Social Thought and Research

SOCIOLINGUISTICS AND LINGUISTIC GEOGRAPHY

Author(s): RAVEN I. McDAVID JR. and RAYMOND K. O'CAIN
Source: The Kansas Journal of Sociology, Vol. 9, No. 2, STUDIES IN SOCIOLINGUISTICS (Fall 1973),
pp. 137-156
Published by: Social Thought and Research
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/23255197
Accessed: 19-01-2016 15:47 UTC

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/
info/about/policies/terms.jsp
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content
in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship.
For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Social Thought and Research is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The Kansas Journal of
Sociology.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 95.186.253.178 on Tue, 19 Jan 2016 15:47:10 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

SOCIOLINGUISTICS

AND LINGUISTIC

RAVEN I. McDAVID,

RAYMOND

and

Sociolinguistics

is a branch

of historical

somewhat

biased

of South

urban

communities.

may

geography

be

considered

as complementary

of language

variation.

of the stable

samples

older

communities,

review

of linguistic

applications

sociolinguistics
of linguistic

be

for interpreting

authors

The

on

of small

a framework

Carolina

the phenomena

based

linguistics

in the selection

it provides

however,

to

approaches

K. O'CAIN

should

geography

linguistic

contradictory

mutually

studies

criticisms
and

geography,

and

of varied

and

suggest
others

necessarily

traditional

linguistic

cultures;

both

rural

in matters

and
of

and

geography
in which

directions

than

geography

and

populations-in

both

and

rather

Linguistic

traditional,

informants,

of

to sociolinguists

useful

JR.

of Chicago

University

University

GEOGRAPHY

the

findings

of interdisciplinary

cooperation.

Introduction

among

scholars

discussion

even

though

there

the

nature

of

Disagreements
level

of

intellectual

Sturtevant

never

lapseseach

was

century

for different
the

other.

of the

careful

were

they

if the

variations

each

should

in

has

usage

other's

that

their

of

point
be

fundamental

was

easier

are

aims

to

presented
for those
not

who

in conflict,

led

to misunderstanding,

with

the

work

it is the

part

but

and

other

kinds

that

each

of rationality

Edgar

emphasizing
than

more

at different

looking

maintain

Bloomfield

for

and

to

possible

the

variations,

his students,
are

be

Leonard

Though

necessarily

have

it should

Yet

minute

emphasizing

view

even

interests.

in interpretation.

changeone

It should

his

emphasizes

be differences

may

sound

in perspective

a quarter

of evidence,

may

enlighten

to explain

the

basis

sociolinguists.

Both

deal

are

different,

of rapprochement.

hope
arisen

within

to illumine

the

as each

inevitable

friends.

recognize

in the

be able

that

differences

a situation

with

see

personal
to

disagreement,
Such

to

warm

purposes,
And

on

agreed

are

in connection
a speech

the other.

community;
Yet

somehow

though
there

of the linguistic
their

methods

has developed

geographers
and

the

their

notion

and

the

populations
that

the two

somewhat

groups

are

irreconcilable

adversaries.
It is the
been

made

KJS IX, 2

on

hope
each

of this
side,

paper
to

to

answer

indicate
or

the

explain

origins
such

of recent
criticisms,

disagreements,
and

to

suggest

to discuss

some

directions

137

This content downloaded from 95.186.253.178 on Tue, 19 Jan 2016 15:47:10 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

of the criticisms

which

might

lead

that
to

have

greater

Fall 1973

138

Kansas

cooperation.

of Sociology

Human

language,

it would

that

complicated
The

authors

linguistic

believe

that

both

geography;

industrialized

have

since

both

level

every

day.

these

will

should

have
have

they

a small

have

been

as often,

of

manuals

of pronunciation,
schools

public

has

only

a handful

been

concentrated

logic,

All

of
to

the

differences

since

literature

and

Most

were

American

of

grammars

of the

the

the

new

language

inaugurated

has

related

to these

historical
of

investigations

took

the

and

place

Spanish

auspices

of

from

professional

the

their

fathers

up

in the

grew

a Negro

and

majority
careers

have

too

of

practitioners

inner

an

Negro
and

intimate

evoked

two

city

North;

on

often

practical

two

in the

communication

that

been

passion;
of our

aspects

with

and

the

varieties

because

exotic

the

of the
But

language.

of linguists

attention

of

teaching
an interest

universals,

language

dictionaries,

curriculum

of the

the

ones),

of the kinds

some

monolingual

recognition,

detail,

(especially

concerns

of

the standard

in any

that

recognized

development

of that

if not

an

in large
speakers,
school

were

to

and

aware

actual

initiated

boards

overlooking
or

social

blacks

problems

by scholars

areas,

in
has
to

English
in symbolic

great
service

other

disciplines.

of native

white

institutions

and

groups.

This content downloaded from 95.186.253.178 on Tue, 19 Jan 2016 15:47:10 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

This

departments

and

focused

It was

fulfill
from

of the

and

it turned

in economic

numbers

to

speakers

groups

merely

different.

schools

investigations,

become

complex

the

Spanish

of these

from
to

of

and

of these

Many

disposition

metropolitan

failure

apparent

of the

cause.

increasing

but

the

no

proved

sociolinguistics

as Southern-reared

was

their

they

shown

mission-oriented;

groups

public

because

of language.

studied

areas,

for such

problems

the study

of blacks

of their

the

from

(R.I.M.)

with

considered

languages

been

metropolitan

have

been

arising

have

American

English

had

in traditional

work

translation.

linguists

linguistics

field

county

it has

millenia,

been

of second

issues

of machine

The

have

language

of acculturation

Southwest.

under

the

theoretical

of

One

matters

is indicative

language

of what

teaching

in large

poor

native

the teaching

systems

departments

to abandon

in the

often

seemed

in English

inevitable

significant;

as an instrument

that

a grounding

socially

the

is so

territory,

Sociolinguistics

are

concerns

of

of Applied

community

and

serious

problems
role

and

Involved

these

Rise

speech

as the

have

Both

between

understanding

two

matters

to provide

an

at least

communities

such

toward

objectivity

adjacent

considerable

of cross-regional

problem

For

around

languages,

attempts

traditional
Rico

on

and

directed

built

of American

of other

speakers

been

portions

perspective.

and

the

had

doctor.

agricultural

and

in opposition.

placed

historical

within

variation

language

need

we

to face

toward

The

Here,

of an

have

town

States

all the answers.

dialects.

a small

considerable

spent

produce

step

in social

other

seat

United
has

Both

insights.

the

had

will

experiences

constitute

never

but

continental
or school

research

in the

other

the

person

provide

lobbyist,

the

area,

one

any

directed)

industrial

Westerners,

Perhaps

study

that

discipline

Middle

in (and

in the South

up

grown

married

this

perhaps

an

being

that

experiences

engaged

in

spoken

English

to suggest

their

metropolitan

have

Both

colleges.

specifically

be foolish

in sociologyone

training
of an

Journal

social

lacked

probably
of

English

organization.

disadvantaged,
on

Puerto

language

out,
was

their

adolescent

they
peer

and

Sociolinguistics

much

so

produced

whether

attested

in the
the

Among
various
been

in

spoken

of words

divergent

the

concerns

concerned

with

dimension

to

of

recent

Dialect
in the

decades

of

of

this

But

rarely

account

evidenceto

been

used

in

have

done,

geographers
Dillard
1973),

method
the

and

his index

There

is no

or

that

McDavid,

or of

Marckwardt

(1948)

incontestable

fact

English

be

Southern

used

German

that
tote

to

where

these

linguistics
features

similar

alternative

want

off

for

on

a wide

the

where

want
person")

in many

American

with

have

which

has

1972)

scene

origins

1962;

made

1948;

(Frank,

use

et

1939,

at.,

that

be

might

Isles.

British

of

what

linguistic
1961).

