of time), indications produced
by defects and other features near the inspection coil can be seen first and more distant features will be seen later in time.[9]
When comparing PEC testing with the conventional ECT, ECT must be regarded as a continuous-wave method where propagation takes
place at a single frequency or, more precisely, over a very narrow-frequency bandwidth. With pulse methods, the frequencies are excited
over a wide band, the extent of which varies inversely with the pulse length; this allows multi-frequency operation. The total amount of
energy dissipated within a given period of time is considerably less for pulsed waves than for continuous waves of the same intensity,
thus allowing higher input voltages to be applied to the exciting coil for PEC than conventional ECT[10]
One of the advantage of this type of testing is that there is no need for direct contact with the tested object. Testing can be performed
through coatings, sheathings, corrosion products and insulation materials.[11] This way even high-temperature inspections are possible.

Eddy current array

Eddy current array (ECA) and conventional ECT share the same basic working principles. ECA technology provides the ability to
electronically drive an array of coils ( multiple coils) arranged in specific pattern called a topology that generates a sensitivity profile
suited to the target defects. Data acquisition is achieved by multiplexing the coils in a special pattern to avoid mutual inductance
between the individual coils. The benefits of ECA are:[12]
Faster inspections
Wider coverage
Less operator dependence array probes yield more consistent results compared to manual raster scans
Better detection capabilities
Easier analysis because of simpler scan patterns
Improved positioning and sizing because of encoded data
Array probes can easily be designed to be flexible or shaped to specifications, making hard-to-reach areas easier to inspect
ECA technology provides a remarkably powerful tool and saves significant time during inspections.[13]

See also
Eddy current
Nondestructive testing
Alternating current field measurement
Cover Meter
Metal detector
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Skin effect

References
1. Ivor Hughes. " (http://davidedwardhughes.com/David_Edward_Hughes.pdf)The AWA Review: Professor David Edward Hughes", 2009, retrieved
July 1, 2015
2. Nikhil Jahain. "The Rebirth of Eddy Current Testing" (http://www.qualitymag.com/articles/92056-the-rebirth-of-eddy-current-nondestructive-testing),
2014, retrieved July 1, 2015
3. Nikhil Jahain. "The Rebirth of Eddy Current Testing" (http://www.qualitymag.com/articles/92056-the-rebirth-of-eddy-current-nondestructive-testing),
2014, retrieved July 1, 2015
4. Joseph M. Buckley. "An Introduction to Eddy Current Testing Theory and Technology" (http://www.joe.buckley.net/papers/eddyc.pdf), retrieved July
1, 2015
5. Terry Hennigar and Mike Wright. "Eddy Current Testing Technology", 1st edition, 2012
6. Birring, Anmol (March 2001). "Selection of NDT Techniques for Heat Exchanger Tubing". Materials Evaluation.
7. Birring, Anmol (November 2003). "Eddy Current Testing in the Petrochemical Industry". Materials Evaluation.
8. H M Sadek. "NDE technologies for the examination of heat exchangers and boiler tubes principles, advantages and limitations" (http://www.ndt.net
/article/insight/papers/insi_48_3_181.pdf), Insight vol. 48 no. 3, March 2006, retrieved July 1, 2015
9. NDT Resource Center. Pulsed Eddy Current Inspection (https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/EddyCurrents
/AdvancedTechniques/pulsedecinspection.htm), retrieved July 1, 2015
10. NDT Resource Center. Background on Pulsed Eddy Current (https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/EddyCurrents
/AdvancedTechniques/background.htm), retrieved July 1, 2015
11. Pulsed Eddy-Current Testing. Retrieved on July 18, 2012. (http://www.tuv.com/en/corporate/business_customers/materials_testing_and_inspection
/advanced_ndt/pulsed_eddy_current/pulsed_eddy_current.jsp)
12. Eddy Current Array (http://www.eddyfi.com/technologies/eddy-current-arrays/), retrieved July 2, 2015
13. Eddy Current Array (ECA) Theory, Practice and Application (http://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=8016), retrieved July 2, 2015

External links
An introduction to eddy current testing from the NDE/NDT resource center (http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources
/CommunityCollege/EddyCurrents/Introduction/IntroductiontoET.htm)
Intro to Eddy Current Testing (http://www.joe.buckley.net/papers/eddyc.pdf) by Joseph M. Buckley (pdf, 429 kB)
Eddy Current Testing at Level 2 (http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/TCS-48_web.pdf), International Atomic Energy
Agency, Vienna, 2011 (pdf 5.6 MB).
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Categories: Nondestructive testing
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