Kurath-McDavid,

it (D'Eloia,

to misrepresent

largely

four

been

to scholarshave

open

serious

a very

been

in the

origins
been

a social

have

1973-)

Allen,

always

geography

never

Kurath,

been

always

added

have

has

(e.g.,

its potential

and

have

nations-there

derivative

summaries

geography.
Linguistic

of general

and

theories

geographers

explanations

seem

foreign-language
is probably
by

are

particular
be

prompt

traced
to

possible,

in the

influence

is improbable,

not

a West

of

is not

geography

of its varietiescan

is influenced

a familiarity
reinforcing

latter

geography

1953,

geographers.

off

The

European

and

linguistic

to get

the

Atwood,

of some

of the

origins.

linguistic

English

range

probably

geographers.

on

primary

linguistic

and

part

only

with

new

suggesting

examined

Mediterranean,

only

as

desirable,

have

to have

or suspected

Geographers

linguistic

linguistic

African,

World,

and

1966,

mentions

is

with

of blacks

speech

likeknown

alternative

though

secondary

Englishor

New

("carry

since

have

from

of historical

of the

again,

linguistic

1961;

(1963,

and

in the

that

in the archives

only

support

West

or

but

1950);

or

blacks,

evidence

cases,

special

the

of the

and

Even

of American

of American

elsewhere

demonstrates
that

can

features
or

Spanish

1949;

(Davis-McDavid,

that

by

of American

position,

creolists

between

argument

used

insist

both

Labov

the founder

list Kurath,

a method

demonstrates

French

dialects

not

he

study

franca

the situation

materials

Only

for the creolist

argument

does

1966

Students

the creolists

again,

communities

varieties

and

interest,

But

reviewed

Kurath-McDavid,

sociolinguistics.1
in his

and

necessary

of inquiry,

whether

American

been

differences.

unpublished

This

be the necessary

publications,

many
1970;

of the

nothing

a popular

(1972),

evidence

British

say

urban

the

putting

affiliations

possible

by Linguistic

in speech

in evaluating

by sociolinguists

must

blacks

regional

Kurath-Lowman,

are such

Portuguese,

of them

linguisticsunlike

and

speech

of

speech

studies
langauge.

the

the lingua

many

have

been

of English.

of Sabir,

variety

of American

the

English

black

Indies.

of Sociolinguistics

with

investigations

West

history

awareness

language

concern

branch

1949;

Kurath,

into

of

on

follow-up

the

French,

English,
the

of sociolinguists

traditional

systematic

1939-1943;
taken

conclusions

of

urban

have

sociolinguists

of American

speech

attention

few

history

(1898-1905);

Dictionary

much

relatively

of, say,

and

their

matched

so

English.

complex

recognizably

have

financed

been

features

Mediterranean,

problems

their

or well

popular

the

have

languagesvarieties

already

the

directed

fifteen-century

Evaluation

Inevitably,

have

of Middle

varieties

the

structures

and

supposedly

Africa,

English

Wright's

of

regional

of them

Few

evidence.

there

perspective

creolized

in the

complexities

But

evidence.

special

and

pidgin

Joseph

the

ask

frequently

would

circumstances

useful

into

investigations

are well

other

no

Perhaps

139

Geography

Linguistic

light

Pennsylvania

African

This content downloaded from 95.186.253.178 on Tue, 19 Jan 2016 15:47:10 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

etymon

other

languages,
the

recognize

of information
they
Dutch
does

not

Where

arguments.
to

but

a theory

urge

facts
about

caution.

origin;
exclude

the
the

140

Kansas

of Sociology

Journal

from

of reinforcement

possibility

from

country

Nor

to Minnesota.

Maine
he

when

languages

another

to a West

points

since

source,

is it likely

African

that

in a vehicle")

tofeC'transport

that

affirmation

offers

(1971)

Dalby

sounds

more

like

is widely

than
the

O.K.)

another
basic

in Northern

found
case

case

lumbering
in different

of homonymy

has

been

carefully

in Read

put

(1963a,b).
What
should

the

ever

examine

be

linguistic
an

intensive

records

field

of Western

North

or suspected

to

whether

these

familiar

experience

for the

Carolina.
be

Kentucky

the

Normans

crossed

occur

also

for the
still

natives
the

Linguistic

Atlas

of the Middle

work

would

in the

significant

in areas

"pure

have

affected

detail

also

(see

traditional
mobile

L.

Though

the

"dialects"

(1948:

76)

"dialect"

at

words
tangle

Dieth

regional

distribution.

had

place

no

linguistic

identity,

that

sought

Dieth

was

focuses

and

insignificant
if it exists

investigators

as earlier

studies

of the

directed

need
that

mythology

that

on

was

the

is a

the record

in certain

coves

of eastern

in England

wane

known
ascertain

also

to examine

to

speech

to features
should

sociolinguist

The

come.

the

way,

the

before

the

loose

piece

et
that

Jaberg
the

in an

and

of skin

Jud

(1939-43)

the

study

urbanized
York

City,

and
has

like

mobile
no

that

least

linguistic

baby

carriage,
with

were

showing

to

ignore

society

reflection,

(1950)

for New

and

included.

and

be inherently
criticisms;
atlas,

is not

he did

modern"

in fact,

interesting,
most

characterized

This content downloaded from 95.186.253.178 on Tue, 19 Jan 2016 15:47:10 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

of

Pop

regional
the

Americans

the

regional

rather

insisted
on

influential

from

support

that

Dieth

like

English,

social

predominantly

consider

not

British

treatment

regards
to

in

felt,

full

as is clear

consequently
is cited

which

and

or Florence,

Paris,

variants

made

traditionally

for an "alarmingly

Dieth

with

York

have

sidewalk

variants

these

urbanized

of a highly

London,

Americans

of

European
and

like

expense

might

traditional

Hubbell

the

of

a continuation

essentially

Europeans

interesting

not

in some

them

localisms.

centers

rebuked

her remarks

to discuss

elements

most

Dieth

maps

in American
society.2

cultural

at

chose

conservative

that

variants

variation

Atlas,

Since

(1956).

it is well

Linguistic

exaggerate

words

of a nail,

of social

apparently

forces

and

understand

umbrella,

79)

the

would

Thus

for

the

that

of influential

at the root

a!.,

homogenizing

not

grammatical

(1928-40),

that

dimensions.

(1948:

Pickford

geography.

elite

was

Pickford

from

for example),

1969,

isolated

as one

of words

and

Kurath,

most

stem

geography

view

did

urban

by Sociologists

Wolfram,

the

appraised

"perplexed"

conceding

in New

with

the

Geography

linguistic

apparently

variants

phonological

on

have

The

if there

instance,

to expect

questionnaire

the design.

contend
by

Pickford's

or geographical

was

faulted

dialect

was

of the

language"
social

While

geography

Pickford
relatively

in

also

effective

For

research.

as well

States,

of Asheville

still

(cf.

sampled

Pickford

along

of hair,

had

instrument

(1948),

included

unjustifiably

vocabulary.

all.

freezing

of Linguistic

In brief,

geography,

"the

questionnaire

without
people

of American

1970).

1967,

Dieth

differ

a more

must

of sociolinguists

attitudes

research

between
that

left-handed,
had

the

citing

distinction

the

linguistic

and

Atlantic

possible

to previous

it is reasonable

Carolina,

South

Anglo-Saxon"something,

methods

of the

Davis,

European

society,

sharp

M.

attention

in 1066.

Channel

criticisms

frequently

the

who

Criticism

Sociological

make

which

from

North
and

community,

geographer,

linguistic
speak

of Asheville,

speech

Preliminary

socially

features

of the

study

is some

of the sociolinguist

expects

geographer

than
it

that

American

(1950).
identification

contention
by purely

that

as
local

geographical

and

Sociolinguistics

distribution
they

fall if purely

should

in fact,

Cities,
often

form

there

were

vixen

became

overlooks
make

cross-affiliation
geographers

the

regional

regional

trait and
The

New

York

radiation

from

Also
common
This

to have

Type

II:

Type

III:

For
lives

of the

that

Generally

any

of all informants

ignored

treatment

informants

the

of social
(Chapter

by types

should

which

into

a poor

Atlas

influence

used

school)

cultured

in

a hero
as

disseminated

widely
to

territory
attained

recently

No

associations.

in Philadelphia,

been

as a

status

as the boulevard

variously
ahoagy

of

be

filled

national

in by
status,

1969).5

education

from

social

the
alone

Kurath,

et at.,

social

class

of

informants.
of social

as an indicator

rank.

(1939):

contacts.

wider

and/or

has

atypical

card.

in regional

intervening

of determining

types

restricted

the

and

social

complex

between

like car

have

of these

are not

Cities
consensusa

or lacking

but

indicate

often

oscillate

known

of linguistic

findings

variants

may

of group

complexes

the

linguistic

sandwich,

and

Fox

vixen.

of neighborhoods

kind

significance.

street,

(McDavid,

Atlas

of social

college),

the

All

method

Linguistic

high

uniform

leaving

in Chicago

only

the

feature

1400's,

of the metropolitan

various

with

for r in words

boy

to city,

that

urban

the

shown

for political

clout

and

social

and

the

harmonizes

to have

of the

and

vox

knowledge

point

Newcomers

places.4

use.

speakers,

but

in Boston.

city

of the

reading

reading
wide

background,

and

social

reading

contacts.
extensive

and/or

social

44).

Atlas

seldom

must

prove

the

assumed

quoted

differences
VI)

term

(usually

Linguistic
and

from

summary

little

orders

various

variants,

is far from

a submarine

for the

quoted

areas

in London

Southern

fixen,

a sufficient

a linguistic

the sidewalk

one

with

which

have

(1972)

between

skip

(usually

1939:

from

persons)

Orleans,

likely

And

O'Cain

criticisms

educaton

et at.,

foci

workers

education

Superior

cultural

York,

dialect

to other

of favored

it also

linguistic

native

components;

Pickford's

but

society,

are

and

of the

support

fewer

as a chinaman

education,

formal

(Kurath,

conclusion

summary.

formal

Better

this

but

Chicago

the

in the widely

originated

I: Little

the

Presumably

field

does

have

and

..

background

of cultivated

is known

the

is that

Type

The

are

observer.

are less

speechways

Pickford

"An

variants

New

centers.
favors

from

contacts

Kurath's

cultural

fell out

the

In New

upstate

forms

urbanizing

for the grass

urban

Sometimes

misconception

seems

in

the other

but

(1948)

in Chicago.

fox

innovationsradiates.

(or even

for example,

a grinder

derivative

urban

cities

of political

the dispenser

lie,

they

as McDavid

trait,

exists,

nearby

variants,

and

of American

terms.

cities

in which

a social

City,

1939-43):

of their

London

family

only

in an

more

or the parkway

commercial

but

have

Not

11).

importance
at.,

characteristics

term

Minneapolis
in

et

areas

speech

supraregional

(1950:

increased

the

a composite

for fox:

by Hubbell:

about

of persons

proportions

are

while

English

remark

guesses

forth"

areas

geographical

blended

shrewd

Kurath,

rural

stratification;
of

so

assume
(e.g.,

standard

cultures
feminine

and

masculine

of the

uncharacteristic

quite

141

Geography

important.

of significant

Urban

homes.

to be

appear

were

composed

an important

very

and

in,

up

grew

of the

in London

established

cities

considerations

of their

forms

the

Pickford,

geographical

outposts

competing

could

dialects,

to

are characteristically

cultural

Pickford

they

And

of speechways.3

Linguistic

is Kurath's

in speech

be consulted.

serviceable

and
For

(Kurath,

existence

of

just

three

social

classes

also

proceeds

caveat:

for any
ready
eta!.,

attempt

reference,
1939:

to determine
the accompanying

44).

This content downloaded from 95.186.253.178 on Tue, 19 Jan 2016 15:47:10 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

trends

of change,

rough

the

tabulation

from

142

Kansas

Linguistic
assumed
also

A social

other

and
there

addition,

was

and

advanceon

context

it was

ethnic

not

of

patterns

communities

and

on

social

is in accord

with

The

social

levels.

rank

was

of classes,
uniform

strikingly

within
(4)

by stratum;

patterned

how

is

geography.
do

and

important

to

explain

It appears

that

some

indeed

never

interest

Although
linguistics.11
of the

It arose

regularity

in Germany,

could

and

out

of sound

of social

class.6

its own

linguistic

relative

have

always

consensus.

They

They

of

significance

social

specific

to

of

and

like.

close

not

in the
of the
were

but

to record

the regional
types

the

how

in

places.9

intermediate

in detail

In

it.8

themselves

as possible

of

study

both

observations

stratification

of

information
their

Nevertheless

of information.10

type

of

contact

to surrounding

as nearly

explained

sought

within

to familiarize

of social

the

views

the

all these

expected

to reconstruct

have

to

was

as in the descriptions

Finally,

for

information

of personal

of the communities

a context

each

hours

Negroes.

organizational

of individuals

interview,

were

history:

Similar

places

twenty

in the theory

provide

social

attention

the

linguistic

in order

regard

to

workers

they

the

and

four

ground

that

they

paid

whites,

communities

admit

also

relationships

break

and

and

structure

field

and

practice

of Brown:

on

the

will

stratum

there

and

fault

are

Aims

for

clear

on

three

from

linguistic

circumstances:

following

the

between
of data

kinds

(2)

are coincident

population

styles

of

life are

is sharply

interaction

(3)

strata;

the

(1)

of them;

membership

contrasts

of Linguistic

readers

American

and

by the

suggested

(particularly

in the

be undeniable
of classes,

number

boundaries

critics

to

important

The

It

which

time

earlier

in a community

the

the

travel,

of the

poor

life, and

stable

social

course

rustics,

geographers

nor

statement

agreed

the

in portions

Atlas

Linguistic

Linguistic

of class

reality

like

types

economic

a slightly

correlated

the summary

is conscious

of

speech

out

educational,

workers

in the

content

in relatively

types

interests,

regarding

perspectivewith

of the

works

in

classes,

occupational,

Field

observation

for social

an

by

spouse.7

sociological

historical

aim

social

American

and

composition,

the

of unequivocal

usage

names

indicator

as each

just

the

intellectual

communities

also

of an

and

the class

In short,

was

and

its furnishings,
in the

bearing

There

of

size

and

habits

incidental

considerable

structure,

informant

for each

of the

is an adequate

boundaries.

grandparents,

residents

of informants.

considered

the

parents,

relative

the

reading

social

its own

of social

assembled

affiliation,

informant's

informants

house

was

church

memberships,

homes

in the sharpness

profile

in

characteristic

no single

have

differ

communities
and

that

aware

would

community

that

characteristics,

the

are

geographers
each

that

know

for

of Sociology

Journal

114).

(1965:

Geography

other

the

disciplines)
for not

geographers

of

background
what

doing

American
never

the latter

linguistic
to

attempted

do.
in

of the

desire

it was

to test some
notion

changethe

in Germany

is

differences

dialect

first put

that

modern

old,

linguistic

of the general
statements

to the test.

(North-German)

area,

where

one

would

encounter

make(n),

(South-German)

area,

where

one

would

encounter

machen,

that

change
there

ik, and pund

ich,

and pfund,

is

in

of comparative

assumptions

of sound

Assuming

geography

admit
was

(English
Georg

origin

make,
Wenker

boundary

This
between

/, and pound),
prepared

This content downloaded from 95.186.253.178 on Tue, 19 Jan 2016 15:47:10 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

of

and

historical
the theory

notably

linguistics,

of no exceptions.

a sharp

branch

theory

had

arisen

the

Low-German

the

High-German

a questionnaire

that

in its

and

Sociolinguistics

final
the

local

Wrede
(1)

consisted

version

dialect.

The

no

two

the

regionsnotably
norm

of

a sharp

historical

influence

the

could

some
in each;

graded

technical

have

the

same

basic
and

French,

The

his

illustrates

wished

in each

strong

urban

States

was

the

standard

variety

regional

and

local

one:

(Das

to dominate
to
in

of

the

general
previous

and

and

of the

and

tool,

Paul

only

the

French

trained

that

used

village

speech,

other

on language

assumed

were

in the

as sharply

of the

training

but

it

again

matters

as

of by

instead
local

dialect
in a

responses

certain
his

reexamine
worked
with

from

standard

in the villages.13

were

even

as well

investigated

more

was

important

the words

behavior;

in finely

indicated

to

contrasting

Cities

of human

and

Gillie'ron

happens

Perhaps

measured,

though

investigator

of what

interviews.

the

geographers,

of Wenker,

modifications.

as a part

again

those

in terms

inferentially,

more

from

the

from

the

of

of

taken

as such

recorded

by linguistic
for

all

Edmont)

speaker

Edmont

by Wenker;

the expected

atmosphere,

(Edmond

typical

be

as well

certain

examination

was

should

Provencal,

one

it possible

makes

dialects

investigator
with

evidence

to form

in

(2)

the

into

exceptions:

from

and

theoretical

and

proper

are still accepted

or

local

in a different

methods

participated

the

two

exactly;

studies

dialect

edited

with

divergences

regional

sentences

and

but

coincide

These

German

these

dialects,

areas,

forms

which

of his

pronunciations

Scheuermeier,

But

against

introduced
two

dialect

intensive

to put

village

apart.12

investigation,

from

1928-40)
were

more

like.

recorder

its emphasis

the

distance

than

difference

there

cities

larger

some

principles

tape

defined

High-German

by a single

longer

all derived

Jud,

in clearly

between

for

thousand

and

the

schoolmasters

village

forty

originated

time

be determined

can

than

norm

selected

the

was

(Jaberg

the

gathered

the

Despite

investigation

as
the

for plow

were

phonetics.

That

Jud and

of American

field

workers

up in 1929-30,

some

scholars

graded

first group

of the discipline.
of regional

older

the

But

beginning

communities;
of

modela

community.

from

the

varieties

education

(3)

of educated

investigations,

in

States

and

concentration

on

rural

were

several

unlike

the

speech,

local

which

It was

community,

(2)

Canada

folk

and

by

1930

with

more

or France
could

were

social

someone

drawn

a single,
(1)

counterarguments:

dialects

therefore

were

speech

in Germany

themselves

geographic

1970).
every

situation

which

stronger

1938);

(Bridenbaugh,

societynotably
(McDavid,

United

there

against

language

American

in the

speech

European

designated

uniform

commitment

Italy

use

in urban

tended

of

of the

living

that

was

application:

of Paris

and

of Gillie'ron's

his evidence

influence

component

even

evidence

Edmont.

investigator,

on

survey

interviewed

their

for a survey

plans

this

asked

after

1902-10)

boundary,

The

denied

the continuity

(Gillie'ron,

Most

of the

field

When

France

transcription.

interest

principal

inferentially.

considerably

the

in terms

sought

only

was

number

ethnographic

as

hundred

assumptions:

even

in

assumed

the questionnaire

investigation

villages;

areas,

were

in a way

transcription

trading

la

modified

to spread
explained

villages

phonetic

aids

tended

boundaries,

of a sharp

six

Low-German

even

was

more

of the belief

ultimately

of homonyms.

correspondence;

finely

de

on

were

be judged

assumptions

disappearance

interviewed

lines

High-German

linguistique

to test

sought

political

collected

between

and

sentences,

confirmation

lines

boundary

standard

L'Atlas

the

German
was

a general

Rhinelandthe

of

of cities

was

did

dialect

evidence
speech;

village

result

words

standard

information

Ultimately,

(1926-39).

for

of forty-four

143

Geography

Linguistic

be

subject

mobility,

decided
old

to seek
and

than

half

or Italy,

literate

minimally
American

the

where

has

society

population
there

was

a more

or less

were

strongly

to

under

the

centripetal

three

minimally

types

industrialization,
of local

educated;

This content downloaded from 95.186.253.178 on Tue, 19 Jan 2016 15:47:10 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

speakers
(2)

United

there

urbanization,

had

of the

measured,
change

person

likewise

defined
forces
and

the

instead

of

in every

144

someone

to

the

local

interests.

This

last

important
All

center,

of

persons

the
the

of the

American

dialects,

past

to work

with

people

viewpoint.

reached

further

(though

far

from

effect.

the

since

variation.

the

By

including

institutions

as library,
to

appeared
cities

linguistic

atlases

even

any

still

The

regional

a rudimentary

only

for

consider

question
but

uninvestigated,
atlases

do

which

the

an

the

or

education,

resultant.

That

cultivated

not

the

class

date
even

a group

the

differs

general

less

from

from

every

that

on

the

may

is the

evidence

their

few

never
to

the

reveal

itself

of a regional

that

new

atlas

had

and

social

were

rather

as relics,

and

such

in some

North

the

of the

parts

for pronunciation,

as well

like

Warner
in advance

just

how

the

way

America.
the

By

American
of time,

the dimension

1973),

forces,

inhabitants

and

certain

it must

be

analogous

study

of social

each

suggests

six

ones,

this new

This content downloaded from 95.186.253.178 on Tue, 19 Jan 2016 15:47:10 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

classes;

or seven;

others
yet

What

the

against

of an older

cultural

language

background,
alter

direction

the

differences

the

may

of

provide

they

status.

other's

that

indeed

in a community

influence

remembered

or

social

of social

or the

of older

with
classes

of forcesfamily

intensities

and

three

work

judge

States,

arrivals;

exactly

indications

of change,

polyhedron
or new

associates,

number

United

or recent
have

the

the direction

(Bailey,

his

and

of the

speech

communities

investigations

or an

communities
have

as the othersthat

differences

of transients

usage

of a multidimensional

etc.and

of the

American

If sometimes

reverses

on social

and

communities.

predict

intensive

evidence

old

speechways

of regional

English-speaking

innovations

uneducated,

their

its successors

and

a purely

the

domestic

amount

War,

of

the

British

geography,
from

would

and

and

reason
in

differences

description

studies,

can

more

resultant

as the

fashions

questionnaire

been

of

purpose

with

speech

most

rural

Civil

the

since

since

reason,

the greatest

for the same

social

to sample

Probably

be assessed.

apparently

occupation,

with

investigation

for

and

same

and

the

generation),

metropolitan

as kerosene

have

may

on

traditional,

England

included

in providing

attempt

one

were

sociolinguistic

system.

items

the

indicated

New

but

in the

resident

as in all linguistic

they

older

where

already

such

the

the

been

for comparison

necessary,

emphasis

For

emphasize

the

as well

community

insisting

had

regional

identified

not

do

They

of

a full

provide

studies

items

These

predecessors

closely

to

though,

speakers

their

evidence.

tended

both

language
was

from

had

of the population,

of the

neighborhoods,

variation

markers

a framework

travel,
often

hotel.

and
other

depend

but

of

dialectology,

sophisticated

of a later

sustained

individual

neighbors,

must

previous

for vocabulary

from

of

moot,

provide

findings

is not

center,
of

is to

did

or small.

more

the

where

items

on speakers

sketch

investigators
the

questionnaire

as villages,

large

and

of this group

family

unrepresentative

drawn

comparative
or rural

the

do

educated

highly

the

longer

disproportionate

were

too,

the

changeit

however

statistically

richer

reason,

sharply

communities,

education,

background,

a representative

sampling

study

of linguistic

speakers,

villages,

with

atlases

the

towns,

office,

pattern

insisting

community,

provided

of European

post

differ

though

and

as they

as well

including

cultivated

the

a fifth of the

about

of the

included

a random

communities,

small

were

standard

unorthodox,

they

same

these

the

time

were

all)

For

vocabulary,

in

back

family

speech

and

natives,

in the historical

their
was

necessary

often

(and

by

the

investigators

be

the direction

with

identified

Especially

literate

minimally

because

is far from

This

benchmarks

for suggesting

strongly

to

expected

equal.

being

to provide

and

present,

the

in general,

were

things

was

often

attested

in

(3)

education;

present.

interviewed

surveys

and

but

of

as

speech,
less

interviewed

groups;

and

past

other

better,

in cultivated

was

type

amount

a moderate

with

traditions

of other

cultural

community

statistical

that

than

place

and

younger

representing

intellectual

least

a bit

someone

community,

place

o f Sociology

Journal

Kansas

behavior
childhood

the direction
is fortuitous

of
and

and

Socblingu/stics

assumed

in

completed,

it is safe

to say

be designed

only

cannot

be

than

or

deserve.

they

and

not

nineteenth
of sound
and

and

change

a search

of fruitful

the

suggest

educational

of

language

the

have

traditional

of the

usage

for

the

of a single

in Labov

of every

new

might

sociolinguistics
stable

communities,

progression
near
groups
various

research

the

of

of speakers
combinations),

of

the

within

complexity,

boundaries

there

of languages
then

finds

Wolfram,

the

limits
an

other

field

is

investigation

in a given

can

community

of dialect
assortment

than

morethe

English.
methods

areas,

of new

findings

that
less

investigated

with

investigations

V.

to seesaw,

the use

First,

one

larger
rapid

grewfirst
repeated

with

testing

long-established

out

see,

the

regional
with

the

in several

that

in

seensometimes

or even

were

needed,

the tabulation

permits

or consonant).
for

the

tradition.

Then

one

variable

until

the

added,
largest

would

located

communities
then
and

and

small

there

communities
population,

of

development

relatively

investigate

This content downloaded from 95.186.253.178 on Tue, 19 Jan 2016 15:47:10 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

the

community;

instruments

model

of

mention

for the community,

communities,

expansion

to

Frankly,

recorder

would

English-speaking

somewhat

undergone

ideal

of the

language

see,

of a vowel
an

available,

Regional

(not

points

common

of the tape

pronunciation

change.

of investigation,

of research

types

number

geography.

usages.

(1956)

is most

New

a long

the

the techniques

verb

of these

(1968).

within

theories

investigateda

that

just

regularity

of earlier

sociologists

not

McDavid

for the

was

of the

part

the

notably

linguistic

of competing
and

early

of linguistic

which

groups

covered,

and

level

of

findings

frequency

(1968);

undergo

the

in the

a reexamination

the community,

of discourse.

As the complexities
would

of

forms

with

caused

of minority

which

and

had

been

linguistics,

directions

quantification.

of variables:
that

have

admit

as freely

may

developed

and

have

Kurath

had

the origins

technology

in

sketched

the

social

or a particular

new

which

that

questions

and

they

Riley

we

may

of comparative

of all

preterite

and

others

of one

statistical

styles

that

against

some

to determine

and

communities

areas,

four

a word

(whether

progression

and

usage

to

and

speech

several

the

in certain

developing

involving
dialect

of change

investigated,

it provided

village

languages

themselves

is no way

prevail

Shuy,

designs

follow
well

one

form

only

the

been

linguistics

evidence

challenge

particularly,

States,

to

to

of other

lend

and

(1966)

of a linguistic

occurrence

With

likely

the

to Sociolinguistics

communities

concerned:

not

But

informant.
or more

informant,

as those

do

The

in the communities

all the groups

North-Central

until

devised

discrepancies.

unanswered

highly

and,

a framework

the assumptions

when

bound

of speakers

questionnaires,

long

about

of speech

at all,

in historical

interest

have

that

Geography

boundaries.

is

generations;

with

dealt

most

assimilation

younger

not

communities

such

the

Linguistic

Americanleave

are

be

the course

predict

investigated

provide

indicatedeven

sociolinguistics

administrators)

infallibly

for apparent

reasons

of the

the dynamics

or

been

to questions

it also

German,

population;

the

way,

could

simply

of dialect

sharpness

about

same

the

out

grew

in response

for explanations;

surveysFrench,

surveys

the

suggestions

In

native

It arose

century.

have

atlases

regional

thus

geography

cannot

questionnaire

of the communities

coverage

From

Linguistic

that

survey

may

groups

perhaps

ideal

145

Geography

history.

of the

the

Again,

be interpreted,

may

of human

social

the

If even

a regional

limitations

the

communities

many

that

at the end

Conceding

instance.

every

Linguistic

with

most

be a
on

or

with
two
complex

(in

Kansas

146

Journal

areas

metropolitan
(1929,

Lynds
and

of Sociology

were

Withers

1937),

for

greater

such

Dollard

(1945),

Detroit

where
and

four

the

parallel

in the

progression

Davis

(1937),

are

dialect

Carolina

and

the Gardners

The

they

areas:

the

the

in

large

same

of community

development

the Warner

(1941),

by the

studies,

(1941,

group

of pen

The
be

class
an

effort

and

professors

municipally
same

1942,

1949),

with

no
caste

one
and

regard
the

both

to the

be

class.

This

experience

of linguistic

apparently

another

should

if, with
be

geographers;

marker

number

must

surprised

of the

the

no

the plentiful
more

the alternation
difference

between

could

be

structure15

techniques

than

between
the

that
slick

North

new
and
and

and

and

of

Northeastern

the circumstances.

other

have

same

and

right,

associated

provide,

to describe
since

the
is

congeners)

it.
from

region

which

that

regions

evaluation.

larger
that

There

affluence

have

than

as the overt
must

one

private

communities
extrapolation

should

of skilled

incomes

profession

regardless

linguistic

community.

the

with

are
and

so that

their

from

come

a prestigious

American

particular

of the

ones;

differences

(and

had

speech

if there

intensively,

air

of the community

than

Midland,

the

more

in the host

unsuspected

slippery

and

linguistic

have

speakers

scale

interviews

the

of ear

If any

instruments,

recorded

smaller

to the state

especially

suggest

population

the

markers

and

the

to the truism

within

in its own

the linguistic

it is available,
of

garbagemen

uniformity,

studied

under

be studied

with

salary

inevitable

the

us back

Even

when

in

is on the margin

Valleys,

They

investigated

and

launched

accessible

Fear

about

in terms

drivers

evidence

surprising

of the

or otherwise.

a higher

be

and

made.

of information

towards

must

his own

some

homesbrings

have

of classes

develop

use

of class

pressures

of each

structure

where

important.

may

were

they

as

something

homonymy

truck

more

insofar

indicate

be approached

modern

college
all

Despite

social

more

utilized

far

safeguards:

The

this feature

criteria

become

junior

sociolinguist

should

ones

supported

the

and

certain

was

was

even

Hillsboro

Dee-Cape

might

make

communities

in larger

be

English-speaking

economic

the Pee

suggest

which

both

is undertaken,
were

And

places.

envisaged;

communities

productive.

should

had

were

Research

investigations

1966),

or vocabulary-that

in a community
could

Kurath

of funds

Georgia.

in smaller

Crockett,

Carolina,

time

Circle,

tested

that

records

the

maximally

come,

many

covert

community.

different;

Inevitably

live

the

blurred,

at

of the community

laborin

Field

for example,

pin,

and

could

pronunciation,

have

to supplement

semi-skilled

are

and

structure

framework

investigators

of migrants

groups

(Levine

would

the accessibility

it. Consequently,

been

type

and

Social

undertake

North

geographers

only

or

on complicated

emphasis

be

of urgency

had

the simpler

population

item

the

way,

Carolina

itself.14

could

to

Western

regional

native

instrument

homonymy
3.

the

to be a significant

the

The

3).

in grammar,

interviewers'

In

techniques

community

the

features-whether

likely

the

of linguistic

about

from

before

Piedmont,

Figure

information

available

North

sense

Michigan,

are

necessarily

Virginia

1949,

similarities

not

Vermontville,

people

Hillsboro,

were

Hill,

records

2.

as

the experience

Nevertheless,
1.

York

The

impossible.

for

and

New

such

(Kurath,

than

available

studied,

at Chapel

York

and

was

progression

New

funds

were

distinct

North

and

Washington

communities
university

an orderly

Detroit

inevitably,

of

would

others.
However,

And

This

investigated.

university

class

markers

be cautious:

remain

in the

university

kept

and

refreshingly

to a minimum,

each.
of what

he uncovers
markers

turn

has

done

up
road

in Michigan

slick

all

the

after

before.
markers

unsuspected

a blacktop

This content downloaded from 95.186.253.178 on Tue, 19 Jan 2016 15:47:10 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

been

time
a light

is associated

in the
rain

is

with

and

Socio!inguistics

and

Indianians

in New

has

investigator

a way

of

like

cumulative;

with

them

between

others,

But

Pennsylvanians.

correlating

contrasts

North/Midland

with

York

and

dove
build

sociolinguists

such

those

dived,

has

social

and

that

result

of

secondary

never

and

marker,
be

replaced

the spelling
Of

members

has
the

course,

in the
of

the

of

pattern

items-first

the
studied

of

Dictionary
certain

ones.

among

several

completed
as

a number

and

in nearly
of

other

be

range

of

items

on

more

but

states,
types
or

older

as the Linguistic

less

"expert"

communitiesincludes
known

or

words
states

suspected

the

to

are
Atlas

have

of the

of

science

is

baseline

linguistic

change.

McDavid

(1948)

on

This
has

been

Labov

(1963)

in

norms

the

first

of direct

found
even

and

of

intensive

a social

to

observation

can

in South

Carolina,

that

expected

the

the

reversed

by certain

presumably

social

declining
in

changes

of pronunciation.

Labov

of distinctive

replacement

an

from

spoken

cultivated
face

of

basis

as

Carolina,

centuries.

arrested

the

the

sort

three

been

South

Charleston,

preceeding

local

to

defined

changed

youngsters

to less

of clearly

in r-less

English

had

island

if he

progress.
has

(1972)

local

had

known

Carolina

D.A.R.E.

vocabulary

American

methods
The

with

domains.

interesting

variants

uncovered

variants.

of

have

beer

are

is

the

heavily

The

than

It reflects

This content downloaded from 95.186.253.178 on Tue, 19 Jan 2016 15:47:10 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

more

sometimes

questionnaire1002

by the

regional

changes

with

geography,

communities

the questionnaire

semantic

regional

and

Atlases

linguistic

of linguistic

more

of various

interesting

here,

ear,

network

sampled

interviewed,

like

would

(1953)

1958).

the

the

States.

proportionately
was

words

(McDavid,

uses

United

that

of

Kokeritz

span.

chronological

methodology

in the

coverage
most

route

of greater

and

in progress).

distributed

regionally

nature

the

parallel

the usage

again.

infallibly;

and

of South

results

(Cassidy,

English,

the

the

stick

England.16

studies

Country

The

'n.

prediction

marker

in the

is related

of New

and

Charleston

as it did

phonology

Low

of

in which

shifted

Vineyard
Atlas

McDavid's

years

right

of

be restored

predicted

with

consistently

Shakespearean
in the

would

direction

Island-oriented

Vineyard.

in historical

building

of social

to assure
as many

like

Martha's

useful

or bare

bear

study

ratio

of words

hand,

on

of

Regional
to

same

persons

also

study

follow-up

be

identification

other

the

a social

hundred

an

By sampling

pronunciation

cannot

for the Linguistic

interpretation

American

The

the

identity

can

geography

population

settled

on

car

pronunciation

Martha's
their

affirm

social

way

modifications,

urban-rural

on

generation

three

changes

of the vowels

systematically

largest

sound

of

to

in the

research.

is becoming

values,

in the

for

changes

pronunciation

like air, hair,

pronounced
The

reflected

direction

forceful

more

of texts,

youngsters,

Linguistic
a

not

pronunciation

examined

of social

and

and

Slippery

if the

significant

Geography

confirmed

r-less

to exist.

seed,

to be more

likely

147

Geography

learned.

success

and

(1972)
The

later.

a generation

study

younger

Mainland-oriented

been

the

like card

O'Cain

progress.

in a reversal

now,

by

system

developments

also

about

in

some

with

predict

r in words

final

then

changes

investigation

regional

and

preconsonantal

social

to

are

or suspected

been

for further

markers

cherry

of Linguistic

basis

a solid

provided

it is possible

types

regional

predicted

has

framework

Atlas

and

pit

previously

Applications

The

known

already

cherry

on what

discovered

newly

Linguistic

Atlases

reflects
recently
divided
were
as well

in life styles:

in

148

Kansas

Journal

from

transportation,
evidence

from

but

materials,

so

terms

for privy.

a ride

on

D.A.R.E.

the

name

Last
understand
that

at

also

the

relationship

between

to

characterize

inner-city

et

Kurath,

a sensitive

given

communities

forms

from

are

Negroes

as

in opposite

of

and

descriptions
in

cultures,

as

Gardners

(1941),

The
a

useful

Although
from

Withers

checklist

of

nonlinguists
linguist.19

interviewers

in which

(Reed,

and

(1945)
(1941,
nature

Gallaher
1942,

social

interviews

locally

significant

sociolinguistic

Secondary
in each

field

linguists.

analysis
synthesize

But

provide

local

someone

"give

Carolina).

Likewise,
or gas stove,
as

of the

most

is the

exclusively

or

at

by

Negroes.18

racial

apparent

features

linguistic

standing,
to look

matter

simple
Atwood

to

wishing

socioeconomic

a relatively

718),

Map

to those

insights

that

been

have

how

us of many

for refrigerator,

of comparable

used

shows

and

geographers

names

of the

data

caste

(1961),

building

as

only
With

structure.

exploratory

by

are

shingles

(1953)

and

And

Pederson

V.

in the speech

differences

of

Directions

linguistic

datathe

studies,

for analysis

forms

also

(e.g.,

the

is homogenizing.

It is a fact

It would

own

to the electric

used

actively

to cover

only

designating

stove

of

expectation,

their

in South

(all

wood

whites

many

not

make

as verbs

language

would

in the

communities

might

and

sociologists

class

have

on

been

which

they

illuminated

the

differentiation,

as

in

is in the

cooperate

might

it is apparent

report,

between

interplay

Dollard

design

from
regional

Davis

(1937),

of

and

the

1949).

of dialect

for examining

the

that

appraisals

our

negation

1961),

the

present.

has deprived

plumbing

includes

directions.

linguistic

disguise

sociologists

critical

or Warner

instrument

ways

promising

uncontroversial

community

the

most

studies.

community
the

the

by

speech.

certain

New

One

only

people

many

is still

Americans.

multiple

that

geography"

migrations

not

Not

such

and

expected
localisms.

terms

icebox

not

for further

from

believe

Negro

was

also

Cassidy

past

but

in Columbia

geographers

in casual

matters

concluding

dialect

and

shared

especially

such

before

of "double

results

of white

And

of fiction,

direction,

indoor

as eye

who

of linguistic

work

society.

local

to interstate.

worker

open

likewise,

artifacts,

those

the

double-bead

or unit.

comfort

the speech

and

works

field

ears

unrecorded

to new
burner,

not

the

concerning

verb

type

will

in the South,

speakers

for

terms

in

The

and

is a frow;

previously

of element,

with

familiarity

(1939-43)

at.,

(1956)

(1972),

use

not

least,

of old

and

out

a changing

in Orangeburg,

pull

D.A.R.E.

frigidaire.17

uncover

work

his eyes

out

to blacktop

newspapers,

to

of

them

roads

or region.

to keep

vocabulary

also

transfer

salesman's

cultivated

by

McDavid

the

core

community

for riving

workers

but

appear

but

tool

back

typesdiaries,

and

changing

from

truck,

central

in each

in Charleston,

tow

appliance

brand

the

its field

as

questions

the

that

is documenting

despite
early

know

a bicycle,"

of various

terms

follow-up

recorded

But

to trailer

questionnaire

to ask

few

sources

of localized

has

D.A.R.E.
nowadays,

the

store

to jalopy

cart

written

uses

the

exhausting

hoover

localized

D.A.R.E.

core

of Sociology

on

variables
long

of sociological
the strengths

ethical

consideration

linguists

participating

the
that

could

as people

are

interviews

might

talking,
not

in the

of

experience
be
no
only

is the anonymity

linguistic

incorporated
matter
turn

what

of the
and

planning

into
they

up linguistic

tape
say,
data

of both.

This content downloaded from 95.186.253.178 on Tue, 19 Jan 2016 15:47:10 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

research

preliminary
could

geographers

develop

recorded
they

it

informantmakes

are

short

interviews

providing

of interest,

for

but

data
might

by
for
help

and

Sociolinguistics

others.

The

speechways.20

mobile,

linguistic

geographers

Other

It is little

The
social

and

and

assume

scientists

not

are

judgments

that

complexity

not

does

that

every

are

find

or

inquiry
that

early

least

most

our

has

another,

own

dialects

have

our

hinder

the way
to the

regard

different

been

probably

not

influence
with

very

149

must

they

particularly
to

likely

often

basis.

a similar

cold,

we

to

subject

hear
of

matter

dialectsthe
those

highly
influences

in America

its own
In this

of others.22

of ain't

of grammatical

solutions

and

or even

demand
to

all investigators

the

or multiple

that

shifts

agree,

they

are

in

Thus

he

is

as withholding

hostile.21

we

recurrent

can

negatives.

phonological

formal,

that

to interlocutors

signals

use

stiff, overly

interaction
out

Southerner
as the

pattern

Midwesterners

works

The

such

forms,

speech

of social

group

standards

those

hear

they

show

of modes

diversity

learn

of

is a bit of folklore,

a sociolinguistic

non-literary

Southerners

to the

subject

who

one

wonder

to

we

field

Geography

to diversity.

have

may

shifts

to characterize

those

favorable

beliefs

stylistic

by

of

speech

one

homogeneous

observations

such

to be least

into

for example,

linguists,

make
The

of common

sorts

apt

intimacy.

urban.

know

situation

justifiably

who

persons

us

direct

may

is becoming

America

that

and

educated,

a casual

idea

the

Perhaps

As

are.

as they

of things

understanding

beliefs

and

interests

our

Although

Linguistic

be

on

our

best

of

life

problems

however

much

behavior
and

its

that

methods

their

as

may

differ.

Footnotes

(1967) suggests how it might be used.

'McDavid
2Diversity

may

exaggerate

the

have

expected

full

the

relinquished
in

The

statecraft.

in

Dieth

of

trends

House

of

as dated

Brown

and

(a

Representatives

post

politics

are

not

underestimated:

be

to

likely

just

as David

1939-43)

"...

judges,
Key

for years

politics

of Alabama,

family

A.

et al.,

(Kurath,

hand,

spheres:

dismissed

Edgar

state's

should

Folsom

be

Key

Carolina

South

in other

Senator

shaped

tradition

the

lest

maps

England

on the other

66),

obtains

the

the

in
of

into

And
Carolina,

have

New

(1948:

lesson

same

South."

1949,

persistence

of marriage

significance

The

The

beholder.

in South

Speakership
new

the

region;

"Solid

politics

1973,

of

variety."

maturity

political

ear

of the

in the

in state

figures

history)

in the

greater

behavior

political
key

be

localisms

charts

(1949)

in 1973,

to come.
held

be

variations

longer

George
Eisenhower

of
Wallace

other

any

rather

than

the

that

in 1972

in their
and

Blatt

in American

person

from

departures

political

of

the two

were

understands

fully

understands

out

retired

to

standards,

complexity

who

Blatt,

Brown

than

and

pointed

Solomon

Though

he

be

Pickford

by European

the diversity

it should

Representative

to

appeared

we should,

the

their

political
of

significance

his relatives.
3

As

Americans

4Kiser

the

Daniel,

Confederate

5Citation
demonstrated

Chattanooga
Tom

lexical

Wicker,

yield

about

the core

the

documented

army,

of

between

has

(1932)

documented
Clifton

observe

frequently

differences

linguistic

variants

origins

does

the

Harlem

Turner

to no one

other

and

of

not

the New

of natives

York

et al.

York

is not

of metropolitan

subculture

Catledge,

in local

New

matters.
periphery

The

of St.
as

Times,
authors,

well

a typical

city.

Pederson

(1965a)

points

Carolina.

Talese

out

striking

Chicago.

Helena's
as

the

descendants

Island,
Southern
of two

South

subculture
of the

few

in the
authentic

(1969)

editorial
privates

has
room:
in the

allegiance.

imply

that

phonological

and

grammatical

variants

do

not

for Chicago.

This content downloaded from 95.186.253.178 on Tue, 19 Jan 2016 15:47:10 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

exist,

as

Pederson

(1965b)

150

Kansas

Linguistic

Journal

with

(though

abbreviated)

Atlantic

States

all

the

Atlantic

after

7Data

on

more

documented

remote

on the

informants,

8Field

workers

fourth

of

and

Fasold

dialect

"Although

the

class

the

structure

breaks

'For

(1973).

12The

spread

dealing

with

3Gillie'ron

14Gumperz
territory

l5Labov

not

(1966:

Metropolitan

17Frigidaire

linguistic

Saks

areas

parallels

too

too

fraction

is close

"After

and
in the

to half

at a college.

five

a half

and

for
and

Connecticut,

Massachusetts,

1973,

at.,

force

<1939)

informants

III)

(Type

for non-attendance

about

generalizations
be

may

Wolfram

Three
of

years

social

examined
and

(1969),

by

Fasold

class

based

are

interested

on

persons.
not

(1972)do

the

Unlike

furnish

vitae

the

exploited

not

e.g.,

since

as

local

subjective
for

statewide

social

around

values

network

in New

history

breakdown
(1968:

which

their

of

associations

political

Wolfram

England.

Labov

(1969),

as the

see

Rhenish

Lehmann

of Hemnesberget,

and

status

Riley

Having

as to where

insight

continuum

(1968).

that

to delineate

a/., proceeded

Shuy,ef

impressionistic

social

it is apparent

rank,

into

discreet

the

'natural'
'classes'."

Pop
major

fan.

(1950).

more
see

problems,

Cartographic

recent

Kurath

brief

historical

overview

is

(1972).

representations

appear

in most

works

(1962).

therefore

speakers;

some

social

Wolfram,

Shuy,
used,

they

of the

to several

(1933),

for assessing

18).

of dialectology

is known

rank

is to gain

charting

some

criteria

sociolinguists

of social

scale

of the

Bloomfield

he did

Norway,

not

took

sample

the speech

to sample

pains

of Paris.

the speech

of the surrounding

in the town.

shown

broad,

same

of approaches

study

has

their

the

to be dialect

Avenue,

call

of subjectivity

boundaries

and

state,

sociologists

history

analysis

Fifth

the spread

what

sort

significant

have

of the

knowledge

information.

justifying

of the

Parisians

III)

a working

had

to regional,

purpose

this

avoided

linguistics,

Chapter

stores,

The

(1966),

(1972)

multi-factor

thus

occur,

possibly

run the risk of being

1

second

in a sociolinguistic

(1966),

department

"The

consider

for variables

Kurath,

The

York,

in

college

individuals

among

McDavid

is
the

on

treatment

of these

available.

who

persons

equivalent

use

geography
scores

might

of

provide

an interpretive

historical

did

not

linguistic

have

For

New

et

1973).

when

is devoted

(1939)

do

numerical

a comprehensive

cultivated

to college).

compensate

from

graduate

differences

affairs.

freely

scores

than

more

biographies

of the

to a uniformizing

Carolina.

geographers

geographers

Viereck

et at.,

of Detroit:

between

Linguistic
1

of

subjectivity

rank-ordered

could
will

studiesLabov

range

day-to-day

(1972)

including

in

on the group.

in South

Kurath,

the

informants,

(Curtis,

recorded

and

a wide

organized

Ford

male

sociolinguistic

focus

by his father

(1966),
1

but

position

College"

was

individuals,

recent

consulted

communities
developed

Babson

ancestors

of

(1939),

first

of

half

equivalent

regarded

of exposure

indication

informant

about

only

not

as an

The

usage.
that

was

number

of family

the

Ford,

reveal

school

appreciable

easy-going

profiles

et a/.,

Kurath,

9One

Henry

at Boston's

an

evaluation

Community

generations
...

with

towards

(1961)
(normal

college

of informants

education

attitudes

and

Kurath-McDavid

attended

states

in the

interested

language

in

even

Pennsylvania.

trying

were

geographers

specifically

dealing

of Sociology

the

and

all clerks

would

distinctive

of kerosene,

stratification

sociolinguistic

Macy's,

S.

Klein.

be lumped

vocabularies.

once

a trade

See

name,

sales

among
indices

Occupational

of class

clerks

in

position,

three
like

together.

Pederson

(1964;

at the expense

forthcoming)

of local

terms

on

Chicago.

like coat

This content downloaded from 95.186.253.178 on Tue, 19 Jan 2016 15:47:10 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

oil.

the

New

York

Edwards

City
index,

18Paddock
more

occurrence.

regular
we,

you,

19Such

tell

20Folklorists

2'Much

the

conclude

commentators

take

have

who
this

recognizes

most

pitches

and

Midwesterners

take

to the

cornpone

witnesses

the

than

Southerners

truth

the

talk

that

more

Watergate

political
and

is expected

tense,

/,

are an invaluable
tapes.

language.

from

to those

no quarter

others.
other

the Southern

will

regions.
the

perplexed

But

The

Southerners

than

slowly

hearings

gatherings.
that

accompany

for Midwesterners.

to be disconcerting

at Southern

oratory

that

noises

at

of the present

with

1972).

(Foster,

non-significant

witnesses

but

English,

of Newfoundland

for Southerners

is likely

to

in all persons

or the Watergate

(1969),

believe

for granted

extended

senators
by the

is greater

to Black

Britain.

University

folklore

linguistically

and

stresses

Southerners

distressed

is itself

use

of Great

as Williams

projects,

the

paralanguage,

Southern

as a warning

history

to

tendency
parts

attributed

151

Geography

be given

same

listener
those

who

it.

^Institutionalized
professional

been

courtesy

with

liberties

that

the

features

at the Memorial

is disappearing

in a monotone,

which

courtesy

to

least

and

speak

versatility

stylistic

punctilious

folklore

regard

greatest

Midwesterners

that
The

The

the

that

belief

with

is true

same
between

differential

the

us that

by folklorists
oral

Likewise

that

with

system

in the northern

general

assembled

of language.

for the student

rather

was

as those

of recordings

archives

indicates

296-297)

(1905:

Wright

of a verb

in Newfoundland

existence

as he sleeps,

as well

they,

resource

the

shows

(1966)

L inguistic

and

Sociolinguistics

are

misapprehensions

1963:

(Mencken,

pickpocket

rife.

In the

underworld

a gum

moll

is not

the

consort

of a gangster,

but

a female

719n).

References

Allen,

Harold
1973-

Atlas

of the

1953

A Survey

1962

The

of Verb

Forms

Minneapolis:

University

of Minnesota.

Eastern

of Texas.

United

Austin:

States.

Ann

University

Arbor:

of Texas

University

of Michigan

Press.

Press.

N.

patterning of language variation." Pp. 156-186

"The

Present-Day

York:

New

English.

in R.W. Bailey and J.L. Robinson (eds.), Varieties of

McMillan.

Leonard

Bloomfield,
1933

Language.

New

York:

Bridenbaugh,

Carl

1938

Cities

in the Wilderness.

Social

Psychology.

Holt.

New

York:

Ronald.

Roger
1965

Cassidy,

Midwest.

in the

Vocabulary

Regional

Charles-James

1973

Brown,

Upper

E. Bagby

Atwood,

Bailey,

B.
Linguistic

Frederic

New

York:

The

Free

Press.

G.

Dictionary of American Regional English (in progress).

Curtis,

Charlotte
1973

"Edsel

finally

succeeds:

Fords

celebrate

first

male

to graduate

from

college."

The

3).

This content downloaded from 95.186.253.178 on Tue, 19 Jan 2016 15:47:10 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

New

York

Times

(September

152

Kansas

David

Dalby,

1971

Davis,

Allison,

L.

1949

Davis,

and

"Dialect

1970

"Social

Lawrence

of cultural

diffusion."

American

24:

Speech

49-55.

versus

mythology

in America:

dialectology

Orbis

reality."

a critical

18:332-337.

of English

Journal

survey."

Linguistics

4:46-56.

M. (ed.)
in Linguistics

in Honor

of Raven

I. McDavid,

Jr. University

of Alabama:

of Alabama

University

Press.

G.

1973

in the

"Issues
Usage

Dieth,

Press.

of Chicago

Jr.

an example

research:

Studies

Sarah

D'Eloia,

8).

(January

R. Gardner

Mary

I. McDavid,

Times

M.

1969

1972

and

York

New

University

Chicago:

Raven

"Shivaree\

Lawrence

Davis,

South.

The

O Ke."

B. Gardner

Burleigh
Deep

Alva

and

A.O.K.,

"O.K.,

1941

Davis,

of Sociology

Journal

in the

of nonstandard

analysis

United

States."

Negro
of English

Journal

a review

English:

7:

Linguistics

of J.S.

Dillard's

Black

English:

Its History

and

87-106.

Eugen
1948

"Linguistic

in New

geography

Studies

English

England."

29:

65-78.

Oillard, J. L.
1972

Black

English:

Caste

and

Its History

and

in the

Usage

United

States.

New

York:

Random

House.

John

Dollard,

1937

Fasold,

Class

in a Southern

New

Town.

Haven:

Yale

University

and

Social

Press.

Ralph
1972

Tense

Marking

in

Black

English:

Linguistic

Analysis.

D.C.:

Washington,

Center

for

Applied

Linguistics.

W.

Charles

Foster,

1972

"Folklore

Yakira

Frank,

"The

Gillieron,
1902-10

Gumperz,
1966

field

worker."

Pp.

61-70

in Pedersori,

eta!..

speech

of New

York

Ann

City."

Arbor:

University

of Michigan,

unpublished

Ph.D.

dissertation.

Jr.

Art,
1961

LAGS

H.

1948

Gallaher,

arid the

Fifteen

Plainville

Years

Later.

New

York:

Columbia

University

Press.

Jules
Atlas

John

de la France.

Linguistique

Paris.

J.

"On
UCLA

the

ethnology

Conference.

of
The

linguistic
Hague:

change."

In

William

Bright

(ed.),

Sociolinguistics:

Mouton.

This content downloaded from 95.186.253.178 on Tue, 19 Jan 2016 15:47:10 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Proceedings

of

the

1964

and

Sociolinguistics

Alan

Hubbell,

1950

and

1928-40

Key,

Consonants

City:

and

Vowels.

New

York:

Crown

King's

Press.

Jud

Jakob

und

Southern

Clyde

Vernon

1932

Sea

sachatlas

und

Italiens

in State

Politics

Island

der Siidschweiz.

Zofingen.

to

and

A Study

City:

Nation.

of St.

New

York:

Helena

Alfred

Islanders

A.

Knopf.

in Harlem

and

Other

Urban

Centers.

New

York:

Columbia

Press.

University

Kokeritz,

York

Jr.

1949

Kiser,

in New

of English

Pronunciation

Sprach-

V. 0.,

1 53

Geography

F.
The

Karl

Jaberg,

Linguistic

Helge

1953

New

Pronunciation.

Shakespeare's

Haven:

Yale

United

States.

Press.

University

Hans

Kurath,

1949

A Word

1968

"The

1972

Studies

and

Hans

Kurath,

in Area

S.

Guy

Eastern

of urban

investigation

"The

1970

of the

Geography

of Michigan

Univeristy

of the American

Indiana

Bloomington:

Arbor:

Dialect

Press.

49:1-7.

Society

Press.

University

Jr.

Lowman,

structure

phonological

Publications

speech."

Linguistics.

Ann

of the

dialects

of southern

England."

States.

Arbor:

Publications

of the

American

Dialect

Society

54.

Hans

Kurath,

1961

Kurath,

and
The

Raven

Jr.

I. McDavid,

Pronunciation

of English

in the Atlantic

Ann

University

of Michigan

Press.

etal.

Hans,
1939

Handbook

of

the

Linguistic

of

Geography

New

England.

Rhode

Providence,

Island:

American

Council

of

Learned Societies [2nd ed., 1973, New York: AMS Press].

1939-43

Atlas

Linguistic
Societies

of New

England.

1972,

[reprinted

bound

3 volumes

3 volumes.

New

York:

as 6. Providence,
AMS

Rhode

Island:

American

Council

of Learned

Press],

William

Labov,

1963

"The

social

motivation

of a sound

change."

Word

19:273-309.

1966 The Social Stratification of English in New York City. Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics.
1972

'The

recent

history

of some

dialect

markers

on

the

island

of Martha's

Vineyard,

Massachusetts."

(ed.), 1972,81-121.
Lehmann,
1962

Winfred

P.

Historical

Linguistics:

An

Introduction.

New

York:

Holt,

Rinehart

and

Winston.

This content downloaded from 95.186.253.178 on Tue, 19 Jan 2016 15:47:10 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

In L.M.

Davis

154

Kansas

Lewis

Levine,

of Sociology

Journal

and

1966

J. Crockett,

Harry

in a Piedmont

variation

"Speech

in Sociolinguistics,

1937

Helen

S. and

1929

M.

r."

postvocalic

of American

Journal

in Stanley

75-98

Pp.

33,

Linguistics

4 (part

No.

Lieberson

fed.},

Explorations

2).

York:

Harcourt,

Brace,

& Co.

in American

Culture.

York:

Harcourt,

New

& Co.

Brace

I., Jr.

1948

"Post-vocalic

1950

"Review

of Lorenzo

1958

"Review

of Kokeritz,"

1967

"Historical,

1969

"The

language

1970

"The

urbanization

1972

New

Lynd

A Study

Middletown:

Raven

McDavid,

in Transition.

Middletown

Robert

Lynd,

community:

International

S.

Robert

Lynd,

Jr.

"Field

/-r/ in South

D.

Turner,

social

variation."

of American

instructions

procedures:

in the Gullah

in Linguistics

Midcontinent

of the city."

American

analysis."

Africanisms

Studies

1953.

and

regional,

a social

Carolina:

English."

Dialect."

26:323-333.

Language

13:46-49.

Journal

of English

American

1: 24-40.

Linguistics

Studies

10:48-59.

fur Amerikastudien

Jahrbuch

for investigators,

23:194-203.

Speech

Atlas

Linguistic

16:

47-59.

of the Gulf

States."

Pp.

33-60

in

Pederson,

of

Minnesota,

et at.

McDavid,

G.

Virginia
"Verb

1956

Ph.D.

unpublished

Albert

Marckwardt,
1948

Central

and

States

Midwest."

Upper

University

Minneapolis:

of verbs

of motion."

American

Speech

23:

3-9.

"A

Language.

by Raven

[One-volume

I. McDavid,

Jr., with

abridged

edition;

the assistance

the

4th

of David

edition

W. Maurer).

and

two

New

edited

supplements,

York:

Alfred

A.

with

new

Knopf.

K.

Raymond
1972

ellipsis

American

material

O'Cain,

North

dissertation.

L.
The

1963

the

H.
with

"Want

H.

Mencken,

in

forms

social

dialect

survey

of

Charleston,

South

Carolina."

Chicago:

University

of

Chicago,

unpublished

Ph.D.

dissertation.

Harold

Paddock,
1966

Pederson,
1964

"The

Lee

dialect

of Carbonear,

Newfoundland."

Memorial

University

of Newfoundland,

unpublished

M.A.

A.
"Terms

of abuse

for some

Chicago

social

groups."

Publications

of the American

Dialect

This content downloaded from 95.186.253.178 on Tue, 19 Jan 2016 15:47:10 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Society

42:26-48.

thesis.

and

Sociolinguistics

1965a

"The

structural

Dialects

1972

and

"Black

Lee

Pederson,
1972

Pop,

vowels."

of the American

Publications

The

of

speech

the

Al Smith

Vocabulary

Chicago

Illinois:

Champaign,

and

speech

Urban

the

Council

National

syndrome."

of Teachers

123-134

Pp.

in

28-51

Pp.

Negroes."

in L.M.

W.

Roger

Shuy

Davis

(ed.),

Read,

Reed,

Shuy,

Allen

for Dialect

(forthcoming).

in the Southern

Research

of Alabama

University

"American

linguistic

La

Atlanta:

States.

State

Georgia

University

[2nd

edition,

Press].

a sociological

geography:

apercu

dialectologie:

Word

appraisal."

12:

211-235.

et me'thodes

historique

d'enquetes

Gembloux,

linguistiques.

Belgium.

Walker

1963a"The

first stage

1963b"The

second

in the history

stage

of O.K.."

in the history

American

of O.K.."

38:

Speech

American

5-27.

38:

Speech

83-102.

Carroll
dialect

1961

"Double

Roger

W., Walter

1968

Field

Talese,

geography."

A. Wolfram,
in an

Techniques

and

Orbis

10:308-19.

William

Urban

K.

Riley

Language

Survey.

Cleveland

and

Center

D.C.:

Washington,

for Applied

Gay
1969

Viereck,

The

and

Kingdom

the

Power.

New

York:

World

Company.

Publishing

Wolfgang
1973

"The

growth

of dialectology."

Journal

of English

Linguistics

7:69-86.

W. Lloyd

Warner,

1942

The

1949

Social

W.

Warner,

1941

Williams,

T.

1969

Social

1972.

Sever
1950

(ed.).

of English.

Ruth

Glenna

1956

and

A.,etal.
A Manual
of Alabama:

Pickford,

Learning.

white

Words:

Chicago

in

differences

Language

speech,

consonants

Chicago:

44.

Society

1965b"Some

in metropolitan

of English

pronunciation

Dialect

155

Geography

Linguistic

Lloyd,
The

Status

Class

System

of a Modern

in America.

Chicago:

New

Community.

Science

Research

Haven:

Yale

University

Press.

Associates.

et al.
Social

Life

of a Modern

Community.

New

Haven:

Yale

University

Press.

Harry
Huey

Long.

New

York:

Random

House.

This content downloaded from 95.186.253.178 on Tue, 19 Jan 2016 15:47:10 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Linguistics.

University

156

Kansas

Withers,

Carl
1945

Wrede,

[James
Plainville,

of Sociology

West,

pseud.)

U.S.A.

New

York:

Columbia

University

Press.

Ferdinand

1926-39

Wright,

Journal

Deutscher

sprachatlas.

Marburg/Lahn.

Joseph

1898
1905

English

Dialect

Dictionary.

1905

English

Dialect

Grammar.

Oxford

Oxford.

This content downloaded from 95.186.253.178 on Tue, 19 Jan 2016 15:47:10 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions