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Glossary of Art Terms
abstract/abstraction Abstract means the modification of a (usually) natural
form by simplification or distortion. Abstraction is the category of such modified
images. (See also nonobjective.)
alla prima (pronounced ahla preema) Italian term, meaning to paint on
canvas or other ground directly, in full, opaque color, without any preliminary
drawing or underpainting done first. (Underpainting is often done to establish the
larger masses of the composition, or to establish tonal values (lights and darks)).
allover space A type of space in modern painting characterized by the
distribution of forms equally "all over" the picture surface, as opposed to the
traditional composing method of having a focal point, or center of interest. In "all
over" space, the forms are seen as occupying the same spatial depth, usually on
the picture plane; also, they are seen as possessing the same degree of
importance in the painting. (In traditional painting, the focal point (or center of
interest) is meant to be the most significant part of the painting, both visually and
subjectwise, for instance, a portrait; whereas with "allover" space, there is no
one center of interest visually or subjectwise.) The Action painter, Jackson
Pollock, was the first to use allover (also called infinite) space, in his famous
"drip" paintings of the 1940's and '50's, and this spatial concept has influenced
most twodimensional art since that time.
assemblage (pronounced assemblidge) A type of modern sculpture
consisting of combining multiple objects or forms, often 'found' objects. (A found
object is one that the artist comes upon and uses, as is or modified, in an
artwork.) The most well known assemblages are those made by Robert
Rauschenberg in the 1950's and '60's; for example, one assemblage consisted of
a stuffed goat with an automobile tire encircling its stomach, mounted on a
painted base. The objects are combined for their visual (sculptural) properties, as
well as for their expressive properties.
atmospheric A quality of twodimensional images which has to do more with
space than with volume; an 'airiness,.' seen more in contemporary than
traditional images. Also refers to atmospheric perspective, which is a less
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technical type of perspective, using faded and lighter colors to denote far
distance in landscapes.
atmospheric perspective Atmospheric, or aerial, perspective, is a less
technical type of perspective, which consists of a gradual decrease in intensity of
local color, and less contrast of light and dark, as space recedes into the far
distance in a landscape painting or drawing. Often, this far distance will also be
represented by a light, cool, bluishgray. (See also perspective.)
automatic (writing) Automatic writing was a technique first used by the Dada
and Surrealist artists in the early 20th century, to tap into their subconscious to
write poetry (Freud's ideas on the subconscious had been introduced in the early
part of the 20th century). They would try to connect with their subconscious to
access a 'stream of consciousness,' or more 'free' type of poetry. Visual artists in
these movements also tried to draw or paint "automatically," by allowing their
subconscious to play a large part in the creative process. The Abstract
Expressionists of the 1940's and '50's also used this method, for example,
Jackson Pollock's "drip" paintings.
biomorphic An attribute related to organic, since it describes images derived
from biological or natural forms; it was a term frequently used in early to mid
20th century art. The art of Miro, Arp and Calder contains examples of these
simplified organic forms.
broken color Broken color was first used by Manet and the Impressionists in
19th century French painting, where color was applied in small "dabs," as
opposed to the traditional method of smoothly blending colors and values (lights
and darks) together. This method results in more of a "patchwork" effect, where
the dabs render the facets of light on forms, and/or the planes of the forms'
volume, by means of color and value. Broken color has continued to be used in
much modern and contemporary painting.
calligraphy/calligraphic Calligraphy is beautiful personal handwriting, which
has also been practiced in the Orient and Near East for many centuries. The term
calligraphic is also applied to drawing or painting which contains brushstrokes
reminiscent of calligraphy.
camera obscura A system of lenses and mirrors developed from the 16th to the
17th centuries, which functioned as a primitive camera for artists. With the
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camera obscura, painters could project the scene in front of them onto their
painting surface, as a preliminary drawing. Vermeer, among others, is thought to
have used the camera obscura.
chiaroscuro (pronounced kyarohscooroh) Italian term for light and dark,
referring to the modeling of form by the use of light and shade.
collage (pronounced collaj) French word for cut and pasted scraps of
materials, such as paper, cardboard, chair caning, playing cards, etc., to a
painting or drawing surface; sometimes also combined with painting or drawing.
color field painting A style of painting begun in the 1950's to '70's,
characterized by small or large abstracted areas of color. Mark Rothko is one of
the earliest and best known color field painters; Morris Louis, Jules Olitski and
Helen Frankenthaler are other examples.
complementary colors Colors which are located opposite one another on the
color wheel (e.g., red and green, yellow and purple, blue and orange); colors
which when mixed together will (in color theory) produce a neutral color (a color
which is neither warm nor cool). In the case of the three primary colors (red,
yellow and blue), the complementary of one primary will be the mixture of the
other two primaries (complementary of red will be a mixture of yellow and blue, or
green). When placed next to one another, complementary colors will make one
another appear much more intense, sometimes in an "eyepopping" sense, which
was utilized by Op artists of the 1960's to create optical effects. Also in color
theory, an object's primary color has its complementary color in its shadows (e.g.,
the shadows on and around a painted yellow apple will contain some purple).
composition The process of arranging the forms of two and threedimensional
visual art into a unified whole, by means of elements and principles of design,
such as line, shape, color, balance, contrast, space, etc., for purposes of formal
clarity and artistic expression.
conception/execution Conception is the birth process of an artistic idea, from
the initial creative impulse through aesthetic refinement, problemsolving, and
visualization/realization. Execution is the second half of the creative process: the
actual carrying out of the idea, in terms of method and materials, which often
involves compromises and alterations of the initial conception. Artists often see
the initial conception as the guiding force for their aesthetic decisions, in terms of
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formal elements of design, and in terms of the expressive content desired.
Contemporary conceptual artists place more emphasis on the first part of the
creative process; traditional artists are somewhat more concerned with the
techniques and methods involved in producing the artwork. The painter Henri
Matisse advised, in his essay On Painting, that artists should keep their initial
impulse in the front of their minds when working on a painting, to make the best
expressive and formal decisions.
conceptual Pertaining to the process involved in the initial stages of artmaking
(i.e., the initial conception, or idea). Also, the name of a contemporary art
movement which is mainly concerned with this process of conceiving of and
developing the initial idea, as opposed to the carryingout of the idea into
concrete form. I think that conceptual artists also often think of the idea as the
real work of art, rather than its concrete manifestation. It is possible for a
conceptual art "piece" to not even be a tangible object it may be an event or a
process, which can't be seen itself, but the results of the event or process may be
displayed, in text or photographs, for instance. Conceptual art tends to be created
across artistic categories for instance, mixing the mediums of photography, text,
sound, sculpture, etc. My feeling about a lot of the conceptual work I have seen is
that it tends to be an experiential art, rather than the traditional 'passive'
experience of viewing art on a wall or a pedestal. Perhaps because our age and
time demand a more interactive experience; or because art had by the late 20th
century become a 'commodity,' to be bought and sold like any other commodity,
and artists felt a need to avoid this commodification. Two examples come to
mind: 1) Maya Lin's memorial to Vietnam veterans in Washington, DC. The
traditional bronze statue of soldiers would not have been nearly as effective as a
memorial to Vietnam veterans; as it is, it has become a powerful catharsis for
Vietnam vets, and also for the two warera factions the hawks and the doves
those who protested the war in the 1960's, and those who supported the Vietnam
war. 2) In the Holocaust Museum in Washington, DC, there is a large collection of
shoes which belonged to Nazi concentration camp victims. Though this may not
be officially a conceptual artwork, it has the characteristics of one, and perhaps
was influenced by conceptual art. A photograph on the wall of such belongings
would be an adequate representation of the horror of that time. But a huge pile of
shoes in a room, to be walked through, to see the different types of shoes which
resemble their former owners in personality and age, is to really experience the
powerful emotions associated with such horror.
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contemporary art The term contemporary describes the most recent art, in this
case as distinguished from modern art, which is generally considered to have lost
its dominance in the mid1950's.
content As opposed to subject matter, content is the "meaning" of the artwork,
e.g., in Moby Dick, the subject matter is a man versus a whale; the content is a
complex system of symbols, metaphors, etc. describing man's existence and
nature.
contour The outer edge of forms which implies three dimensions, in contrast to
an outline, which is a boundary of twodimensional, flat form. Also, a type of line
drawing which captures this threedimensional outer edge, with its fullness and
recession of form.
contrapposto (pronounced contraposto) Italian term, meaning to represent
freedom of movement within a figure, as in ancient Greek sculpture, the parts
being in asymmetrical relationship to one another, usually where the hips and
legs twist in one direction, and the chest and shoulders in another.
cool colors In color theory, colors are described as either warm, cool, or
neutral. A cool color generally is one which contains a large amount of blue, as
opposed to a warm color, which will contain more yellow. In theory, cool colors
seem to recede in space, as the distant mountains or hills tend to appear light
bluishgray, and the closer ones will be more green or brown (warmer). In
landscape paintings, artists often paint the distant hills in this pale blue color; and
it is generally thought that cool colors will recede into space in any painting.
However, color is a complex element, and colors often misbehave it is usually
best to go on a casebycase basis, because colors are influenced greatly by
what colors they are next to, appearing "warm" in one setting, and "cool" in
another. (I recommend reading the abbreviated version of The Interaction of
Color, by Josef Albers, for his ideas and exercises.)
crosshatching The practice of overlapping parallel sets of lines in drawing to
indicate lights and darks, or shading. (Hatching is one set of parallel lines, cross
hatching is one set going in one direction, with another overlapped set going in a
different, often perpendicular, direction.)
diptych Two separate paintings which are attached by hinges or other means,
displayed as one artwork.
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directional movement A principle of visual movement in artworks, which can
be carried by line, dots, marks, shapes, patterns, color, and other compositional
elements. Directional movement in paintings or sculptures directs the viewer's
eye around or through the artwork, in a way which the artist consciously or
unconsciously determines. One important function is to keep the viewer's eye
from "leaving" the work, and instead cause the viewer to follow an inventive
(interesting) path within the work, or exit in one area, only to be brought back in
another area.
drawing Pencil, pen, ink, charcoal or other similar mediums on paper or other
support, tending toward a linear quality rather than mass, and also with a
tendency toward blackandwhite, rather than color (one exception being pastel).
earthwork A type of contemporary art begun in the 1960's and '70's, which
uses the landscape, or environment, as its medium, either by using natural forms
as the actual work of art, or by enhancing natural forms with manmade materials.
Two wellknown earthwork artists are the husband and wife team of Christo and
JeanneClaude, and Robert Smithson. Some of these earthworks can be very
large, measured in miles. The origin of earth art may have been the environment
conscious '60's and '70's, but earthworks also refer back to ancient earthworks,
such as the large Native American and other burial mounds. Christo' and Jeanne
Claude's work is various, usually temporary and sitespecific, and ranges from
"wrapping" an island or a building (such as the former German Reichstag
headquarters), to erecting a very high "curtain" of fabric over miles of uninhabited
(and inhabited) land. They work with an army of workers to erect these works,
and also work with the surrounding community to get permission and establish
guidelines of what they can and cannot do, during which meetings they explain
their artistic purposes to community members, and often the residents evolve
from their initial reluctance to give permission, to becoming enthusiastic
supporters. It is a very interesting process to watch, and I think is another
example of how some contemporary art tries to enlist the participation of the
public in the artmaking process, or at the very least to familiarize the public with
artistic motivations. In Christo and JeanneClaude's work, I see a kindof Quixotic
whimsy when they wrapped the former Reichstag headquarters building in
Germany, it seemed to me to be a poetic expression of victory over the former
Nazi Third Reich tyranny.
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encaustic The process of using pigments dissolved in hot wax as a medium for
painting; mostly used long ago, but there are some contemporary artists who
have used encaustic, such as Jasper Johns.
engraving A general term used to describe traditional printing processes, such
as etching, aquatint, drypoint, etc., where an image is made by the use of metal
plates and engraving tools, and printed, usually through a printing press. The
image can be incised into the plate, or drawn with fluid and then dipped in acid to
etch the uncovered areas. These processes are still used by artists, but of course
have been supplanted by more modern processes for general printing purposes.
expressionistic A characteristic of some art, generally since the mid19th
century, leaning toward the expression of emotion over objective description.
James Ensor, Edvard Munch and Vincent Van Gogh were perhaps the first
expressionists, though there was not really a movement per se, but individual
artists. At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, expressionism
became widely espoused, particularly by German and Austrian artists, such as
Emil Nolde, Kirchner, Gustav Klimt, and others. Though there is variation, certain
characteristics predominate: bright, even garish, color; harsh contrasts of black
and white (as in woodcuts); exaggeration of form; and distortion or elongation of
figures. There are still many artists whose work has expressionistic tendencies; in
the 1980's there was a period of art called NeoExpressionist. (The word 'neo'
before an art label means that there is a reprise of work similar to the original
movement.)
figurative A term used to describe art which is based on the figure, usually in
realistic or semirealistic terms; also loosely used to describe an artist who paints
or sculpts representationally, as opposed to painting or sculpting in an abstract or
nonobjective manner.
figure/ground The relationship of the picture surface (ground) to the images on
the picture surface (figure). The figure is the space occupied by forms (e.g., a
person in a portrait) (also known as the 'positive' space); the ground is the
"empty" or unoccupied space around the person in the portrait (also known as
the 'negative' space) (The ground is also commonly called the 'background.') In
art since the early 20th century, this division of the picture plane has been
seriously challenged, to the point where there is not a distinction of figure/ground,
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but rather one continuous surface and space, with no 'positive' or 'negative'
space, just one interwoven space.
focal point In twodimensional images, the center of interest visually and/or
subjectwise; tends to be used more in traditional, representational art than in
modern and contemporary art, where the picture surface tends to have more of
an overall importance, rather than one important area.
foreshortening Perspective applied to a single object in an image, for a three
dimensional effect, which often results in distortion with possible emotional
overtones. It is used particularly with the human figure, in Renaissance and
Mannerist art.
formal A term used by artists to describe the visual elements of a work of art,
such as composition, space, color, etc., i.e., formal elements.
found object First used in the early years of the 20th century (in the Dadaist
movement), a found object is any object that an artist comes upon, and uses in
an artwork, or as the artwork itself. Marcel Duchamp called these works
'readymades.' He exhibited a urinal in the Society of Independent Artists
exhibition in New York in 1917, under the signature 'R Mutt'; Dada was the
precursor to Surrealism, and was an 'antiart' movement after World War I, which
sought to avoid order and rationality in art. Dada also questioned the very
meaning of art: what is art? who decides if an object is art? is it art because an
artist places it in a museum and calls it art? etc. Later, Picasso made a bull's
head from found objects: the seat and handle bars of a bicycle.
fresco Wall painting in waterbased paint on moist plaster, mostly from the 14th
to the 16th centuries; used mostly before the Renaissance produced oil paint as
a more easily handled medium.
frottage (pronounced frotaj) French term, meaning to rub a crayon or other
tool onto paper or other material, which is placed onto a textured surface, in order
to create the texture of that surface on the paper. The Surrealist artist Max Ernst
used this technique in some of his collages.
genre (pronounced jahnre) A type of painting representing scenes of
everyday life for its own sake, popular from the 17th century to the 19th century.
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gesso An undercoating medium used on the canvas or other painting surface
before painting, to prime the canvas; usually a white, chalky, thick liquid. In the
mid20th century, gesso became available already commercially prepared; before
this time, artists often mixed their own gesso mixture.
gesture/gestural The concept of gesture in drawing is twofold: it describes the
action of a figure; and it embodies the intangible "essence" of a figure or object.
The action line of a figure is often a graphic undulating line, which follows the
movement of the entire body of the figure being drawn or painted. The term
gestural is an extension of this idea to describe a type of painting which is
characterized by brushstrokes with a gestural quality, that is, flowing, curved,
undulating lines or forms. Gestural composition means a type of composition
based on gestural directional movements. The work of Arshile Gorky, the
Abstract Expressionist, is an example of gestural painting, which often connotes
a spiritual or emotional content.
glaze/glazing A glaze is a thin layer of translucent oil paint applied to all or part
of a painting, to modify the tone or color underneath. Glazing is the process of
using this technique.
golden section A mathematical ratio first used by the Greeks in their
architecture, and developed further in the Renaissance, which was said to be in
tune with divine proportion and the harmony of the universe. It has been used by
artists to divide the picture surface (as a compositional device); among others,
Seurat and Mondrian are thought to have used this ratio to create compositions.
graphic/graphic arts The graphic arts (drawing and engraving) are said to
depend for their effect on drawing, as opposed to color. The term graphic
describes drawings or prints which lean more toward drawing (line) than color
(mass). I think that this division is less pertinent in modern and contemporary art
than in traditional art or art of the past.
grid A formal visual vehicle much in currency during 20th century art, the grid is
a geometric construct of squares or rectangles that form the underlying or actual
structure of some twodimensional modern art. Though the meaning of the grid to
artists is hard to describe in words, it is more than just a visual armature. In a
way, it can be said to represent the modern and postmodern stance of the 20th
century; and often seems to inspire almost a reverence, as a symbol of aesthetic
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purity and integrity, particularly of modernism. Many artists have used the grid;
two who come to mind are Jasper Johns (paintings) and Louise Nevelson
(sculpture).
grisaille (pronounced grizale) Painting entirely in monochrome (tones of one
color), in a series of grays. Strictly speaking, monochrome is in any one color,
such as red, blue or black; grisaille means in neutral grays only (French term).
Grisaille may be used for its own sake as decoration, or may be the first stage in
building up an oil painting (to establish the tonal range of the image). Grisaille
was also formerly used as a model for an engraver to work from.
guild During the Middle Ages, tradesmen formed guilds for economic, social
and religious purposes; there were often several trades in one guild. Originally,
painters were in the same guild as physicians and apothecaries (pharmacists), in
Florence, Italy. All painters had to join the guilds, unless they were in the personal
service of a ruling prince. Only a Master could set up a studio in business, take
pupils and employ journeymen. To become a Master, a painter had to submit a
'masterpiece' to the guild as proof of competence. Guild officers supervised the
number of apprentices, work conditions, and also materials (they bought in bulk,
chose panels to work on). They had a trade union mentality, which centered on
uniformity of performance; this led to painters like Michelangelo and da Vinci
insisting on the freedom and originality of the artist, with the status of a
professional and scholar/gentleman (an inspired being, rather than an honest
tradesman). This new attitude toward artists led to the decline of the guilds, and
the use of academies, which took over the teaching of art.
hatching A technique used in drawing to indicate light and shade, or form,
consisting of parallel lines of varying width, darkness and spacing. Cross
hatching is simply two or more overlapping sets of these parallel sets of lines, at
a perpendicular or other angle to the first set of lines.
hue Referring to the actual color of a form or object, e.g., a red car.
iconography Knowledge of the meanings to be attached to pictorial
representations; perhaps the visual equivalent of symbols or metaphors in
literature. An artist may be aware of his/her iconography and use it consciously;
probably just as often, the iconography is used in a semiconscious way. An artist
will intuitively choose images because of meanings they have for him/her, and
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over the course of time a pattern can often be found, as a logical progression or
repeating images. An artist can be said to have a personal iconography, which is
often noted and analyzed by others, including art historians, critics, writers and
the public. Often, the meanings seen in an artist's work by others differs,
somewhat or considerably, from what the artist has intended.
ideal art Art which aims to be the true, eternal reality. In the 18th and 19th
centuries, this included some Neoclassical art, which emulated the forms and
ideas found in classical art (Greece and Rome). In modern times, this could
include artists such as Mondrian and Malevich, who considered pure abstraction
to be the manifestation of this pure reality. Perhaps the theoretical opposite of
ideal art is realism, which tries to depict things not as some ideal, but as they
'really' are.
impasto An Italian term for oil paint applied very thickly onto the canvas or
other support, resulting in evident brushstrokes (visible).
installation A type of art, usually sculptural, which is often large enough to fill
an entire space, such as a gallery, and consists of a number and variety of
components. Installation art perhaps began in the 1960's with Ed Kienholz and
George Segal, two American sculptors. Ed Kienholz' work contains such
elements as cars and institutional furniture (suggesting a state hospital or prison),
with the content being death and serious societal issues. Segal's work, in
contrast, consists of lifesize plaster figures (cast from real people and usually
white), engaged in contemporary and mundane activities, such as adding letters
to a movie marquee or waiting for the subway, and often represent the poetry of
the mundane. Installation art is often sitespecific, meaning that it is created
specifically for a certain site. There are many contemporary artists creating
installations, such as Judy Pfaff.
linear Describing a quality related to the use of line in painting or sculpture; can
refer to directional movement in composition, or the actual use of the element of
line in the image or sculpture, as contrasted with the use of mass or shape forms.
local color The actual color of a form or object, uninfluenced by the effects of
light or reflected color. For instance, a vase may be turquoise (the local color), but
appear pale blue because of sunlight hitting it in certain places; dark blue
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because of areas in shadow; and many subtle color shades in certain areas
because of reflected light from surrounding surfaces.
lyrical A quality applied to various art forms (poetry, prose, visual art, dance
and music), referring to a certain ethereal, musical, expressive, or poetic quality
of artistic expression. Although difficult to define, when a visual work of art is
described as having a lyrical quality, it means that it possesses a certain spiritual
or emotional quality; perhaps the color relationships may be said to "sing"; or the
linear quality of directional movement may be
of a sensitive and expressive nature; or the work expresses a particularly
profound, passionate or tender sentiment, perhaps related to romanticism or
other lofty expression.
mannerism/mannered Mannerism was a style of art in 16th century Italy,
characterized by somewhat distorted (usually human) forms and a high emotional
key. Practitioners included the artist Pontormo. In modern and contemporary art,
the term mannered when applied to a style or work of art is somewhat critical,
implying that the style or work of art is done not from the inner convictions and
perceptions of the artist, but rather out of the artist's historical artistic habits or
preconceptions. In other words, the work appears contrived or forced, as
opposed to arrived at by genuine and selfaware creative impulses.
mass/masses Shapes or forms used in visual art, as contrasted with lines; also
masses often form the large part(s) of the compositional structure, without the
additional complexity of detail.
medium Material or technique an artist works in; also, the (usually liquid or
semiliquid) vehicle in which pigments are carried or mixed (e.g., oil, egg yolk,
water, refined linseed oil).
mobile (pronounced mobeel) A type of kinetic sculpture (that which moves),
invented and first used by the artist Alexander Calder. Trained as an engineer,
Calder built many hanging mobiles with various attached forms, which moved
and changed with air currents, etc. Many of them were very large, and hang in
museum lobbies or auditoriums, from the ceiling. The forms which rotate and
change their configurations are often of a biomorphic nature, similar to those
used by Hans Arp and Juan Miro.
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modeling Threedimensional effect created by the use of changes in color, the
use of lights and darks, crosshatching, etc.
modern art Generally considered to be the period from about 19056 to the
mid1950's, when Pop art ushered in what is referred to as the postmodern
period in art. Modern art is generally characterized by formal experimentation
and exploration, and mostly seriousness of purpose. (Dada and Surrealism may
be the exceptions to this rule.)
motif (pronounced moteef) A French term which refers to: the subject matter
or content of a work of art (e.g., a landscape motif); also refers to a visual
element used in a work of art, as in a recurring motif (i.e., Warhol used the motif
of soup cans in his early works; or Mondrian used rectangles as a visual motif.
naturalism A style of painting which uses an analysis of tone (value) and color
of its subject, resulting in a representation of the appearance of forms or
landscapes. Impressionism has naturalistic tendencies, because it analyzes tone
and color in the play of light on surfaces. Naturalism can also have a sensual
character (as against composition and drawing). The Impressionists were
influenced by 19th century researches into the physics of color by Chevreul (a
scientist) and others, which showed that an object casts a shadow which
contains its complementary color (see complementary color). This theory
eventually hardened into NeoImpressionism, where Seurat and others sought
the maximum optical truth about nature and the ideal composition and color
relationships. This line of inquiry also led eventually to PostImpressionism,
where Gauguin and Van Gogh, among others, used color in a purely artistic and
antinaturalistic manner, which was nonintellectual. (Color used by Gauguin and
Van Gogh is often deliberately independent of the local or lightinfluenced color of
objects; and beyond that in the early 20th century, the Fauve painters used bright
color and forms even more distant from their perceptual origins.)
negative space In a painting or sculpture, the areas where there are no forms
(the "empty" areas). In a painting, this means the areas which have no forms or
objects (sometimes also called the 'background' ). In sculpture, this means the
"holes" between forms or within a form (e.g., Henry Moore sculptures). Negative
space is the other side of the coin of positive space, which is space actually
occupied by forms in a painting or sculpture (the figure in a portrait). The notions
of positive and negative space were advanced during the late 19th and early 20th
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centuries, replacing the more traditional notion of a 'background' which was
subordinate to and separate from the subject image portrait, still life, etc. Since
about 1950, the notions of positive and negative space have also been replaced
by much contemporary art, which sees the picture surface not as positive and
negative areas, but rather one continuous surface where every area is equally
important, and at the same spatial depth. (See also positive space.)
neutral color A color which in color theory is neither warm nor cool. Neutral
colors are said to result from the combination of two complementary colors (e.g.,
red and green, blue and orange, and yellow and purple). Neutral colors can also
be mixed by other means. (See also complementary colors, and warm and cool
colors.)
nonobjective A term used to describe visual art which is not based on
existing, observable forms, but rather on abstract or idealized forms, such as
geometric, mathematical, imaginary, etc. Nonobjective art came into existence in
the early 20th century, often with much theoretical accompaniment. Mondrian is
an example of an artist whose work is nonobjective. (See also abstract.)
nonrepresentational Nonrepresentational art is art which is not based on
external appearances; this covers several types of art abstract, nonobjective,
and decorative; as contrasted with representational art, which is art based on
"real" imagery, whether actually existant or existant only in the artist's
imagination.
onepoint linear perspective Developed in 15th century Italy, a mathematical
system for indicating spatial distance in twodimensional images, where lines
converge in a single vanishing point located on the horizon line, as seen by a
stationary viewer. (See also twopoint linear perspective.)
organic A description of images which are partly or wholly derived from natural
forms, such as curvilinear, irregular, indicative of growth, biologicallybased, etc.
painterly An adjective used to describe a style of painting which is based not
on linear or outline drawing, but rather patches or areas of color. In painterly two
dimensional images, the edges of forms tend to merge into one another, or into
the background, rather than be separated by outlines or contours. Titian and
Rembrandt are two artists with painterly approaches; Botticelli's work is not
painterly, but more linear/drawing oriented.
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palette A thin piece of glass, wood or other material, or pad of paper, which is
used to hold the paint to be used in painting; also, the range of colors used by a
particular painter.
pastel A drawing stick made of pigments ground with chalk and mixed with gum
water; also, a drawing executed with these pastel sticks; also, a soft, subdued tint
(light shade) of a color.
pentimenti Italian term, from the word meaning 'repent'; refers to the lines or
marks which remain after an artist corrects his/her drawing (or painting).
Traditionally, this meant that these lines or marks remained unintentionally, in the
quest for the perfectly drawn figure, for instance. However, at the end of the 19th
century (with Cezanne), these marks became part of the visual expression; his
figure drawings, for example, often show several contours in the search for the
"correct" one contour. With Cezanne's drawings, these multiple contours in fact
aid in the expression of three dimensions, more than one contour alone would
do, giving a sense of roundness and volume. In addition, these pentimenti
contribute in an expressive sense. In drawings and paintings since, some artists
have taken advantage of this expressive function of pentimenti, particularly in
painting, and have left the marks/lines deliberately, or even created them on
purpose. They can add richness to a work.
photomontage (pronounced photomontaj) A twodimensional combining of
photographs or parts of photographs into an image on paper or other material (a
technique much used by the Surrealists in the 1920's, such as Max Ernst).
pictorial/picture surface The flat plane of the canvas or other support, which is
the twodimensional arena of the image.
picture plane The flat surface on which an image is painted, and that part of
the image which is closest to the viewer. (In modern and contemporary art, the
picture plane is synonymous with pictorial surface, meaning that the entire image
is located on the picture plane, as contrasted with art from the Renaissance until
the mid19th century, where the picture surface was considered as a window into
which the viewer looked into the illusion of distance.)
positive space The areas of a painting or sculpture which are occupied by
forms or images, as contrasted with negative space, which are the "empty" areas
where no forms/images are located. For example, in a portrait, the figure would
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be the positive space, the "background" would be the negative space. In painting
since around 1950, the differentiation between positive and negative space has
given way to a sense of a continuous surface/space/plane, where all the forms
are located on the picture surface, rather than on different planes in space. (See
also negative space.)
postmodern A term used to describe the period of art which followed the
modern period, i.e., from the 1950's until recently. The term implies a shift away
from the formal rigors of the modernists, toward the less formally and emotionally
stringent Pop artists, and other art movements which followed.
printmaking The category of fine art printing processes, including etching,
lithography, woodcut, and silkscreen, in which multiple images are made from the
same metal plate, heavy stone, wood or linoleum block, or silkscreen, with black
andwhite or color printing inks.
proportion The relation of one part to the whole, or to other parts (for example,
of the human body). For example, the human body is approximately 7 to 71/2
times the height of the head; the vertical halfway point of the body is the groin;
the legs are halved at the knees, etc. Proportion also refers to the relative sizes
of the visual elements in a composition, and their optimum relationships for good
design.
realism Representational painting which, unlike ideal art, desires to depict
forms and images as they really are, without idealizing them. Courbet was one of
the first realists, in opposition to the previous reigning Neoclassical art in France;
19th century realist artists wanted to depict life "as it is," warts and all.
representational art Art which is based on images which can be found in the
objective world, or at least in the artist's imagination; i.e., images which can
perhaps be named or recognized. For instance, an objectively faithful depiction of
a person is representational art; also, a depiction of an alien from outer space
can also be considered a representational image. (See also non
representational.)
rubbing A product of rubbing a crayon or other tool onto paper or other material
over a textured surface, in order to reproduce that texture into a twodimensional
image. For example, a rubbing of a gravestone, a penny, etc. (See also frottage.)
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scumbling A painting technique (the opposite of glazing), consisting of putting
a layer of opaque oil paint over another layer of a different color or tone, so that
the lower layer is not completely obliterated, giving an uneven, broken effect.
shade A dark value of a color, i.e., a dark blue; as opposed to a tint, which is a
lighter shade of a color, i.e., light blue. Also, to shade a drawing means to add the
lights and darks, usually to add a threedimensional effect.
sfumato (pronounced sfumato) Italian term meaning smoke, describing a
very delicate gradation of light and shade in the modeling of figures; often
ascribed to da Vinci's work (also called blending). Da Vinci wrote that 'light and
shade should blend without lines or borders, in the manner of smoke', in his
Notes on Painting.
sgraffito (pronounced sgrafeeto) Italian term meaning scratched; in painting,
one color is laid over another, and scratched in (with the other end of the brush,
for example) so that the color underneath shows through.
shaped canvas A type of painting/stretched canvas first begun in the 1960's,
where the canvas takes other forms than the traditional rectangle. Canvas is
stretched over multiple threedimensional shapes, which are combined to form a
threedimensional, irregularly shaped canvas on which to paint (often abstract or
nonobjective) images.
spatial cues Methods of indicating threedimensional space in twodimensional
images. Examples are: the modeling of forms with light and shade to indicate
volume; overlapping of forms to indicate relative spatial position; decrease in the
size of images as they recede in space; vertical position in the image (the further
away an object is, the higher it is normally located in the image); the use of
increased contrast of light and dark (value) in the foreground; the decreasing
intensity of colors as they recede in space; the use of a perspective system, of
lines converging toward the horizon line. Spatial cues are used also in abstract or
nonobjective art to indicate relative position in relation to the picture plane, by
means of overlapping forms, color and size relationships, and other spatial cues,
but generally without perspective and other indications of Renaissance (illusional)
space.
stabile (pronounced stahbeel) A type of 20th century sculpture which
consists of a stationary object, usually on a base of some kind. Described in
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contrast to a mobile, the freehanging sculptural invention of sculptor Alexander
Calder, stabiles were also created by Calder.
stained canvas A method of painting first begun in the 1960's, consisting of the
application of (liquid) paint directly to canvas by pouring or rolling, rather than
with the traditional brush, and without the prerequisite layer of priming normally
done to stretched canvas. Helen Frankenthaler is one example of an artist who
worked with stained canvas. This way of applying paint gives a totally different
image than one brushed on obviously a more fluid image, with translucent fields
of color perhaps like the aurora borealis an effect impossible with traditional
brushes.
stippling A drawing technique consisting of many small dots or flecks to
construct the image; obviously, this technique can be very laborious, so generally
small images are stippled. The spacing and darkness of the dots are varied, to
indicate three dimensions of an object, and light and shadow; can be a very
effective and interesting technique, which can also be used in painting.
study A preliminary drawing for a painting; also, a work done just to "study"
nature in general.
subject matter As opposed to content, the subject matter is the subject of the
artwork, e.g., still life. The theme of Vanitas (popular a few centuries ago) of
vanity, death, universal fate, etc., used in the still life, can be considered the
content. The still life objects used in the image are the subject matter. (See also
content.)
tint A light value of a color, i.e., a light red; as opposed to a shade, which is a
dark value, i.e., dark red.
tone The lightness or darkness of an area in terms of black to white; also called
value, i.e., a light or dark red, or light or dark gray.
twopoint linear perspective A more recent version of perspective than one
point perspective; using two (or more) points instead of one on the horizon line
gave artists a more naturalistic representation of space in twodimensional
images.
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triptych A painting which consists of one center panel, with two paintings
attached on either side by means of hinges or other means, as "wings."
underpainting A layer of color or tone applied to the painting surface before the
painting itself is begun, to establish the general compositional masses, the lights
and darks (values) in the composition, or as a color to affect/mix with subsequent
layers of color. Underpainting is generally a thin, semiopaque layer of paint.
value The lightness or darkness of a line, shape or area in terms of black to
white; also called tone; e.g., a light red will have a light value; a dark red will have
a dark value.
volumetric A quality of twodimensional images characterized by a sense of
three dimensions, solidity, volume, as contrasted with atmospheric, which is
characterized more by a sense of space, or airiness, than with volume.
Volumetric is generally more characteristic of representational or traditional art,
than with modern or contemporary art, which is generally less concerned with the
depiction of three dimensions in objects and space.
warm colors In color theory, colors which contain a large amount of yellow, as
opposed to cool colors, which contain more blue. For example, a yelloworange
color would be warm; a greenishblue would be cool. Warm colors are thought to
appear to be closer to the viewer, while cool colors are thought to recede into the
distance. (See also cool colors.)
wash A thin layer of translucent (or transparent) paint or ink, particularly in
watercolor; also used occasionally in oil painting.
Nancy Doyle
performance art A type of art which began in the 1960's (although the Dadaists
had some eventoriented artworks in the early part of the 20th century), which
consists of events, or performances, presented as art. Sometimes many artists
(and others) are involved; sometimes it is performed by a single artist. In the
1960's, Robert Rauschenberg and others were involved in 'happenings,' a similar
endeavor, where, for instance, someone would be riding a bicycle around and
through the performance area, another person would be reciting a prose poem,
music might be playing, lights and images projected onto the walls, etc.
Performance art can sometimes be taken to extremes, as when, in the 1990's, an
artist shot himself as part of his performance piece.
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perspective A semimathematical technique for representing spatial
relationships and threedimensional objects on a flat surface. (See also
atmospheric perspective, onepoint linear perspective, and twopoint linear
perspective.)
Art Appreciation
I read once that artists live in a different reality than what we normally call the 'real' world. To artists, the
world of images or forms, or ideas and feelings, is more "real" than the nuts and bolts world. I would agree,
from my own experience. I think that serious artists live with a "cosmic" sense - that is, consciously or not,
they are aware that galaxies and universes, both in macrocosm and microcosm, are spinning and traveling
in space, while we humans go about our daily business. This gives artists the necessary perspective of the
dreamer, to take the 'long' view of reality.
It was previously thought that humans painted as long ago as 50,000 years, as there are caves in France and
Spain with drawings of animals and hand prints almost that old. Recently, however, the evidence of
pigment-making tools has been found in Zambia, Africa which puts the beginnings of art much further into
history - as much as 350,000-400,000 years. (At this point in prehistory, homo sapiens had not even arrived
- this means that a close relative to us, our precursors, may have been the ones who first painted images.)
No one is sure why the cave images were painted, incised, and sometimes formed from pigment blown
through a hollow bone (a primitive airbrush), but speculate that they were for spiritual and/or hunting
purposes. Over the millennia, the place of art in cultures has changed many times; but I think that a spiritual
connection with art remains for many of us, artists feeling it especially. Nature doesn't allow much
superfluous behavior - the fact that many artists are still born among us testifies to me that it is a
fundamental and preliterate human activity, that we need to express our humanity, our being alive, that it is
just as important as food. It is food for the soul.
It is easier to see this in music, which is so accessible to all of us, and so important to us. We may not all be
conversant with, say, classical or world music; but we all grew up with, for example, rock music. We have a
collective understanding and knowledge of its evolution, and as a result, we often judge as a group whether
a particular song or artist is "good." My favorite example of this is at a concert, when one musician will do
a solo during a performance, and if it is inspired and skillful, we all know it, and applaud spontaneously
together. Because of its power to move us and express our deepest selves, it is very important to us, and
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because of its ubiquity, we are all familiar with it, and we are knowledgeable about it, confident of our
judgment.
To me, art has the same power, but because it doesn't have the same accessibility as music, many people are
unaware of this. And because of the inaccessibility, people are not knowledgeable about its history, nor
confident of their judgment of its quality. To me, this is a terrible tragedy. I think many people are
intimidated by art for this reason; and also skeptical, even suspicious, at times, thinking it might be a scam.
Modern and contemporary art particularly call forth this response, which is sad, because there are many
artists of the 20th and 21st centuries who have eloquent and insightful, and stirring and moving visions to
share with us. I plan to share some of those artists with you.
To continue the analogy with music, we are often not shocked or offended by the contemporary sounds
rock music has given us, though it can be argued pretty persuasively that much of it is not what could be
considered 'good' music in a music academy. Singers don't sing in classically trained voices; instruments
play sounds that don't resemble anything in a classical orchestra; songwriters don't compose like Beethoven
or Mozart. And often, rock musicians seem to be deliberately trying to be as outrageous as possible - and
usually, we love it! And we love the music! It often defines our lives, whether 40's swing, 50's rock'n'roll,
60's expressiveness, or 90's rap.
We love the music because it expresses US. It is us - and even though we know that it is not "good" - we
also know that it is GREAT. The fact that Bob Dylan "can't sing" is really irrelevant. As he said himself, he
is not a musician - he is an artist. We don't want to hear Beethoven as much as we want to hear Ricky
Martin, or the Stones, or Bob Marley, because Beethoven, though great, is not of OUR TIME. It is not now
- in America, in the 21st century - it is not US. And different aesthetic criteria apply now. We know Jimi
Hendrix was a great, serious musician and artist; we judge him by our knowledge of the history of rock
music, and its roots in blues music. Because we know our rock history and all his precursors, his music
does not sound off the wall to us; he came from a long line of musical continuity and influences.
A similar situation exists with visual art, although I should point out that serious art, like serious music, is
often expressed on a more profound level than that of much "pop" culture. Artists have a history of
movements and influences, since the beginning of time. We can no longer paint like Rembrandt, because
we are not of his time, though we may love his work. Artists develop new aesthetic criteria also, to meet the
needs of their time. They may not 'draw correctly.' The work may not be 'beautiful' in the old-fashioned
sense. Their work may not look like anything seen before; it may be an 'earthwork' - or art that is made
totally of natural elements. But its value lies in what it expresses to us. The 'outrageousness' of modern or
contemporary art exists only out of the context of art history. Perhaps ironically, since the early 20th
century, modern art has been much influenced by ancient, or 'primitive' art, as has some music. Are we
seeking those selves of long ago, from the concrete enclaves of now? Unfortunately, since art is not on the
television very often, or even taught in schools as much, people have to go out of their way to learn about
art history, and even then, where do they start? And how many have the time?
I hope to light a candle in the proverbial darkness on this page. Art has progressed to the point of
conceptualism and beyond, where the work of art is not visual, or even tangible, but an idea. This notion is
not really new - Plato also wrote that the idea of a thing is more "real" than the thing itself. But all serious
art movements and ideas have a rationale, and a validity, in art history; and the strongest ones have the
power to move and enrich us. In 20th century art, there are also, as in music, movements and individual
artists who seemed to be deliberately outrageous, like Marcel Duchamp, and the Dadaists. And in the
1950's in America, the Pop artists reflected what they were seeing around them, the new consumer culture,
some with tongue firmly in cheek. It is perhaps the same outrageousness in contemporary art that exists in
music - the why of this is not easy to answer. Perhaps it lies in the unprecedented megadangers of our time
- nuclear weapons, holocausts, environmental forecasts of doom. Or maybe it is the unbridled exuberance
of being alive NOW!
Many of the more recent conceptual and installation artists develop their work in a brand new way, where
the idea behind the intangible work is often a poetic and striking one, that causes the viewer to rethink their
assumptions, or express a cry for the environment, the human spirit, or man's inhumanity. Christian
Boltanski comes to mind. It is said that film is the major art form in the 20th century - has the biggest
impact in people's lives. Just think about the powerful effect Schindler's List has had on the world - a pure
work of art that was created out of pure love and expression, not out of box office expectations.
This new art is very seldom seen on TV, or even in the written media. But it is an interesting, vital saga, and
I can't wait to start sharing it! Stay tuned!
DESCRIPTIONS OF MAJOR MODERN ART MOVEMENTS: (See also Glossary of Art Terms)
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(Note: Some art movements were formed by artists organized to promote their shared beliefs;
often these movements, like Futurism in the early 20th century, would write a manifesto
expressing their credo, and profess a collective aesthetic philosophy and style. Although the
Surrealists also wrote a manifesto, the styles of individual artists associated with Surrealism
varied widely. Other movements, like Impressionism in 19th century France, were a somewhat
looser confederation of artists who came together because of certain common aesthetic
principles, and the opportunity to exhibit their work collectively. Again, the style of individual artists
varied, from Degas to Monet. Still other movements were not really movements at all, not being
organized officially, but were instead either loosely associated artists, or even artists who came
from different times and places, who happened to share a similarity of style or way of thinking.
Examples of these movements would be expressionism and post-impressionism.
We live in a world of sometimes brutal speed and pressure. Without the humanizing influence of art, people
become more desensitized and alienated. What is difficult for an adult to deal with becomes impossible for
a child. I'm thinking of the series of school shootings, for example. Art has the same effect on humans as
nature - one gets an appreciation of the beauty, fragility and preciousness of all creation, including
ourselves. And of the interconnectedness of all life. Without this spirit, corporations can deceive consumers
about the hazards of their products; create defective cars and other products that take human lives; leave
toxic waste near schools and neighborhoods, and not seem to have any sense of accountability or human
feeling. Art is a creative, not destructive, activity, and soothes the savage beast with its only aim to enrich,
extoll, cry out, or joyfully be alive. Its side effects are gentleness, generosity of spirit, appreciation of other
cultures, innocence, bliss, sensitivity, industriousness, earnestness, goodwill and understanding, for artists
and viewers.
It is estimated that 1% of artists are able to make a living from their work. Most are not making money -
they're doing it because their genetic makeup precludes not doing it - they have a vision to express, and will
sacrifice everything to express it. Many have full-time jobs, and paint/sculpt/write/compose nights and
weekends, or even driving down the highway, and also work on their career activities - exhibitions, book
publishers, galleries, etc. This is a 7-day-a-week proposition, often with no material gain. There were many
years when I was happy to break even in my expenses for materials, frames, etc. So, the idea of a scam is
ludicrous.
Another misconception about art is that it exists mostly for those with the economic means to buy it. Quite
simply, art is for everyone - not an elite. To be an artist only takes sensitivity, maybe some training, and a
vision. Most are not born with this vision - it develops gradually with working. And it is a being rather than
a doing - I find that I am looking at the world as one gigantic painting - everything is colors and shapes -
not labeled objects with objectively defined names and characteristics. I get impulses to create from in my
car, at the supermarket, at the dentist's office. It is an ever-present consciousness. Which explains the
spaced-out personalities of many artists.
Impressionism: A painting movement of sometimes varying styles which began in mid-19th
century France, including such artists as Monet, Renoir, Pissarro, Degas, Morisot, Cezanne (in
his early years), and the American painter, Mary Cassatt. The group practiced plein air painting
(working from life mostly out-of-doors), wanting to capture modern life in a spontaneous, direct
manner. Impressionism also at times included breaking up the picture surface into small dabs of
broken color, rather than blended, smooth surfaces, which the viewer would merge together when
looking at the painting.
Post-Impressionism: Not really a movement in the usual sense, but a description of painting
which followed Impressionism in France, and was influenced by it, but evolved beyond it. Post-
Impressionism generally existed in the 1880's, and included artists such as Cezanne, Gauguin,
Seurat, and Van Gogh, and tended to be less naturalistic than Impressionism, seeing the picture
surface more as a flat plane than an illusion of depth. This thinking led toward the 20th century
notion of painting as essentially colors and forms on a flat surface, rather than the imitation of
objective reality. Seurat and others began the Pointillist movement, which carried the color and
optical ideas of the Impressionists to an almost scientific extreme, consisting of tiny dots of color.
Symbolism: A literary as well as a visual art movement, in the 1890's in Europe, particularly
France, which included the painter Odilon Redon. A group of painters was influenced by
Symbolist ideas, and also carried further the ideas of the Post-Impressionists, such as Gauguin.
Painters influenced by Symbolist ideas, calling themselves the Nabis (French for 'prophets'),
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included Pierre Bonnard and Vuillard. The Symbolists were also influenced by Art Nouveau (with
its curvilinear quality), and carried forward the notion of painting being colors and shapes on a flat
surface, rather than "objective" reality. There was also a tendency toward dreamlike imagery,
such as Gauguin's and Redon's.
Fauvism: Also a movement of loosely connected French painters, of the first years of the 20th
century, which included Matisse and Derain. The main emphasis in Fauvism was on color - bright,
free use of arbitrary (independent of objective reality) color (les fauves meant 'wild beasts,' a term
coined by those critical of the paintings). The shapes were also not confined to objective reality,
and showed strong exuberance of spirit.
Cubism: A new structural and spatial organization in painting (and sculpture), begun in France
following Fauvism, in the first years of the 20th century, by Picasso and Braque, which was
inspired by African sculpture and Cezanne's paintings, among other influences. Cubism dealt
mainly with space - the disintegration of traditional illusionistic space in art, and the beginning of
pictorial space, which again was based on the notion that a painting is not an illusion of three
dimensions, but has its own two-dimensional reality which overrides the depiction of depth. There
was also a tendency toward flattening images as geometrical shapes, and the notion of multiple
perspectives, as opposed to the previous one vantage point of Renaissance space. Other artists,
such as Gris and Feininger, followed Picasso and Braque, and spelled out their cubist theories in
writing.
Abstraction: Abstraction (in painting and sculpture) was not really a movement per se, but an
idea which took root in the 1890's in Europe, came to fruition around 1910, and continues to be a
viable tradition today. Some of the first abstractionists included Kandinsky and Mondrian. They
believed that art does not exist to depict external reality, anymore than music exists to imitate the
sounds of nature. Abstract art modifies or distorts objective reality (nature), as opposed to "non-
objective" art, which refers to art which exists independently of, and is not based on, external
reality. Kandinsky's essay, Concerning the Spiritual in Art, recounts his passage from more
conventional painting to his ideas on the higher ideals of abstract art.
Dada: Dada was a European precursor to Surrealism, and included artist Marcel Duchamp. The
dadaist movement extended to both visual art and literature. It was an anti-movement born in the
second decade of the 20th century, and affected by the disillusionment after World War I.
Dadaism was out to shock, to shake up conventions, to be anti-art, to question the very
definitions of art. The most famous example of dada is Duchamp's entry into the 1917 Society of
Independent Artists exhibition in New York - a 'found' urinal displayed with his pseudonym of "R
Mutt." (Duchamp was way ahead of his time, and is considered the first exponent of conceptual
art, a movement of the late 20th century.) Dada expressed itself in the forms of collage and
sculpture, among others.
Surrealism: Some of the members of Dada went on to create the Surrealistic movement of the
1920's, which was also a literary movement, in Europe. Surrealistic painters had wildly divergent
styles, but some of the elements they had in common were: the effect of the subconscious and
dreams in art; the importance of the element of chance in art; the idea of an absolute, or 'super-
reality' in art. The most famous exponent of Surrealism was Salvador Dali; other Surrealists were
Joan Miro, Max Ernst, and Rene Magritte.
Abstract Expressionism: A mainly American movement of artists who came together informally,
Abstract Expressionism began in the 1940's, influenced by European abstraction and Surrealism.
Many emigre artists from World War II Europe and before came to America and became major
influences on artists here before, during and after World War II, including Max Ernst, Mondrian,
Arshile Gorky, Leger and Hans Hoffman. Major figures of Abstract Expressionism were Willem de
Kooning (who came from Holland in the 1920's), Jackson Pollock, Barnett Newman, and Mark
Rothko. Stylistically, there was a wide range, from the large drip paintings of Pollock to the
geometric abstraction of Newman, and the soft color field paintings of Rothko, and the painterly
work of de Kooning. Common elements included a certain spiritual nature of the work, the
elements of chance and the unconscious, and the absence or distortion of objective reality. The
movement was at its height during the early 1950's; several sculptors can also be considered
abstract expressionist, such as Reuben Nakian.
Expressionism: Mainly centered in early 20th century Germany, with loosely connected painters,
Expressionism was also found in other places and even other times (James Ensor, Edvard
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Munch, and Van Gogh are considered to be three precursors of Expressionism). It can be
considered to be the German version of Fauvism. As well as being a movement, expressionism is
also a characteristic applied to any art which holds as its primary focus the expression of emotion,
as opposed to a description of external reality. Stylistic tendencies include bright or even garish
color, sharply linear, or dark and brooding quality, black and white woodcuts. Kirchner and Emil
Nolde can be characterized as Expressionists.
Pop Art: Also an American (and non-organized) movement, Pop is well-known as a late 1950's,
early 1960's art movement. A reaction to Abstract Expressionism and the new consumer culture in
the United States, Pop's early figures were Robert Rauschenberg, Jasper Johns and Andy
Warhol; Claes Oldenburg is a Pop sculptor. Pop artists generally wanted to make art that was
'cool' as opposed to the strong emotion of Abstract Expressionism; that avoided Abstract
Expressionism's tendency to serious artistic individualism to instead divorce the artist's
personality from the work. Everyone is familiar with Warhol's Soup Cans, and other images taken
from advertising and the contemporary world. Styles of Pop ranged from painterly to hard-edge,
but generally had a certain 'deadpan' attitude.
Op Art: Generally a minor (and not organized) movement of painters, Op art came to prominence
following Pop art in 1960's America, although artists had been creating works using optical effects
since the 1930's. It focused on a strictly visual exploration of the inter-relatedness of colors and
other optical effects in painting, often resulting in striking and dramatic effects that also were
illusionary in terms of depth (optical illusion). The best known of the Op artists was Victor
Vasarely; Josef Albers is sometimes considered to be an Op artist, but I feel his work, though
dealing with the interaction of colors, was more of an intense lifetime study of color, rather than a
superficial interest in optical effects.
Earth, or Environmental Art: This international movement began in the 1970's, and used the
natural world as its material and content, generally making large 'earthworks'. Environmental
artists work as individuals, rather than as part of an organized art movement. Coming from
Europe to America, Christo and Jeanne-Claude are the best known environmental artists (they
work as partners). They create temporary works that are a combination of natural and manmade,
often involving large numbers of workers to construct their projects. Examples of their work: In
Japan and California, a series of large umbrellas in the landscape; a miles-long and tall running
fence in California; a "wrapped" building in an urban setting, such as their covering of the
Reichstag in Germany. There is a conceptual, or idea, sense to their work, and generally a poetic
and art-for-all quality. Other earthworks consist of natural materials, such as large rocks, arranged
in patterns over a large and perhaps isolated area, such as Spiral Jetty by Robert Smithson.
Conceptual Art: Not an organized movement, Conceptual art can be thought to have begun in
the early 20th century with Marcel Duchamp of the European dada movement (see above), but its
official genesis was the 1960's. Basically, conceptual art places its emphasis on the idea of the
work of art as its primary identity, rather than the object itself. This idea is as old as Plato,
meaning that the idea of an object is more real than the actual object (the chair can be destroyed,
but the idea of the chair is eternal and immutable). There is perhaps a contemporary addition of
the notion that art is not a commodity, as so much else in our society is, but rather a non-saleable
idea. Conceptual art, as is much art in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, is an international
movement, and comes in many forms and mediums, sometimes being an act or acts done by an
artist, that may or may not result in a physical object. Conceptual art can sometimes be very
cerebral in nature. Good examples of conceptual artists are Ann Hamilton and Christian
Boltanski, whose work contains poetic and powerful ideas on the nature of reality.
Installation Art: Not a movement per se, installation art consists of very large, mainly three-
dimensional, collections of objects and forms, often filling a large gallery or museum space. Entire
environments can be created (or re-created), often evocatively. One of the first installation artists
was Kienholz, an American artist first known in the 1960's, and loosely connected with the Pop
artists. He created large three-dimensional groupings of objects, such as smashed-up cars, etc.,
with an air of violence, or perhaps death, but also an element of tongue-in-cheek. Some of his
later work contained elements from such institutions as prisons or state mental hospitals, perhaps
with social comment in mind. Another installation artist beginning in the 1960's was George
Segal, who made white plaster casts from real people, and placed them in contemporary
mundane settings, such as a man putting letters on a movie marquee, reflecting the poetry of the
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mundane. Artists since have created many site-specific installations, meaning that the work was
conceived to fit physically and aesthetically in a given area. One contemporary sculptor and
installation artist is Judy Pfaff.
Minimalism: Not an organized movement, minimalism began in the 1960's, predominantly in the
United States. Its main thesis is "less is more," perhaps a reaction against the highly emotional
nature of Abstract Expressionism. Large sculptures and paintings consist of bare geometric forms
- squares, cubes, sometimes in more complex arrangements, and often limited in color. Donald
Judd's minimalist sculpture consists of large, heavy cube forms. Although it can be a sterile form
of expression in the hands of an artist of limited depth, Judd's cubes express a forceful finality
and strength, and are an expression of our times in terms of the lessening influence of the natural
world, and more influence from our industrial, geometric environment; and within this ascetic
parameter, minute variations in treatment, composition, and color can become much more
apparent and meaningful. The painter Agnes Martin works in an austere geometric abstraction,
which is also luminous in muted color and expression.
Materials Needed:
Note: Art materials can be bought online, at www.utrechtart.com and
www.dickblick.com.
Sketch pad You can start small, if you wish, at around 5 or 6 inches by 8 or 9
inches. These are good for carrying around with you, in case of a drawing
emergency. If you feel comfortable with a larger size, go for it. At this point, you
don't need a high grade of paper. The idea is to do lots and lots of sketches, and
for this newsprint pads or a sketch pad are cheap and work fine. If money is not
an issue, a heavier weight drawing paper, like Strathmore, or even a hardbound
drawing book is great. An art supply or office supply store will have these
materials.
Drawing tool A soft pencil is good, preferably a 2B or 3B drawing pencil. You
can also try a felt tip pen or even a ballpoint pen, just to get a different feel.
These can all be found at an art supply store, some office supply stores.
Kneaded eraser These are sold in art supply stores, or some office supply
stores. A small to medium size is good, unless you are working on large paper.
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These can be kneaded after use, to get a cleaner surface to erase with. These
only erase pencil marks, not felt tip or ballpoint. There are erasers made for these
pens look in an art or office supply store.
Exercise 1 Contour Drawing
(I recommend that you first read Art Instruction, to get the most benefit
from this exercise.)
Exercise:
Contour drawing is a good beginning exercise, in the way that practicing scales is
good for learning the piano. It uses the element of line to create a three
dimensional outline of objects. Natural objects are especially suitable, like plants,
flowers, hands, and the human figure, but it is also good to try drawing non
natural objects, like containers with interesting shapes, or old shoes, which can
have a lot of character.
Contour drawing should be done very, very slowly. Place your chosen object in
front of you, where you get a good view of it. You will be starting to draw
anywhere on the object's edge but you will be aware of how the object doesn't
end at that edge, but continues behind it, usually as a rounded contour, unless
the object is geometric, for instance, a cube. (An outline of the object would be
twodimensional, or flat; a contour is threedimensional.) Keep your eyes on the
object as much as possible (try not to look at your paper), and concentrate on
what the contour does, every single little curve or meander. Don't worry at this
time about getting an exact likeness or correct proportions. If your edge goes into
the form, follow it until it ends, and then pick up the contour where you left off.
Try to feel the line, its jaggedness or smoothness, its curve, its delicacy, or
sharpness. If you feel the form going away from you, press down on your pencil.
Your progress should be so slow as to be painstaking don't draw the line until
you feel sure of what it does next. It is like climbing the mountain, as opposed to
flying over it. And don't think about what the form is, like elbow or leaf just draw
the line/contour and what it does. When you finish the outer contours, you can
draw the inside contours, for example, the features on the face, or lines on a leaf.
Don't erase for this exercise! You are not making a drawing you are involved in a
process of learning.
When you are finished, don't be dismayed if it doesn't look like a "real" drawing. If
you do the exercise correctly, and many, many times, you'll see progress as you
look back on last month's drawings. Carry your sketchbook with you as much as
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possible, for when you are in life's waiting rooms. The best time to draw, when
you feel confident enough to tackle a figure, is with your family or friends. People
are relaxed, in comfortable positions, and unselfconscious and they make great
models. Drawing yourself is good, too your hands and feet in different positions.
Making it fun for yourself is good, too. Draw things that really interest you, and
that you love. Play your favorite music, and wear your most comfortable clothes.
Save your drawings you will see progress, I promise! You are learning to SEE.
And the more you learn to see, the more you will see, and that knowledge will in
turn improve your drawing.
Recommended Drawing Books:
The Natural Way to Draw, by Kimon Nicolaides, Houghton Mifflin Company,
Boston, 1941.
Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain, by Betty Edwards, J.P. Tarcher, Inc., Los
Angeles, Distributed by Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1979.
Once you have done many contour drawings, and are feeling adventurous, try:
Blind contour: Try doing the entire drawing without looking at your paper.
Other hand contour: Try drawing with your nondrawing hand. This will really get
you to slow down!
Suggested Art/Artists for Examples of Line Drawings/Etchings:
Line has been used in many ways throughout art history; not only with contour
drawing, but with variations of the contour. The following are just some examples
of the use of line in art: Picasso line drawings (especially portraits) I was
unsuccessful in locating examples of these on the Web; Holbein the Younger
(click on the Scholar portrait thumbnail); Leonardo da Vinci; Ingres; Durer
(scroll down to see the engravings); Chinese ink drawings (click on the images
to enlarge); the sculptor Rodin's drawings; Mary Cassatt etchings (influenced
by Japanese prints coming into Europe in the mid19th century).
Van Gogh also did many ink drawings using line; rather than limiting his use of
line to contours, he used it in the form of variously shaped marks, which serve to
create a textural effect, as well as to help delineate spatial depth. A good
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example of the latter shows how "empty" space (the white of the paper) can
indicate a sense of spatial depth as much as the actual lines and marks do so.
Exercise 2 Mass Drawing
(I recommend that you first read Art Instruction to get the most benefit from this
exercise.)
Materials Needed:
Drawing paper, such as a newsprint pad or sketchbook, any size up to 18" x 24".
You can also try pastel or charcoal paper, for a nice texture.
Conte crayons or compressed charcoal sticks: Conte crayons are about 3"
long and block shaped, and hard. They come in black, gray, brown and red
ochre. Compressed charcoal is usually 2" or 3" long, rounded, and hard, and
usually black. Utrecht and Pearl online have what they call "Charkole," which
looks like it might serve the same purpose.
These materials can be found at an art supply store, a general department or
office supply store with an art department, or can be ordered online at
www.utrechtart.com, www.pearlpaint.com, or www.dickblick.com. At the
websites, look in the menu under Drawing supplies, or Charcoal.
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Sometimes, what we know differs from what we see. When drawing or painting,
we sometimes need to choose between what we know and what we see. For
example, though we can see a person or object only from one vantage point, we
know that the person or object is rounded, and continues beyond the "edges" that
we can see. Though we can draw figures or objects with a line on a flat surface to
try to depict reality, we also need to have a real sense of the actual 3dimensional
form.
Exercise:
The first exercise, Contour Drawing, dealt with the element of line. This exercise,
Mass Drawing, deals more with the 3dimensional reality of figures or objects,
that is, their form, or mass, using tonal values of light and dark.
This experience of the 3dimensional form gives our work not only physical depth,
but depth of content as well. Even if we choose to make art without the illusion of
three dimensions, our understanding of these dimensions will add substance to
our work. For example, the painter Paul Cezanne had a strong sense of the flat
surface as the reality of painting, but his understanding of the third dimension
gives his work a solidity that not many artists have achieved, and creates a
tension between the 2dimensional and the 3dimensional realities. This is one
reason why his work is so powerful.
First, choose an object or figure to draw. Figures work very well for this exercise,
including yourself in front of a fulllength mirror, in a nonsymmetrical pose to
avoid monotony. Don't be intimidated by the figure just look at it like you would
at any other form just draw what the forms do. But if you find the figure too
daunting, find a solid, large form, like an animal; or a large sculpture or still life
object. In one of the examples shown here, I used a conch shell, which is small,
but has a definite form. Try to work from life, rather than photographs, for this
exercise.
Always start a drawing by sitting quietly and studying your object, waiting to draw
until you are relaxed and prepared. Allow your eyes to receive the information,
rather than pursue it. You are trying to feel the solidity and volume of the form.
Start in the "center" of the form by pressing the crayon slowly and lightly in a
relaxed, circular motion, as though you were building the object with clay.
Continue to "build" the form in outward circles, gradually reaching the outer
edges of the form. Work on the whole figure first, before you go back to refine
your drawing. Do not worry about proportions or edges you are only thinking of
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the mass of the form. When you have the whole form roughed in, go back over it,
slowly increasing the pressure of the crayon in the bulkier areas of the form,
where the weight is.
These mass drawings do not need to be large. Work in whatever size you're
comfortable with. Break off a small piece of conte crayon or charcoal; you will be
working with the side of the crayon, not the point, for this exercise.
This darkening of certain areas will help define the form of the object or figure.
You don't want details or individual hands, feet, etc. here only the sense of form.
Again, this is an exercise to increase your understanding of forms. You're not
making a product you're practicing. In art, it isn't enough for the intellect to
understand a concept the whole artmaking apparatus must be brought along
the eyes, mind, heart, soul and hands. The only way to do this is to draw with
these ideas in mind, and the more drawings you do, the more understanding and
strength you will have in your work.
Examples of Mass Drawing:
A really good example of this concept are the drawings of the 19th century
French pointillist painter, Georges Seurat. They are deceptively simple drawings
of figures, probably studies for his paintings. Looking at these drawings, you can
see what can be done with such simple means, in the hands of a good artist.
Click here to see an example online; also, you can find examples of Seurat's
drawings in the following book:
The Natural Way to Draw, by Kimon Nicolaides, Houghton Mifflin Company,
Boston, 1941
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Exercise 3 Gesture Drawing
(I recommend that you first read Art Instruction to get the full benefit of this
exercise.)
Gesture drawing can exist on two levels action drawing, and gesture drawing.
Both involve the principle of movement. However, action drawing deals with
physical movement; and gesture drawing involves not only physical movement,
but a deeper concept of essential identity, as well. Kimon Nicolaides, in his book
The Natural Way to Draw, explains this concept of gesture exceptionally well. I
will try to explain it here.
First, action drawing: This exercise works best with figures or animals. You are
essentially trying to capture the action the figure is performing. Once again, a
likeness or correct proportions are not important in this exercise, nor is the
exercise meant to result in a finished drawing. This is an exercise to get you to
learn to identify the action the figure is doing, with his/her body. Individual body
parts are not important here only the curve or direction of the main bodily
movement. You are not capturing what the figure or object looks like, but
what it is doing. In fact, you are looking at the figure as a form in space, not as a
person or animal. You are seeking what the form itself is doing. Try to FEEL the
line of movement, the fullness of the curves.
When the person takes the pose (action pose as though suspended in the midst
of a strong movement, like a basketball player reaching for the basket, for
instance), imagine a central wire, or axis, which goes inside the figure from the
tips of the fingers in the air to the bottom of the ankle. This is the action line you
are seeking and you want to do this quickly, in a matter of seconds. The model
should change poses approximately every 1060 seconds, and you should try to
capture this line in that time, and the feeling of movement or force in that line.
Once you have gotten the central axis of the figure, you can go back and
circulate around and through the figure, to define the secondary movements, like
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the arms, hips, legs, etc. Look mostly at the model, rather than at your drawing. If
you can keep your pen in continuous motion, great! Don't try to have just one
definitive line go over the main and smaller movements more than once, until
you feel you have captured its movement, or curve.
These drawings can be small, and you can do many on a single page of your
sketchbook. This exercise is great to do in places like airports, train stations, etc.,
where people walk across the room, and you have about 20 seconds to sketch
the main direction of their bodies in movement. It forces you to concentrate really
hard, and see the movement quickly. Often, the action drawings are just squiggly
lines. No matter doing these will strengthen your visual perception, and the
effect they will have on the quality of your drawing is immeasurable.
I can remember many, many hours in figure drawing class in art school, where
we did many of these "croquis," and yet it was just an exercise to me until I read
Nicolaides' book, and when I understood the meaning, it made a tremendous
difference in my drawings. Until then, my drawings had correct proportions,
shading, etc., and they were competent. After I started to do not only action
drawings, but gesture drawings, my figures, and my work in general, had much
more vitality the figures seemed to come alive, to breathe and think, and even
inanimate objects took on more energy the energy of being. And, even the
figure's proportions in my drawings and paintings improved! A seeming paradox.
Your finished drawings or paintings may not look like this, but because you will be
able to SEE the movement of forms, your end work will contain this essential
movement. This will help with the exact angle the figure's line of movement takes,
and correct proportions, etc.
So, I can't recommend this exercise enough. Do many, many action drawings.
Then, read about the gesture drawing exercise below, and do many of these also!
Materials Needed:
Drawing paper Newsprint pad or other inexpensive sketch paper; any size is
good, but you will be carrying it around with you, so small is OK. If you use bigger
paper, you can do many sketches on the same sheet.
Drawing tool 2B, 3B, or 4B soft drawing pencil works well. You can also try ball
point or felt tip pen.
These items can be found in an art supply store or office supply store, or online
at www.utrechtart.com, www.dickblick.com, or www.pearlpaint.com.
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Exercise:
Gesture Drawing:
Gesture drawing is related to action drawing, but it goes further. I see the idea of
gesture as the essential character of a figure or object, a kindof eastern
philosophy viewpoint. That is, everything has a gesture. As Nicolaides wrote,
"Everything has a gesture even a pencil." On the physical level, the pencil's
gesture is a "shooting" straight line, very quick. That physical movement has an
intangible counterpart its essence its movement identity, personality, or
essence.
When you strive to capture the essence of an object or person, your art will start
to be on a deeper level than mere appearances. Another example of this notion is
the idea of a ribbon tied into a bow. When you do a drawing of what the bow
looks like, you will get just that its appearance. But when you do a gesture
drawing of the bow, you will get what the bow is DOING, its action. Your line will
move, stop and go very quickly, around, up and down, getting the FEEL of the
figure in real or perceived movement. Don't look much at your paper just keep
looking at what you are drawing, and work very quickly, trying to find the axis, or
essence, as quickly as possible. Draw figures and animals, and different types of
objects, such as flowers, shoes, and trees.
When we start thinking about this concept when we are drawing or painting, we
look beyond appearances to strive for the essence of the objects we are looking
at. Each thing is unique animal, vegetable, or mineral. Each thing is precious,
irreplaceable, fragile, mortal. Each thing has a personality try to find what that
distinction is and express it. Not its outward appearance but its internal
meaning. People/models: Are they shy, bold, quiet, gregarious, intelligent,
compassionate, wiry, aged, idealistic, weary, sorrowful, poetic, brash or a
combination of these and many other things? Objects can they possess unique
qualities? Can inanimate objects have a personality? Life? Though they don't
breathe or feel, do their molecules still race around at the speed of light? Are they
expanding or contracting? Are they bathed in sunlight that shifts in constant
patterns, or are they touched or moved by wind? Even if you think they are
physically dead does their appearance suggest a metaphorical notion? Do they
represent some intangible feeling or idea to artist or viewer?
Carrying this a step further, which I did in my work I began, when
looking/painting, to see gestures in shapes and colors. That deep green shadow
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of the leaves what gesture does it have? What is it doing? Curving diagonally
from top to bottom, right to left? What is its energy level? What is the spirit of its
movement, its light, its color? Also, I began to see the actual composition of the
painting in gestural terms an idea that the abstract expressionists also
espoused. What is the composition doing? It has a certain movement physical
and spiritual. Is it graceful? Sweeping? Tentative? Curved? Angular? Agitated?
Serene?
Is this making any sense to you? Let me know!
In any event, gesture drawings can have many looks there is no one, right way
for them to look. If you search for the physical movement, the action line, or axis;
if you search also for the internal, spiritual meaning or identity of things, your
work will have more depth, and express your view of the world. And hopefully
others will see this in your work, and receive something of what you were trying
to do. And that's one of the big purposes of art.
Examples of Gesture Drawing:
One of the best examples of this type of drawing is the 19th century French artist,
Daumier. He did many little scribbly, lively sketches of various and comic figures,
with much movement suggested by his stop and go, swirling lines. Rembrandt's
brush and ink drawings are also good examples of the gestural, or expressive,
line. Click here to see an example of Rembrandt's drawing online. Both Daumier
and Rembrandt can be seen in Kimon Nicolaides' book, The Natural Way to
Draw, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1941.
TOP
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Shell
Dragonfly on blade of grass
Plant
The first step to drawing is always to relax, and wait until your head is clear, then
begin. Normally, you would study the subject before beginning but, in action
drawing, you need to study the figure very quickly.
Dancer
The next lesson is The Mechanics of Drawing.
Exercise 4 The Mechanics of Drawing
35
A certain amount of drawing is mechanical in nature; that is, it is done more on
the conscious level, and even in the left, or analytical, side of the brain.
Therefore, this part is a little easier and faster to learn, because it consists of
practical, more easily comprehended steps. And it involves manual dexterity,
eye/hand coordination, and simple practice; and is more objective, less
subjective. It comes in handy for those who are interested mainly in accurate
depictions of people and objects likeness, correct proportions, and other
quantitative measurements.
The first three drawing exercises here dealt with specific types of drawing
methods and visual elements line, mass and gesture. This lesson is concerned
with loosely combining the characteristics of the three abovelisted exercises, in a
more personal and spontaneous way. One can, for instance, when sketching
from life, start with a gesture drawing of the object or figure, to get the main
action and movement, or line of axis through the figure or object. As the subject
is gradually and lightly massed in, one can then start to define more with line.
When the subject is more established, one can then begin shading of light and
dark tones, if this is desired in the drawing. There is no one correct way to draw
and as you increase your drawing practice, you will undoubtedly create your own
individual style, improve through trial and error, and even come across new
possibilities by accident.
Getting an exact likeness of the subject is not the usual main purpose in art.
Unless a camera is used, a perfect likeness is not even possible. The naturalistic
preoccupations of the Renaissance, and those of some artists since, comprise a
relatively brief period in the history of art. Most cultures throughout the rest of
history have produced art concerned with other intentions than versimilitude,
whether for religious, political, aesthetic, or personal reasons. Since the camera
was invented, the exact likeness produced by an artist has become unnecessary,
freeing the artist to once again try to explore more profound concerns than
capturing outward appearances.
For the last 20 or so years, the trend in art school education has been to de
emphasize the academic approach to drawing, and instead concentrate more on
the conceptual process involved in artmaking on ideas rather than on
developing the eye and hand in the traditional way. This is probably due to the
influence of the Conceptual art movement on contemporary art. While I agree
that drawing should not be a mastery of one's technique with manual dexterity, I
also feel that beginning students can benefit from traditional drawing study, which
36
trains the eye to see and this in turn enables students to cast a critical eye on
their own and others' work, and to discern the visual processes in artworks.
When beginning to draw, remember that all artists start from scratch. If you look
at the first work of Van Gogh and Cezanne, you can see that neither had what is
referred to as 'facility' in other words, it did not come easily to either of them.
They both struggled, and I think the struggle caused them to produce work that is
not only great, but totally original and new at the time created. Other important
advice: follow your heart in art. Draw what you love and know whether it be
flowers, geological formations, machinery, your family and friends, food, outer
space, animals, etc., in addition to the traditional subjects. Your progress will be
much faster. Also, copy drawings of old and modern masters da Vinci, Van
Gogh, Cezanne, Larry Rivers, Michelangelo, Seurat, Durer, Rodin, Redon, etc.
Practical Information:
Drawing Materials First, use the best type of tool for your purpose. There are
two types of drawing pencils soft and hard. Hard pencils (2H, 3H, etc.) are good
for fine, precise line drawings. Soft pencils (2,3,4,5, or 6B the higher the
number, the softer the pencil) are better for fine art or expressive drawing. They
can be erased with kneaded erasers to correct the drawing, and also for
expressive purposes. Felt tip pen and ballpoint pen are good for fine art line
drawing. Charcoal can be used for less precise drawing. It comes in hard
(compressed), or soft (thin vine or up to almost 1/2" wide). This can be smudged
or erased with a kneaded eraser, as well as the fingers or a chamois cloth. There
are also conte crayons, which are harder than charcoal, and which come in
various earth tones. There are many kinds of drawing paper available from
cheap newsprint pads to highquality drawing paper, such as Strathmore 400.
Beginning students can use cheap paper for dry drawing work, such as newsprint
or cheaper "sketch" pads. Pastels can also be a good drawing tool, working in
color. Pastel pencils are better for finer control, and soft or hard pastel sticks are
better for looser work, such as Degas produced. These can be bought
individually or in sets of 10 up to 120 or so, at varying quality and prices.
Rembrandt and Grumbacher are good brands to use. There is special paper for
charcoal and pastels, which comes in many colors, and has a texture which
captures the small charcoal or pastel pigment. Oil pastels are also used for color
drawing they are harder and more like crayons than regular pastels are. One
can also work in ink, with a brush or pen. There are varying types of ink pens
available; and also brushes, which come in different sizes and styles. A good
37
brush for beginning students is a bamboohandled Chinese watercolor brush,
used with ink on rice paper or water color paper. One end of the Chinese brush
has a point for ink drawing, and the other end has a brush. Ink comes in black,
and also in many colors. Art supply manufacturers are always coming out with
new products to try. Winsor & Newton is a great brand to use; also, Rembrandt,
Van Gogh; Grumbacher is usually cheaper.
Holding the Drawing Tool The way the tool is held is very important in
drawing. It is usually better to hold it very loosely in the fingers in the usual way,
but with the thumb and first two fingers 2 or more inches above the point. Even
better is to have the thumb and first two fingers in a more straightened out
position, palm facing down. With a piece of charcoal or pastel, a good way is to
hold the tool between the thumb and all of the fingers, palm down. These last two
positions make it easier to use crosshatching, which is a good way to do shading
of lights and darks (chiaroscuro). Although it is OK to draw with the hand in some
cases, it is usually better to draw not just with the hand, but with the arm itself.
Especially when one is standing to draw at an easel, this lends itself to a looser
way of working. Also, one is then able to see the drawing from more of a distance
away, which is good for checking proportions, and progress in general.
Checking Vertical and Horizontal Relationships When you are drawing a
figure or subject from life, or drawing a building or tree outside, a good way to see
vertical relationships is to use a plumb bob. This is a metal object about 2 inches
long which suspends from a string. When the other end of the string is held, the
plumb bob will hang straight, due to gravity. When the end of the string is held by
the outstretched hand, one can judge the relative verticality of the lines in the
subject compared to the plumb bob. This is a traditional academic method of
ascertaining the angles of the subject the angle of leaning of the figure, the
angle of the arms and legs of the figure as compared to the perfectly vertical line,
etc. It is almost as accurate to use a pencil held in the fingers at arm's length
between the subject and your eyes, and simpler. For horizontal relationships, just
hold the pencil horizontally, and you can see, for instance, at what angle the edge
of a ship's sail is in relation to the horizontal 45 degrees, 90 degrees. etc. This is
good when appearances can tend to be deceiving, which is often; for instance, if
you are drawing the interior of a room, and you want to see the angle at which
the ceiling lines move away from you. The vertical lines of a building will always
be vertical (except for the Leaning Tower of Pisa), but the horizontals receding in
perspective will vary, and can be tricky to ascertain, particularly from below.
38
When you hold your pencil horizontally to compare it against the receding ceiling
line, sometimes it is surprising to learn that the ceiling line goes downhill as it
gets further away from you, and horizontal lines of the building or a table will not
be straight horizontally unless you are facing them squarely headon. If you are
even slightly at an angle to the floor or ceiling line, or table edge, that line will
appear to be tilted, not straight horizontally. When drawing, sometimes you need
to forget what you "know," in order to depict the subject as it really appears
leave all your preconceptions behind.
Shading of Lights and Darks When drawing or painting, one way to show the
threedimensionality of the subject is to shade the light and dark areas, also
known as tones, or values. When working in blackandwhite or color, subjects
have varying values of light and dark, on a scale from white to black, or
grayscale. There are an infinite number of gradations between white and black.
Geometric objects, like a cube, will have more sharply defined areas of differing
tones, depending on the amount and types of light in a room. These will have a
smaller number of tones represented, and these will have sharper edges of
tones. Natural objects, on the other hand, can have an endless number of tones
represented, and these will often have softer, less defined edges. Tones can be
represented by a smooth tone, with no texture, for instance, of a cube. For natural
objects, the forms can be represented by gradation in a smooth, gradual fashion,
or with various forms of textured shading. The most widely known of these is
crosshatching, which is more or less closely spaced, parallel lines in one
direction; or with superimposed groups of parallel lines in various directions. The
more closely spaced the parallel lines are, the darker the tone; also, the number
of layers of lines of opposing directions can determine how dark the tone
becomes. These directional layers can be at right angles to one another, or they
can be at oblique angles to one another; they can be very carefully delineated, or
they can be quickly and casually put in place probably the latter manner is more
common. Especially in the art of the 20th century and forward, crosshatching
has become a very flexible, personal and spontaneous extension of the artist's
personality, mood, etc., and can be quite lively and various with a lot of energy
and expressiveness, as opposed to deliberate and formulaic. This spontaneity
has become associated with a certain authenticity or conviction, rather than
proceeding with technique only, as in a mannered style, which is done only out of
habit, or lack of conviction. However, the deliberateness can also be associated
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with a certain cerebral quality of some contemporary art a kind of impersonal
statement.
To depict a simple object such as a cube, only a few tonal values might be
necessary: the side which receives the most light being the lightest, the side
furthest from the light source (the darkest), and one or two middle gray tones for
the sides which receive an inbetween or indirect amount of light. With rounded
objects, at the brightest (often highest) area, there is the lightest value, which
gradually darkens as the object recedes from the light source, in an often
irregular fashion. The areas of light and dark tones will usually follow the form of
the object on a sphere, the areas will be rounded or circular; on a face, the
areas will follow the form of the face, etc. When depicting light and dark tones,
artists usually do so by indicating the parts of the form in light and the parts in
shadow. Most of the time, this will serve to represent the form depicted. However,
there are times when the information presented in the subject will not represent
the form depicted accurately for example, if you are looking at a spherical
object, which has a cast shadow of a straight, or geometric object on it, like a
piece of paper held horizontally. This may cast a shadow that looks like a straight
line on the sphere. If this shadow causes the form of the sphere to appear as a
flattened surface, then the artist must choose between light, and the form itself
in other words, between what he/she knows and what he/she sees. Most of the
time in this situation, artists will choose the more true representation, that of the
primacy of the form, rather than light, which is really an optical illusion in an
instance like this that the sphere is not rounded, but flat. It can also be
distracting for the viewer, who knows that the form is a sphere, to see a straight
linear shadow across it.
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I recommend that you first read Art Instruction, to get the full benefit of this
exercise.
There are other ways to express light and dark values, especially in art of the last
100 years or more. For instance, in his ink drawings, Van Gogh used individual
marks spaced closely or further apart to indicate values, from the influence of
Impressionism. These marks also produce an interesting texture in a drawing or
painting. Marks can be very individual for each artist; and it can be good to
develop a vocabulary of marks to use in your work. Look at the work of modern
and contemporary artists for possibilities in the use of various marks.
Related to this is the different approaches to form of the 19th century and 20th
century. In the late 19th century, artists began to veer away from the traditional
sense of threedimensional form perfected during the Renaissance. This began
around 1850, with Manet's break from conventional modeling of forms and
blended paint strokes, and continued with Impressionism and Post
Impressionism. Artists began to focus on the canvas as a flat surface, the
pictorial surface, as opposed to the illusion of depth. Examples of this new vision
are Gauguin, Van Gogh, Vuilliard, and others, influenced by Japanese prints, the
invention of the camera, and other factors. This new flat pictorial space coincided
with artists' awareness of painting as an arrangement of forms and colors on a
flat surface, much like music is a composed arrangement of notes, etc. Forms
and colors had their own identity separate from what objects they represented
their 'abstract' identity. The representation of form took a backseat to color, light,
emotion, spirit, expression. Cezanne, a PostImpressionist, had a slight variation
of this idea he 'combined' the traditional threedimensional depiction of form
with the new flat surface, paving the way for Cubism and other new visions of
form and space in the 20th century. This affected all serious art since that time,
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so that now conventional representation of form through light and dark is seen
less often than the contemporary flat surface in art. Still, values are still used
just not as much in the service of the representation of form they become
elements of the work as abstract light and dark values, whether the
painting/drawing is realistic or nonobjective, in addition to line, color, shape, and
other elements of an artwork.
In this sense, the word 'detail' means something different from representing every
aspect of every object, etc. It means that every single relationship is considered
by the artist, either beforehand or after drawing relationships of color, line,
space, shape, size, texture, composition, etc., and that the work is not 'finished'
until the relationships work as perfectly as possible together in a unified whole.
This means that the work will have balance (often asymmetrical); harmony
(without being too bland or decorative); movement (and countermovement);
logical spatial relationships (not necessarily in Renaissance perspective); color
relationships that work (but not in the limited sense of interior design); logical
tonal relationships (not necessarily of form represented in three dimensions), etc.
When drawing objects, you will be determining their linear structure in space. As
such, you will need to discover their identity apart from their identity as objects in
the real world such as table, flower, head, etc. (their abstract identity). It helps in
learning to see forms objectively to "forget" what an object is, and to concentrate
only in it as a form in space how wide or tall it is, what angle it leans to, what
tone it has in relation to light and dark, how close it is in space, etc. All these
attributes are relative wider than what? taller than what? lighter or darker than
what? closer or further away than what? within the work. Discovering these
relationships and representing them is what figurative drawing and painting are
about.
More Practical Tips on Drawing:
1. Try to work in larger sizes and different types of paper. 18" x 24" is a good size
for a beginner; it will seem very large at first but you'll get comfortable with it,
and soon the small sizes will seem too small for you. Try charcoal and pastel
papers, rice papers, and the many kinds in the art supply store.
2. When working on a longer study, leaving it and coming back later can help you
see it fresh the parts that work and those that don't.
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3. Try to work on the whole drawing at once as opposed to starting in one place
and going from there establish the main structure, main movement, etc., as
described in the previous lessons in contour, mass and gesture drawing.
4. When trying to get the correct proportions, try comparing relationships in size
between forms and parts of forms, in units of measurement, with your eye. For
example, the vase is 1 unit wide, 2 units high, etc. (twice as high as wide). If you
compare all the relationships this way, you can find the correct proportions. A
similar method can be applied to determining the angles of objects what are
they in relation to a right angle, or 90 degrees?
6. You don't need to define the subject with only one, correct line. There can be
two or more, loosely defined lines to define the contour of an object or figure. For
example, in Cezanne's figure drawings there is a searching, sketchy quality to
them, and this searching quality and multiple contours give his figures an
expressiveness, and actually contribute to their sense of threedimensional form,
since they convey the reality that the figures are not flat, with a hard outline, but
continue in three dimensions behind the contour line.
7. Correcting proportions and relationships: You can perfect the proportions of,
and relationships among, the object(s) you are drawing by comparing them
visually. This can be done by systematically comparing the locations of forms; in
a figure, for instance, you can compare the positions of the elbows which is
higher? Are they located within the figure, or are they to the left or right of the
figure's contours? In a landscape, is the lower edge of a tree trunk higher or
lower than a patch of flowers? etc. This can seem tedious, comparing all forms to
all the others but it works!
8. Work mostly from life, as opposed to photographs especially when a
beginning student. Continue this way for many years. Without this study from life,
one's drawings will lack a convincing awareness of depth and movement, as well
as spontaneity, or vitality.
Having said this, I'd like to say that I feel occasional working from photographs is
OK, particularly when one has had much experience drawing from life. There is a
certain amount of disagreement about this, but in experienced hands, there is not
much difference between using photos and not using them. Both consist of
observing the subject; and photographs can bring the possibility of sustained
study indoors that landscape artists appreciate, as well as viewing subjects from
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many angles, or from an angle that might be impossible in real life i.e., from the
middle of a highway, or from a telescope lens into the heavens. And there is an
exercise that is good for beginning students which uses a black and white
photograph as a source, which actually helps in the awareness of the abstract
identity of forms their tonal values, etc.
Exercise: Drawing from a Photograph
Find a black and white photograph (newspaper is OK) which has a good range of
white to black values, and an interesting variety of shapes, without too many flat
or empty spaces in it. Take a pencil or pen, and measure a grid of approximately
1" squares across the entire photo, marking out the lines with your pen. Then
take a piece of white or offwhite drawing paper and measure a piece of the
paper that has exactly the same proportions as your photo (For example: if your
photo is 4" wide by 6" tall, measure a piece of paper whose side is 2/3 the size of
its height 12" x 18", for instance.) Then, mark the same number of grid lines on
your drawing paper as are on the photo, so that there are the same number of
squares on each.
Now, square by square, copy with a soft drawing pencil (4B is good) the values
and shapes you see in the photo. It helps to "forget" what the subject of the photo
is just think in terms of the lights and darks, and their shapes, that you see, and
transcribe these as best you can, by copying the photo square to the paper
square. Think: This white shape starts on the upper right edge of the square,
about a quarter of the way down, gets wider as it goes down to the bottom right of
the square, then gets thin suddenly and turns to the left, curving down to the
bottom of the square, in the middle of the bottom of the square. You can start
shading lightly, until you are sure of the drawing; and try to see as many subtle
gradations of white to black as possible, even in tiny variations within shapes.
Once you begin seeing things in terms of their tonal value, and abstract shapes,
you can begin to depict things as they appear objectively. This is learning to
grasp the abstract identity of forms and is essential to being able to draw well
and starting the process of head, eye and hand working together. The American
artist, Chuck Close, did similar photorealistic studies of himself in black and
white in the late 1960's and early 1970's scrutinizing every little hair on his head.
These grid drawings are fun to do, and you can get some interesting results, as
well as learning from them.
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The process of learning to draw is reciprocal: one observes forms, and one's
observational skills improve; when one's perceptual skills increase, one can in
turn observe more closely. You will find yourself noticing all kinds of things you
never really looked at before. It really is a magical process, that is self
perpetuating, and selfabsorbing. It certainly can be frustrating I can remember
many hours in life drawing class, where I just couldn't "see" what the figure was
doing. The teacher would come along and point out right away where my drawing
was off it was such a mystery to me how he could see and I couldn't, and I
wondered if I would ever be able to see as well as he. Well, I can see pretty well
now but I still struggle sometimes with correct proportions, etc. I just force
myself to measure the relationships mechanically. It takes this kind of
determination to stick it out over time, and really learn to see. But the rewards
come. And then you realize that correct drawing is only a means to an end, not
an end in itself the goal is really selfexpression, and by doing that, hopefully
your expression will also be universal.
5. Work in different materials, such as charcoal, and ink with brush. They each
have their own unique qualities, and can add breadth to your experience.
Charcoal is good because you can quickly and easily alter your drawing with
kneaded eraser, fingers or chamois cloth, or start over; or you can build up your
darks gradually into a rich blackness. Ink and brush are good for the expressive
line of varying width.
This is one of my student sketches. Note how you can still see the traces of my first lines
defining the central axis of the figure.
Note: There are some terrific drawings I wanted to use as illustrations here alas, but for
copyright laws. There is one online drawing by Cezanne that illustrates the use of more
than one contour line in drawing. And there are two drawing books which illustrate many
concepts:
The Natural Way to Draw, by Kimon Nicolaides, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston,
1941.
Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain, by Betty Edwards, J.P. Tarcher, Inc., Los
Angeles, CA, Distributed by Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1979.
In particular, look at a drawing by Giorgio Morandi, in Betty Edwards' book, a pen and
ink still life of bottles, which is a great display of crosshatching. And Van Gogh's ink
drawings, which use postImpressionist "marks" to indicate texture. A contemporary Pop
45
artist, Larry Rivers, is also a great draftsman. Looking at Rembrandt's and Cezanne's
drawings is also very helpful. Both books listed above have a lot of great illustrations.
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Painting Lesson 1 Stretching and Preparing a Canvas
(I recommend that you read Art Instruction first)
Nancy Doyle
Fine Art
Types of Canvas
Canvas comes in two forms: canvas panels and canvas fabric. Canvas panels are a thin
piece of canvas covering a lightweight cardboard, which come in many sizes, up to
around 30 or so inches. These are ready to paint on when purchased, and are cheaper to
buy than the materials and tools to stretch canvas over stretcher bars, in the traditional
manner. They are good for beginners, or for those who don't wish to invest time and
money in stretched canvas, however they don't have the permanence of paintings done on
stretched canvas. I have two from about 40 years ago, and they seem to be in good shape;
however, they aren't made to last as long as traditional canvas, so they are not good to use
if you intend to sell your finished work, or want it to last for a number of generations.
Also available and ready to use are prestretched (and preprimed) canvases, which come
up to about 48 inches, and thin primed canvas sheets in a pad, usually about 9" x 12" or a
few inches larger. There are two kinds of canvas fabric: cotton and linen. They are
described in the following paragraph.
Materials Needed to Stretch Canvas
1. Canvas Canvas comes in two materials: cotton and linen. Unprimed cotton is a
natural offwhite color, and is the least expensive. It comes in several grades of thickness
and quality, and can be sold at 36" wide, or 50" or 60" wide, by the yard and foot.
Normally you can use the medium quality and thickness, which sells for about $4 $5 a
foot (at 50 inches wide). Linen also comes in varied quality and weight, has a finer and
smoother texture than cotton, and unprimed linen is light brown in color. I prefer the
surface of linen for painting, however, it is more expensive. If you plan to do more than a
few paintings, it is usually better to buy a larger piece of canvas, since less will be wasted
with a larger piece when cutting for various canvas sizes. You can find fabric canvas, and
panels and prestretched canvases in art stores, and some office supply stores and
department stores carry canvas panels and prestretched canvases.
Both cotton and linen come primed and unprimed. Unprimed means that the fabric has
not had the undercoat of priming material necessary before you can paint on it; however
some artists have chosen to paint on unprimed canvas, calling their work 'stained' canvas;
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perhaps because they prefer the natural color to the harsh white of gesso, the priming
material most commonly used. Primed canvas, then, means that the canvas can be bought
from a roll of fabric with the necessary gesso priming already on it. Or, you can do the
priming yourself, with either commercially prepared gesso, or with rabbit skin glue, a
more complicated process which involves mixing and heating the rabbit skin glue. I won't
cover the process for rabbit skin glue here; it is a process which needs to be done
correctly, otherwise at some point its surface will crack, before or after the painting has
been finished. Professional artists generally prefer to buy canvas unprimed, and prime it
themselves. I feel that primed canvas has a toosmooth finish, and lacks the natural feel of
unprimed.
Prestretched and preprimed canvases are a good compromise for hobbyist painters, since
they are more permanent than canvas panels, yet are stretched and primed and ready to
paint on. They are more expensive, however they come in various sizes 48" or under, and
also some sizes come in oval shapes. They can be found in art supply stores, or online
catalogs (www.utrechtart.com or www.dickblick.com). If you decide to go this route, you
can skip the rest of the materials listed here, and start painting!
2. Stretcher Bars (See Illustration 1) If you decide to be adventurous and stretch your
own canvas, in the long run you will save money. Once you buy the necessary materials,
you can save by doing it yourself. Four stretcher bars are used to stretch the canvas over.
They come ready to use in sizes from 8" to 40" in regular size; and up to 60" or so for the
heavyduty ones which are best to use for canvases over 40". (For canvases over 40", it is
best to brace the back or corners, if not using heavy duty stretchers.) A major brand for
stretcher bars is Fredrix, and these are sold in art stores and some office supply stores. If
you are handy with saws, you can make your own stretchers with wood from the lumber
yard, a piece of curved molding, and a mitre saw. Me, I'd rather spend my time painting,
so I buy premade stretchers. You also will need "keys" for the stretchers, small wooden
angled chips, which are used to make the stretched canvas more snug in the corners.
These are free, and are usually found near the stretcher bars, in a box. You need 8 of
them; just grab a small handful when you buy your stretcher bars. Note: When you buy
the stretchers, hold them against an even surface, like a metal cabinet, to make sure they
are not warped.
3. Small Hammer (See Illustration 1) This hammer is used to join the stretcher bars
together. You can find an artist's hammer in an art supply store or any small one in a
hardware store; you don't need the power of a humungous hammer.
4. Carpet tacks or Stapler and Staples When I went to art school many years ago, we
used small carpet tacks and a hammer to stretch our canvases. The carpet tacks are about
3/8 of an inch long. Most people now use a heavyduty stapler and staples made for it (see
52
Illustration 1). www.utrechtart.com has two staplers in their catalog a heavy duty one
(about $13), and an even bigger one, for $2025. If you will be stretching canvases 40" or
under, the smaller one is fine. Make sure you get plenty of staples that fit the stapler.
5. Canvas pliers (See Illustration 1) These are special pliers used to grip the canvas
while you attach it to the stretcher bars. You will find these at an art supply store, or in the
Utrecht online catalog.
6. Right angle (See Illustration 1) These are used to make sure that your canvas is
square, i.e., all four corners are true right angles. They are made of metal; if you get one
about 24" on the long side, that will be fine for canvases under 40". These are sold at
hardware stores.
7. Scissors or Matte Knife for cutting a piece of canvas. Regular large scissors work fine,
or a utility knife from the hardware store, with singleedged blades.
For putting a primer coat on your stretched canvas, see Priming a Canvas, below.
That's it! Now you're ready to stretch your canvas.
Stretching the Canvas
Note: If your stretcher bars are 40" or longer, you will need to either use heavy duty
stretchers (available at www.utrechtart.com), or put wood or other braces on the back of
the canvas to reinforce the stretchers. The easiest thing to do is to use heavyduty stretcher
bars.
Find a flat surface, preferably a hard floor or flat carpet, and free of dirt or dust. Using a
large piece of plastic will protect your floor or carpet from spilled gesso during priming.
First, take your four stretcher bars and join them together at the corners, with all 4
stretchers having the brand name and inch measurement on the same side. (The grooves
on each corner fit together.) You can do the initial joining by hand; once you get them
started, you can use your hammer to get them more fully joined. Just get them so that they
are almost as close as they will go; try to get them as square as possible, by hammer and
by "twisting" them a little to even them out. Now, lay the joined bars on the floor. Lay the
metal right angle so that it lies outside of the wood, its inside corner against one of the
stretched canvas' outside corners. If your stretcher bars are at right angles, they will line
up with the right angle for its entire length.
Next, lay enough of your canvas fabric out to cut your canvas size from it. (With canvas,
try to keep it from getting sharply folded creases, which will be hard to eliminate when it
is stretched. This is tricky just don't set anything on top of it, especially for long periods;
try to keep it loosely folded. It also should be kept dry and away from moisture, which
53
will cause mold.) Now, lay your stretchers on top of the canvas, in the place which makes
the most practical use of the fabric. (I'm always trying to save some for more paintings
$$$.) You should leave at least 21/2" of canvas outside of the outside edge of the
stretchers. Cut the canvas at 21/2 inches away from the bars in a straight line all the way
around.
Usually, they're not aligned. It takes a little finagling, either by tapping the hammer on
one or more stretcher bar corners, or by additional sideways twisting of the bars. When
you get one corner aligned with the right angle, turn the canvas (clockwise) to check the
next corner. If it is also aligned, try the third, then the fourth corner. If any corner is not
aligned, it will take additional cajoling and finetuning. Keep checking until you get all
four corners aligned in a row. (If you get two corners right, and the third is not, when you
fix the third, you need to start counting over again at Number One.) Note: You don't need
to join the stretchers all the way together just about 95% of the way.
Note: When the canvas is squared, I put a staple on each of the corners, on the middle of
the mitre line of the corner, on the top of the wood as it lies flat on the floor, because the
stretchers tend to wriggle around during the actual stretching of the canvas, and get
unsquared. Stretcher bars have their measurements incised on their flat sides, e.g., 22 for
22 inches, so I put this staple on the same side as the numbers (the back side), so it won't
be between the canvas and the stretcher, where it will stick out on the painting side of the
canvas. (Stretched canvas must be protected from any protrusions, especially sharp,
because even if they don't go through the canvas, they will weaken it. If a painted canvas
gets poked on either side, it will eventually crack the paint, and this is very difficult to fix.
I know, because it happened once to a painting of mine. Even though I tried to repaint
the area, it always ended up cracking again.) I leave the measurement numbers on the
back side, so that after the canvas is stretched, I will still be able to see the measurements.
(If you are using carpet tacks, follow the instructions below, only using your tacks.) Now,
put some staples into your stapler, if you haven't already. Lift the stretchers and the canvas
up (with the stretcher bars between you and the canvas), so that the stretchers are centered
in the middle of the canvas, holding the canvas toward you over the stretchers. In the
middle of the top of the top stretcher bar, pull the canvas toward you so that it comes over
the top stretcher bar and down fairly tightly. Put one staple in the middle of the top
stretcher bar (on the thin, top side), trying to keep the rest of the canvas from loosening
around the other sides too much, and keeping all the excess canvas even. Now, keeping
the canvas in position, turn the stretchers and canvas so that you can put a staple in the
middle of the opposite side of the stretched canvas. When doing this side, you can use the
canvas pliers in one hand, to pull the canvas down tautly, while you put your staple in the
middle of this stretcher bar (see Illustration 3). The canvas should be pulled very tightly
but not to the most extreme degree this can be tricky, and comes with experience. If
54
the canvas is not pulled tightly enough, the canvas will not be taut enough; if too tight,
your canvas stretchers will not stay flat one or more corners of the stretched canvas will
pull foward in a warped position. (See Illustration 4.) Putting the keys in, and priming
the canvas will also tighten it a little more.
When you have put your second staple in, turn the canvas to the third side, making sure
the canvas is still even and pulled toward you. Put a staple in the middle of this third side
while holding the edge of the canvas down tightly with the pliers; then turn to the fourth
(opposite) side of the canvas, and staple again in the middle of the top of that side. Using
the pliers to pull down the canvas tautly, put a staple an inch away on both sides of the
first staple, on each side of the stretched canvas (going from one side to its opposite
side, i.e., side one, side three, side two, side four). Try to keep the canvas smoothly
attached, that is, no bunching of the canvas between staples, or on the front of the canvas.
If you get bunching, you need to remove the staples involved before moving on. Go from
the middle to the corners in this way, increasing one staple on each side (spaced 1" apart)
each time you start with side one again. If your stretchers' dimensions are longer on one
side, you can skip the shorter sides a couple of times, to keep them equal with respect to
the space away from the corners.
When you are within 2 inches of the corners, you can fold the canvas at the corners in the
following manner: Working on one corner at a time and using the canvas pliers, put a
staple on each bar 1" away from the corner: On the top of the right corner stretcher, the
widest part that also has no groove in it, is the side closest to the front of the canvas. This
is where you want to put your staple, about 1/4" away from the actual corner. Then turn
your canvas so that the other side of the same corner is up. You want to pull the canvas
with the pliers, then pull the excess canvas to the right down over the corner of the
stretcher in a diagonal direction on the top of the stretcher (see Illustration 5). Then put a
staple perpendicular to this diagonal line, on the side of the top closest to you, which will
also be free of grooves. Do the same thing on the other three corners. The front of the
canvas should now be smooth and taut, and free of noticeable creases or wrinkles.*
Now lay the canvas down on the plastic on the floor, front side down. First, remove the 4
staples that you placed on the corners of the stretchers to hold them square (a small
kitchen knife will do). Take your 8 wooden keys, 2 at a time for each corner. On the inside
corners, there are 2 small openings, one on each stretcher, one above the other. Put the
pointy end of a key into the lowest opening, with the longest, straight side of the key away
from the inside of the stretcher, as far as it will go; then tap the straight end until the key
is securely in the hole. Tap lightly, not hard; and don't push the key in too far, just far
enough to be snug. Take another key and put the pointy end in the higher opening on the
other bar, and tap it until snug. Do the same for the other three corners, with the same
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snugness for all, so that the canvas will remain square. This will tighten the canvas just a
little more on the stretchers.
*Your canvas should now be taut and smooth. If there are slight remnants of creases,
priming the canvas will remove these, but if the creases or bulges are pronounced, you
will need to remove some of the staples and restretch those parts of the canvas. You can
now put the canvas front side down on the floor, and staple the excess canvas to the flat
part of each stretcher, once in the middle and at the corners, folding the canvas under, just
to get the canvas "out of the way." You are now ready to prime your canvas.
Priming the Canvas
Materials Needed:
1. Gesso or other priming material Gesso is the generic name for the most common
priming material; it comes commercially prepared in various sizes of plastic jars. It is
usually a bright white, fairly thick liquid, and can be found in art stores, and some office
supply stores. I've heard that Liquitex and Winsor & Newton make a clear gesso. Another
traditional primer is rabbit skin glue, which needs to be mixed and heated, and must be
correctly prepared or it will eventually crack the surface of the painting. I currently use an
acrylic gloss varnish to prime my canvases mainly because it is transparent, and I prefer
the natural color of the canvas over the chalky appearance of gesso; I always put three
coats on. But I do not wish to recommend this method, as it is not as timeproven as
gesso. One advantage of using gesso is that its whiteness will make your colors look
brighter.
2. Gesso brush A brush specifically made to prime canvases with gesso; has nylon
bristles about 2 inches long, and comes in widths of 1", 2" and 3". (See Illustration
7).Tara is a commonly used brand; a 2inch brush will cover canvases up to 40" very well.
3. Plastic cup, about 8 oz. size This is to hold your gesso. Plastic is easy to wash and
reuse. I keep mine upsidedown when not using it, so as not to gather dust, which will
mix with the primer.
4. Stirrer to mix the gesso with water Gesso normally is watered down slightly in
order to more easily brush it onto the canvas. I use a dull kitchen knife, which I promptly
clean, since gesso dries quickly.
OK you've come this far, congratulations! You're finally ready to prime your canvas.
First, stir your gesso well, with a butter knife or plastic stirrer (wipe off stirrer right
away). Pour some gesso into your plastic container. Only pour as much as you will use,
since pouring excess gesso back into the jar is not a good idea. Experience will tell you
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how much to pour, but roughly speaking, for a small canvas of 12" x 14", you might need
about onehalf to one inch in an average 8 oz. container. You will be putting on two coats
of gesso. The gesso should be a little thinner than what comes prepared in the gesso jar,
particularly the first coat. Carefully add just a small amount of water read the jar label to
find out how much water can be added safely. (The absolute maximum is usually about
25% but you don't need anywhere near that much water mixed in.) Stir it well with the
stirrer and keep paper towels handy to clean the stirrer and wipe up any spills. Gesso is
an acrylic product meaning plastic and water soluble. It dries VERY quickly and once
it dries, it is not soluble. So you will need to prime your canvas quickly, without pauses.
Now, wet the bristles of your gesso brush, by running it under tap water, then squeeze it
dry, so that it is just slightly moist. This is to keep the gesso from sticking to the bristles
too much. For the first coat, dip the brush into the gesso so that the bottom 1/2" or so of
the brush is covered with gesso. Wipe the brush against the sides lightly to remove any
large excess amount. The first coat will be brushed in the same direction, either across the
width of the canvas, or across the length. The second coat will be brushed in a direction
perpendicular to the first coat. Brush the gesso in strips from one end to the other, about
as wide as the brush, i.e., about 2 inches at a time. Gessoing is a combination of strokes
the housepainting stroke, and a circular stroke that kind of rubs the gesso into the fabric
of the canvas. You'll need to brush it in with a little force. The final strokes will go in the
direction of the strip either of the width or length of the canvas, to smooth the stroke
marks. You need to work quickly. When you finish covering the canvas in the above
manner, you can also gesso the sides of the canvas, where the staples are; after you do a
side, make sure that whatever gesso was then incidentally brushed onto the front of the
canvas is smoothed over. When completely finished the first coat, immediately wash your
gesso brush in soap and water. Keep the brush constantly wet, and lather the brush up, rub
it into the palm of your hand to clean it, and clean between the bristles too. When done,
squeeze dry and reshape the brush, and leave it on the edge of a table, with the bristles
not touching the table. Cover the gesso cup with a piece of plastic wrap. Let the canvas lie
on the floor to dry.
5. Soap to wash the gesso brush I use regular hand soap to wash the brush. Just don't
use anything too gooey or oily, like Dove. You must wash the gesso brush as soon as
possible after gessoing it dries very rapidly, and will ruin your brush if not washed soon
enough. Also, wash it thoroughly, including between the bristles and down near the
ferrule (the metal part of the brush).
You need to allow the first coat of gesso to dry completely. The amount of time varies,
depending on the time of year, and the humidity level. I always let the first coat dry for at
least an hour; preferably more. The standard procedure for many artists is to lightly sand
the dry first coat with fine sandpaper. Then wipe the canvas with a cloth to get rid of the
sandpaper residue. (I recommend reading The Artist's Handbook of Materials and
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Techniques, by Ralph Mayer. It is a big fat book, full of detailed information about the
proper way to do things. Each artist ends up doing things his/her way, usually.) Now gesso
the second coat, this time brushing in a direction perpendicular to the first coat. The
second coat is easier to put on, because it won't have to go as much into the crevices of
the fabric. Make sure both coats are heavy enough to cover the canvas completely. (Some
artists also sand the second coat when dry.) When finished, wash your gesso brush again,
dry and reshape it, and leave on the edge of a table, bristles not touching the table. Wash
out your plastic cup right away also; avoid pouring leftover gesso down a drain; if it
hardens, you will have a good clog. When dry, you can stand the painting vertically.
Allow the canvas to dry completely before painting on it. I usually let it sit overnight.
See Painting Lesson II Painting Materials
Illustration 1 Tools
Illustration 2 Joining Stretchers and Cutting Canvas
Illustration 3 Stapling Canvas to Stretchers
Illustration 4 Using Canvas Pliers
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Illustration 5 Folding Corners
Illustration 6 Putting in Keys and Stapling Extra Canvas Down
Illustration 7 Gessoing Materials
Painting Lesson II: Materials
Materials: (I highly recommend reading The Artist's Handbook of Materials and
Techniques, by Ralph Mayer, an extremely detailed guide to all kinds of artists' materials.
Also, I recommend reading material labels carefully for safety and health precautions.)
Note: Materials for painting in oil are listed here; for acrylic painting, general
substitutions are listed in each category. I have painted with acrylics several times, but not
enough to be an expert; I just offer general suggestions here. Acrylic paints are now more
commonly used than oil paints; however, I've used oils for over 40 years, and prefer their
longer drying time for the way I paint, and also their generally longer shelf life. There are
now alkyd paints widely available, which are oilbased and can be mixed and used with
oil paint; I haven't tried these, so I can't speak about their properties or quality.
Canvas or Other Support:
(See Stretch Canvas for detailed information about canvas panels, prestretched canvases,
and how to stretch your own canvas.)
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Thin canvas sheets come in pads, which are ready to use. You can use canvas panels,
which are cheap and ready to use, however, their permanence is limited. Prestretched
canvases are convenient, and already primed with the necessary undercoating for
painting, however they are more expensive in the long run than stretching your own
canvases. Linen or cotton fabric canvas is used to stretch your own canvases. All these
types of canvas are sold at art supply stores, some office supply stores, and at
www.utrechtart.com and other online merchants. Canvas fabric comes in linen and
cotton; linen has a smoother feel and is nicer to use, but is more expensive. Both cotton
and linen come unprimed and primed; primed means that the necessary undercoating of
gesso has already been applied, and the canvas can be stretched over your wooden
stretchers, and painted on right away. Unprimed means that you need to put two coats of
gesso on the canvas (after it has been stretched over the wooden stretchers). (See Stretch
Canvas for directions.) Canvas fabric comes in three weights the middle weight usually
works well for most users, and sells for about $45 a foot, about 60 inches wide; usually
getting 1 yard or more saves a little money if you plan to paint more than one painting.
Stretching your own canvases is good if you plan to paint more than a few canvases, or if
you plan to sell your work. It takes a little while to get the knack of it, but once you do, it
becomes routine, and even enjoyable in its own way, as you have a real connection with
the stretched canvas before you start to paint on it; plus, it has a more natural feel than the
prestretched kind; and the "trampolinelike" feel to it is nicer than the harder canvas
panels. When you stretch your own canvas, you will also need to put two coats of gesso
on it before painting on it see Stretch Canvas for instructions on how to prime your
stretched canvas.
Supports other than canvas that can be used include masonite, wood panels, and heavier
paper. These must also receive two coats of gesso priming before painting. Masonite (the
smooth side) must also be sanded lightly before priming with gesso.
For acrylic paints, you can also use any of the above canvas types, and the gesso priming
is done the same way as for oil paint.
Oil Paint:
Oil paints are oilbased. Tubes of oil paint come in two sizes: 37 ml, and 122 ml. The 37
ml size is good for general use for more serious painters; and the largest size is usually
used for white paint. White paint comes in several different types: zinc white, flake white,
and titanium white. Each of these whites has certain properties useful for specific
purposes in painting. Winsor & Newton used to make a good, allpurpose white called
Winsor White, however I believe that has been discontinued. Oil paint can be very
expensive; certain pigments, like Winsor & Newton Cobalt Violet, can sell for almost
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$100 for a 37 ml tube. Certain manufacturers' paints are more expensive than others:
Winsor & Newton, for one. Rembrandt and Van Gogh are usually a little cheaper; and
Grumbacher is cheaper still. Winsor & Newton has a student grade paint called Winton.
For a serious painter, it is usually worth it to pay extra for the quality you get but for the
beginner or student, the cheaper grade is fine. I'd say that the average Winsor & Newton
37 ml paint tube costs about $10 some colors less, some a lot more. Unless you are
independently wealthy, you will want to get just enough colors to get started. There are
paint sets, of course, sold in art stores and some office supply stores. These are okay for a
beginner or hobbyist; but if you want to paint seriously, it is good to buy items
individually, as your preferences develop. For a beginner's palette, I would suggest: One
medium or large tube of titanium white paint; small or medium tube of: ivory black,
cadmium red medium, cadmium yellow medium, cadmium green, either ultramarine or
cobalt blue, yellow ochre, burnt siena, and burnt umber. Another beginner's palette, the
"limited" palette, used by traditional painters, is:titanium white, venetian red, blueblack
(I believe Winsor & Newton is the only manufacturer to make blueblack Payne's gray
can also be substituted for blueblack), and yellow ochre. This last palette is good for
beginners to learn how to mix colors, the idea being that it is a little easier to learn when
you have fewer choices to make.
My favorite colors are mostly Winsor & Newton Winsor Red, Winsor Blue, Winsor
Orange, and Winsor Yellow, for example, are "true" red, "true" blue, "true" orange, and
"true" yellow. Lemon yellow is a color you might want to add to your palette at some
point, as well as green earth, cobalt or ultramarine blue, alizarin crimson (red), raw
umber (graybrown), naples yellow, viridian (green), vermilion (red), cobalt green, and
cobalt violet (some manufacturers make a cheaper cobalt violet). Once you have some
experience, you will try new colors and find your favorites. Different pigments (colors)
have different qualities; for instance, venetian red is an extremely strong pigment only a
tiny amount overpowers other colors; whereas, cerulean blue is a weaker pigment, easily
overpowered by others. Different manufacturers' colors can also vary widely green earth
by one manufacturer may be warmer or cooler than green earth by another manufacturer.
It takes experimentation to find manufacturers and pigments you like; and it is good to try
a lot of different colors maybe not in the beginning, but as you get more experience, you
will want to increase the breadth of your palette. If you are a painter, seeing all the colors
available is like being a kid in a candy store. It is fun to try new colors, and specialty ones
like metallic colors, etc., but in the beginning try to limit yourself, so that you can learn
how to mix most colors yourself. Pigments and colors also differ widely in their
permanence rating; art supply stores have charts where the rating for each color is listed.
Try to use mostly the colors with the best or second highest color permanence rating,
rather than the unstable, nonpermanent colors. For example, prussian blue has a lower
permanence rating than cobalt blue and ultramarine blue. Colors also have a
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transparency/opacity rating check this before buying so you get what you are looking
for.
Oil paints are generally slowdrying, a quality some people like, and others not. It can
take anywhere from 24 to 96 hours or even longer for paint to dry, depending on the color,
the thickness of the paint, the time of year, and the humidity level.
Alkyd and acrylic paints are also available; acrylics are waterbased. Alkyd is oilbased,
and can be mixed with oil paints. Acrylics cannot be mixed with oil paints. Acrylics also
are made by different manufacturers, at different grades. They tend not to last as long in
the tube as oil paints, so if you don't paint a lot, getting a smaller size might be a good
idea. Acrylics also come in jars in liquid form. They also dry a lot faster they can even
dry and harden on your brush while painting I know, because that happened to me.
There are retarder/extender materials you can buy with your acrylics to keep them wet
longer. If you like to paint quickly, acrylic paints may be your best bet. It used to be that
acrylic colors were not as rich or luminous as oil paints, but that has probably improved at
least somewhat by now.
Brushes:
Usually, the same brushes can be used for oil and acrylic painting. Brushes for watercolor
will be labeled as such. There are two basic kinds of oil/acrylic brushes: bristle and
"sable" brushes. Bristle brushes are harder and offwhite colored; "sable" are brown and
much softer. Real sable brushes are made from the hairs of minks. Sabeline or Sablette is
often mixed with synthetic hairs. A good sable brush can be very expensive I once saw
one about 1/16" round selling for $100 and that was many years ago. (There are many
which are not nearly that expensive, though; nowadays, I see fewer pure sable brushes,
and the natural/synthetic mixes are lower in price, often for $20 or less, and sometimes
you can get a fair quality brush for $10 or even less). If you like the qualities of a sable
brush, as I do, you are willing to pay extra for a natural one, or a natural/synthetic mix.
Brushes come in other types of hair, such as ox or camel (actually made from cattle and
squirrel, goat or pony, respectively). These types are not as good a quality brush, for
control reasons, but they are generally cheaper. Brushes are a very personal thing with
painters try different ones and see which you like best. I think bristle brushes are
generally better for blending the colors together. Since I tend to put separate touches and
layers of color, the softer sable suits my temperament better. There are also different types
of brushes: rounds, brights, flats and filberts. (See Illustrations 14), as well as those
designed for custom uses, such as fan brushes. These different shapes, like golf clubs,
have certain attributes better suited for one technique or another. Rounds are good for line
work, and detail; brights and flats are better for massing larger areas and sharper edges;
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and filberts, if you get a good quality one, are good for linear painting and large masses,
even in the same stroke. Brights and flats have square edges good for more structural
painting, like Cezanne. Hairs on brights are slightly shorter than flats. For a rounded,
softer feel, rounds and filberts do well. Sizes of brushes go from teenytiny to one or two
inches wide. They are numbered on the handle the smaller the number, the smaller the
size (generally from 1 to 1016 or so). Try not to cling to the smaller sizes try the larger
sizes to avoid getting too picayune with detail especially in the early stages of the
painting. Oil paint is called the most forgiving medium that means that if you do
something you don't like, you can go over and over it to your heart's content, and nobody
will know the difference, as opposed to ink or watercolor, where every stroke can be a
deathdefying act.
Mediums:
A medium is the vehicle painters use when painting, to mix with their tube colors, for
various purposes, such as thinning or thickening the paint, or to add varnish, which can
lengthen the life of the paint, or deepen and enrich the color in a painting. There are many
mediums available for the painter to use. I recommend reading The Artist's Handbook of
Materials and Techniques, by Ralph Mayer, for an exhaustive report on the different
mediums available and their uses, precautions and limitations for example, some oils
and varnishes can yellow or darken with age. Again, the medium used with oil paint is a
very personal thing for each painter. Some prefer a simple mix of refined linseed oil and
distilled turpentine; others add varnishes, such as copal or damar, to give the paint a shine
which also makes the colors richer. Retouch varnish can be used to give a finish in areas
that have dried matte, or to retouch an area of the painting. Some of these combination
mediums come already prepared. Trying different mediums is the only real way to know
which works best for you. Different oils also do different things; linseed oil, stand oil have
different properties and are good for certain purposes. Added oil tends to make paint
more viscous, like butter; added distilled turpentine makes it thinner, as water would do.
But don't use cheap, regular turpentine as a medium that is only good for cleaning
brushes use only distilled turpentine as a medium in painting. Most mediums come in
small glass jars; refined linseed oil comes in a larger size.
Acrylics are waterbased, which means that the medium used will be water. Other
materials are available, however, to alter the acrylic paint in one way or another, such as
retarders and extenders, which keep the paint wet for a longer time than normal; and other
additives which serve various purposes. Consult the manufacturers' labels on these
materials for information on their properties and uses.
Mediums are best used sparingly, however, according to art conservators concerning the
permanency and stability of the paint layer on the canvas. I use a little bit of refined
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linseed oil mixed with a smaller amount of distilled turpentine; the thinner I want the
paint, the more turpentine I use.
Most of these materials can be purchased at an art supply store, or online at
www.utrechtart.com, www.dickblick.com, or www.pearlpaint.com.
For students and beginners, cheaper brushes are fine. For more serious painters, it really
does pay to pay extra for a good brush. Winsor & Newton brushes are my favorite; Robert
Simmons and Kolinsky are also good. Grumbacher is a cheaper alternative. A good brush
will hold its shape better, last longer, generally do what you want it to do in terms of the
brush stroke, and not lose individual hairs while you're painting. Occasionally, you can
find a cheap brush that works well. Again, you need to experiment to find out what works
for you, for what you want to do.
Cleaning Brushes: After using acrylics, wipe off excess paint with a rag, and wash
brushes right away in lukewarm tap water and a small amount of mild soap. After using
oilbased or alkyd paints, wipe off excess paint with a rag, and use mineral spirits or
turpentine right away to remove much of the paint, then finish up with mild soap or brush
cleaner and lukewarm water. Don't let your brushes sit for long still coated with paint.
There are a number of commercial products to clean oil brushes: a green bar soap sold in
art supply stores, and other items. I have tried a couple of these other cleaners, and felt
that I could do a better job with mild hand soap (not rich, like Dove) and lukewarm tap
water. You can roll the brush in a little soap in the palm of your hand; make sure the
brush is clean of any remaining paint, including down by the ferrule (the metal part), but
try not to skewer the brush hairs around too forcibly when cleaning. When clean, I rub it
lightly once against a clean towel to dry it; it doesn't have to be totally dry, just damp.
Make sure that you reshape the brush into its natural shape while damp. (See also Caring
for Brushes, below.)
Caring for Brushes: Always keep brushes either flat, or standing with the bristle end up,
not resting on its hairs; I keep mine in jars or cans. Keep the brush hairs from touching
anything when they are still damp; if lying flat, leave the bristle end extending from the
edge of the table. There are various cloths and containers to keep your brushes in, if you
like, sold in art supply stores or online at www.utrechtart.com, along with most other art
materials.
All painting materials, and brushes (below) can be bought at an art supply store, or online
at www.utrechtart.com, www.pearlpaint.com, www.dickblick.com or
www.ShopTheArtStore.com. Some art supply sellers have their own line of brushes
and/or paints, often for less cost than name brands, which vary in quality..
Paint Palette:
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Palettes can be purchased ready to use, in wood, metal, plastic, glass, and paper; paper
palettes come in a pad. They come with and without a thumb hole; some artists use the
hole, some not. Sizes usually come in small (about 9"x12") and large (about 12"x15").
Pads of paper palettes are convenient, because each sheet is disposable. Palettes in wood,
plastic, glass and metal are usually cleaned after each use. These palettes of different
materials come in various colors; what color the palette is affects the way the colors are
perceived. Usually, either white or other light or medium neutral color is desired; painters
usually have a preference. I prefer a white paper palette; paper palettes also come in light
gray. Wood can be natural in color, or have a darker stain. When you are painting on a
gessoed canvas (white), you might prefer a white palette, since you will be able to judge
more accurately how the color will appear next to the white of the canvas, since color
relationships are a relative matter. (When painting, you need to keep this in mind when
mixing next to the white of the palette, a color will appear darker than if seen against a
gray palette.)
To clean palettes of wood, plastic, metal and glass, wipe with a paint rag, then wipe clean
with turpentine; or you can scrape clean with a blade (palette knife or other blade). I
always try to only put out as much paint as I'm going to use I hate to waste; although
there are products made especially for keeping excess paint moist for later use, in art
stores, catalogs, or online. Plastic wrap can also be used to keep paint fresh for a few
days.
Palette and Painting Knives:
Palette and painting knives are an optional tool in painting, however they are very handy
implements. They can be used for mixing paint colors, and also for painting. It's a little
like frosting a cake to paint with a knife, and is a good technique for a beginner to try.
(However, art conservators tell us that when paint is applied thickly, it will tend toward
later damage or impermanence, such as cracking. But it's fun!)
Knives come in a wide variety of shapes and sizes (see Illustration 5, above); certain
shapes tend to lend themselves better to painting, or to mixing. I use a palette knife for
mixing, and I've found that I need to buy one with a strong joint connecting the blade to
the handle; I've had a couple of them snap off at this joint when mixing paint. Some are
long and flat, like butter knives, and some are shaped like garden trowels, with the blade
slightly lower than the handle. I've found this last one best for mixing paint. These can
also be used to scrape paint, either off of the canvas, or off of the paint palette.
Container(s) for Mediums:
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You will need a container to hold your medium. There are commercial ones sold, either
one or two small metal cups which can be clipped onto your palette. You can put two
different mediums in each cup, or have your mediums mixed together in one cup. I used
to use these, but I have used baby food jars for many years now, and prefer them. They are
bigger, made of glass so I can see how clean the medium is, or if it needs to be refreshed
or thrown out, and they have lids, so there is less air contamination or evaporation (or
smell). I clean them out and reuse them until they are too dirty to use anymore.
An odorless alternative to turpentine is now available, called turpenoid. I haven't used it
I actually like the smell of turpentine it has so many good memories for me.
Easel:
Easels can also be very expensive. It is possible to paint without them, but again, they are
very nice to have. They come in a wide range of styles, sizes, materials, and prices. Wood
is the traditional material, and the one I prefer, but aluminum easels are portable,
lightweight, and generally a lot cheaper. I like the heaviness, and therefore the stability, of
a wooden easel. Easels can range from table size (sits on a table) to about 7 feet tall (or
higher). The size you need depends on the size canvases you paint. The wooden ones
come in a basic style, where you can adjust the vertical tilt, the height of the bottom of the
painting, and clamp tightly at the top of the painting. There is also a series of elaborate
easels, on wheels, and with heavyduty wood bars and turning hand screws to handle
largesized canvases. These can run into hundreds of dollars. An average wood easel can
sell for about $200300, but you can find a more basic, cheaper one for $100200, and
sometimes they go on sale. For a beginner or hobbyist, an aluminum easel might work
better. These tend to be smaller and lighter, and many fold up for portability (painting
outside, for instance), and for putting away when not painting. They also can be quite a bit
cheaper.
Charcoal or Other Drawing Tool:
Charcoal or other drawing tool is optional. Some painters, especially beginners, like to
draw the image before they start to paint. Vine charcoal sticks are good for this purpose,
as anything with a sharp point, like a pencil, can leave a dent in the canvas, or even
damage it (permanently). In this latter case, the paint will eventually crack, and is almost
impossible to fix, because it will keep cracking forever. Sketching lightly in charcoal can
give the beginner a little more confidence. Try to avoid using any more charcoal than
necessary it can mix with the paint, and make it look "dirty." Just keep a faint outline to
follow. When you have more experience painting, you may be comfortable sketching in
your image with a brush and paint, in lines or in light washes or you may not need or
want to sketch anything first you may just dive in!
Varnish:
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The final material used in oil painting is varnish. There are varnishes used with the oil
paint, to make paint thinner, more manageable, and more glossy, such as damar. There are
retouch varnishes to make matte areas of the painting more glossy, and to repaint areas of
dry paint. Then there are final, or picture, varnishes, which add a protective coating to the
final painting, to help it last for many years. Varnishes are available as glossy and matte.
The final varnish for a painting should only be done when the painting is completely dry.
This means a minimum of 6 months after the painting is finished. If the oil paint has been
applied in a thin layer, 6 months is usually sufficient, however, in humid weather paint
takes longer to dry. If the paint has been applied in a thicker layer, it will take longer than
6 months to dry.
When applying the final varnish, do so on a lowhumidity day, or in a lowhumidity
indoor environment, to avoid a whitish "bloom" caused by humidity. If applying picture
varnish with a brush, use a 2inch or wider brush, to avoid streaking. Work quickly, and
try to cover the painting in one or two strokes, rather than fussing with it. Picture varnish
comes in a spray can now, also. This can be applied in thin coats, applying each coat only
after the first has dried.
Varnishing a painting is tricky. If you are unsure about what kind of varnish to use, or
how to apply it, have a professional do it. This can be a good picture framer, a better
quality art gallery, or an art conservationist. I recommend reading the varnish section of
Ralph Mayer's book, The Artist's Handbook of Materials and Techniques, which gives a
comprehensive description of varnishes and how to use them. As far as varnishing acrylic
paintings, I am not familiar with this, and I would recommend consulting Mayer's book,
or asking a qualified art supply store person, or a manufacturer of acrylic paints what the
best varnishing method is for their paint.
TOP
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Illustration 1: Sable/Sablette Brushes From the Utrecht catalog, from left to right:
Two sable brights; two sable rounds; one sablette (part sable, part synthetic) filbert.
Illustration 3: Synthetic Brushes From the Utrecht catalog, from left to right: Three
synthetic brights (size #2, #8 and #16 ); three synthetic filberts (size #2, #8 and #16).
Illustration 2: Bristle Brushes From the Utrecht catalog, from left to right: Two bristle
brights (size #4 and #10); two bristle filberts (size #2 and #8); two bristle rounds (size #2
and #8); two bristle flats (size #2 and #8)..
Illustration 4: Nylon (Synthetic) Brushes From the Utrecht catalog, from left to right:
One nylon bright (size #4); two nylon flats (size #2 and #12).
Brushes: Generally, rounds are good for line and detail; flats and brights are good for
larger masses and sharp edges; filberts are good for larger masses and line. The only real
difference between flats and brights is that flats have longer bristles.
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Illustration 5: Palette and Painting Knives From the Utrecht catalog, various sizes
and styles of palette and painting knives.
Nancy Doyle
Fine Art
Painting Lesson III: Limited Palette Still Life
Nancy Doyle
Fine Art
Note: See Painting Materials for detailed description of materials required for oil or
acrylic painting. See Stretch Canvas for instructions on choosing canvas type, or
stretching your own canvas.
Basic Materials Required: (Note: For differences between oil and acrylic, see FAQ)
Canvas (panel, prestretched/preprimed canvas, or stretched and primed canvas), or
other
support (size ranging from around 8" x 10" to 16" x 20")
Oil, or acrylic paints (10 or 37 ml tubes):
Colors needed for this lesson:
Titanium White
Blueblack (brand name Winsor & Newton; Payne's Gray can be substituted)
Yellow Ochre
Venetian Red (or Red Earth)
The following colors can be substituted (so that there is a red, yellow, white, and blue
or black):
Cobalt* or Ultramarine Blue* (for Blueblack)
Winsor or Cadmium Red (for Venetian Red)
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Winsor or Cadmium Yellow (for Yellow Ochre)
* If Cobalt or Ultramarine Blue are substituted for Blueblack or Payne's Gray, also get
Ivory Black)
Oil or acrylic bristle or sable/synthetic paint brushes (I suggest a #4 or #6 round, #8 flat
or #8 bright,
and #6 or #8 filbert (optional))
Mediums for oil paint: Small bottles of Refined Linseed Oil and Rectified Turpentine
(not the kind of
turpentine used to clean brushes, in a big metal container) (For acrylic paints, water is
the medium;
plus any additives, such as extender (to extend drying time))
Palette (either wooden, glass, metal, plastic, or a pad of disposable palette paper I
recommend the
paper palette no cleanup!)
Palette knife (small, for mixing paint), and painting knife (to paint with, if desired)
Container to hold painting medium: Metal cup(s) commercially sold, or small jar (I use
baby food jars)
Lintfree rag for cleanup
Standing or Table Easel (optional) (If you don't have an easel, you can lean your
painting against the
table on which you have your still life.)
Still life materials: Fruit, vegetables, bottles, bowls, plants, decorative gourds, figurines,
flowers, etc.
(Some fruits and fresh flowers only last a brief time; I would try to use fruits such as
apples, lemons
or pears, and potted flowering plants, such as mums, for this lesson, since they last a
little longer.)
Lesson:
Centuries ago, painters would sometimes use a "limited" palette blueblack, venetian
red, yellow ochre, and white. This practice continued for traditional painters and students
until the 20th century. These colors contain versions of the three primary colors red,
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yellow and blue from which most basic colors can be mixed, plus black and white. The
practice of limiting the color palette teaches how to mix basic colors, and also helps the
beginning painter achieve a unified image more easily than if he/she used a wider variety
of colors. With less choices to make, and simplified relationships, it is easier to see
relationships of color, and value, in a painting, providing a good learning experience for
the student.
I recommend setting up a small still life for a beginning painting exercise and doing
many of these for the beginning painter. Just a few objects is good simple, interesting
shapes to work with. For some examples: two pears in a small bowl; two or three pears on
a table; a pear and an apple with a small object, such as a figurine or pitcher; flowers in a
vase (ones that live for at least a few days are best); a simple plant with a small object;
two or three decorative gourds; a small bottle, with a differentshaped natural object, such
as a pine cone; a couple of onions and a small knife; a small potted plant with a smaller
object; a small eggplant and a lemon; two or three fruits or vegetables on a small plate,
etc. Look at still life paintings by Chardin, Cezanne, late Manet small flower paintings
(1875 and after), Giorgio Morandi, Henri Matisse, 17th century Dutch still lifes, Janet
Fish, Pierre Bonnard, Berthe Morisot and others for ideas. Arrange your objects so that
they are placed well on your picture surface (shape of canvas), utilizing the picture
surface well and related to the outside edges of the canvas. Before you start painting,
spend some time looking at your still life, studying the tonal values, the colors, and the
negative spaces between and around the objects, thinking about what colors and values
predominate, as well as collective and individual shapes. How can you visually connect
your objects and the space around them? Are there colors common to all? Or common
tones (lights and darks)? What overall shape do they form? Can you use what's around the
objects a colored or patterned surface?
Note: I strongly recommend that you: 1) have at least 2 months of drawing experience
prior to painting; see Drawing I: Contour; Drawing II: Mass; Drawing III: Gesture;
and Drawing IV: Mechanics of Drawing; 2) read Design I: Meaning, Design II:
History, and Design III: General Guidelines before painting, to learn a little about
design and color. See also Painting Materials to learn about varnishes.
Practical Tips:
You can sketch your still life first, on paper (with pencil or charcoal), or on the canvas,
with vine
charcoal, or with your round, flat/bright, or filbert brushes. Don't use pencil on a
stretched canvas
it will make a dent in the fabric. If you use charcoal on the canvas, use just a little and do
it lightly
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it can mix with the paint and make the paint 'muddy.'
Try to paint with a good light source; I prefer natural light, coming from behind or
beside you,
which shines on the objects, showing lights and darks to reveal their threedimensional
form. With
natural light, you can also best ascertain the colors of the objects.
Establish the large shapes and masses first, and their position on the canvas. Save detail
for last.
You can work tentatively, slowly, at first, and gradually arrive at the shape and
placement of your
composition, if that makes you feel more comfortable there is no need to hurry.
When painting objects, try to discern their underlying geometric shape an apple is a
sphere, a
bottle is a cylinder, a bowl is a halfsphere. Usually, objects are seen from slightly above,
turning a
circular plate into an ellipse. Try to "forget" what the objects are just look at their
forms/shapes.
Work on the whole composition, rather than lingering in particular areas, from the
general to the
particular.
In order to help integrate the objects and the space around them, try using a simple
colored or
patterned fabric, placemat, etc. under them.
Before starting to paint, spend some quality time looking at your subject its overall
shape (circle,
triangle, etc.), color, and values (lights and darks).
Notice that usually, objects and surfaces are not all one color there are shadows and
highlights
on them which cause variations of their "local," or actual color.
Don't try to capture too much detail just try to suggest textures, details, etc.
You can start with the lighter and medium tones first, and work your way up to the
darks; this is
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easier in terms of being able to cover up areas later. After you have more painting
experience, you
can choose what order works best for you.
I recommend beginning by looking to see what tones are in your subjects lights, darks,
and
middle tones before concentrating on their colors. With the traditional limited palette
of colors,
you will probably not be able to "match" all of the colors in your subject; just try to
approximate
the value and color as best you can.
IMPORTANT: The best way to apply paint to a canvas is "fat over lean." This means
that the
thinner layers of paint should be applied first, gradually thickening the paint layers as
you go, so
that the top layer is the least thinned with medium.
Using more than one brush, with one for whites and yellows, one for reds and purples,
one for
blues and black, etc., will help keep your colors from getting "muddy," a common
problem for
beginning students. Also, try not to load your brush with too much paint.
If the color on your canvas becomes "muddy," and unworkable, you can either scrape
the paint
off with your palette knife, wipe it with a rag, or wait 2 or 3 days for the paint to dry, and
dive in
again.
Round brushes are good for line and detail work; flats or brights are good for larger
areas, and
sharp edges; filberts can do all of the above, but are generally useful for larger areas,
with softer
edges.
Palettes and paper palettes come in different colors mostly white or neutral gray for
paper
palettes. Colors are affected greatly by other colors around them so paint colors will
look
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different on white than on neutral gray palette paper. I prefer white, but some artists
want a neutral
gray. What this means is that if you are mixing a color on your palette, and your palette
is a
different color than your canvas, the color you are mixing will probably look different on
the
canvas than on the palette. If you are looking for a certain color, you will need to either
have the
palette be the same color as your blank canvas, or put some of your mixed color on your
palette
knife and hold the knife against the canvas to see how the color will look in your
painting.
If you can, have a chair about 7 feet away from your easel, or from your painting, so you
can
stop often, sit down, and look at what you have in front of you. You can study what is
happening there, and try to head problem areas off before they get too established. If you
feel
that something is not quite right, with the drawing, tonal range, or color, but you aren't
sure
where the problem is, one thing to do is cover different areas with your hand until you
can isolate
the problem area. If you cover one area, and without it the painting looks fine, you have
narrowed your search. Also, coming back the next day or later often helps you to realize
where
the "problem" is.
You do not have to cover every inch of canvas with paint.
You don't need to have sharp edges soft or fuzzy edges are also fine.
Try to paint more with your arm than with your hand.
Try to paint as much with your head and heart as with your hands.
You can either paint "wet on wet," or let the painting dry before painting again.
Whether on an easel or on your lap, try to keep the painting almost vertical in front of
you, rather
than at an angle away from you, so you can see the whole painting straight on while
working.
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If you are placing your canvas on a standing easel, place it so that your eye level is a
little higher
than the vertical halfway mark of the canvas.
If you have trouble opening your paint tubes, you can try one of those rubber gripper
canopening things or, you can first put the tube and lid under hot running water for a
few
minutes. Don't try to force the tube open without doing these two things the tube can
break if
twisted hard, and if that happens, your paint will dry up.
A painting session can last anywhere from 2 to 6 or 7 hours; generally 3 or 4 is a good
amount of
time. If you use longlasting still life materials, and have the space to leave the objects
there until
the painting is finished, you can take your time to finish. Paintings often are enriched by
multiple
sessions, and different perspectives; and certainly not rushing the work and studying the
forms
over time can only help. Sometimes, though, you may finish in one session if those
alpha waves
are really revved up!
Color:
The three primary colors are red, blue and yellow; in theory, all other colors can be mixed
from these. Two of these together will make a secondary color: red and blue make purple;
blue and yellow make green; and yellow and red make orange. On the color wheel,
complementary colors are opposite one another: blue versus orange; yellow versus
purple; and red versus green. This means that red and green, yellow and purple, and blue
and orange, when next to one another, will make each other look brighter, more intense.
When mixed together, however, complementary colors form a neutral color (neither warm
nor cool), like tan, gray, etc. Adding a small amount of a complementary will make a
color less intense. Adding earth colors like yellow ochre, burnt siena, burnt umber, raw
umber, etc. make your colors more natural, as opposed to manmade, "bright," colors. The
fewer colors mixed together, the brighter the resulting color will be; the more colors that
are added, the duller the mix will be. A tint is a color mixed with white; a shade is a color
mixed with black; forming lighter and darker colors, respectively. Mixing white or black
also "grays" out a color, making it less intense. Colors of nearby families are more
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harmonious, e.g., red, violet, orange, or blue, green and yellowgreen. Colors can be
warm, cool or neutral; cool colors tend to have more blue; warm colors tend to have more
yellow in them; for instance, a yellowgreen will be warm; a purplishblue will be cool.
Neutral colors are neither warm nor cool. Shadows are thought to contain more cool
colors; highlights contain more warm colors. (Warm colors are said to come forward, cool
colors to recede in space.) However, color is a complex and unpredictable element; the
best way is to go case by case, because colors change dramatically depending on what
colors are placed next to them, appearing warm next to one color, cool next to another,
etc. In fact, the whole area of color relationships is exceedingly complex every hue,
every value, etc. affecting every other, mathematically a very large number, even in a
simple painting. Experience will train the eye to be sensitive to color, and color
relationships.
Setting Up:
On your palette, you can squeeze out what you think you'll use for this session (I am very
stingy paint costs money! You can always squeeze out more later.) After looking at your
subject, decide which colors you will need. Blueblack will take care of your need for
blue (mixed with white); and your darks (it is almost black in the tube); yellow ochre
mixed with white will give you your yellows; mixed with red gives orange; mixed with
blueblack gives olive green; venetian red mixed with blueblack will give purple; white
will lighten everything. If you are using the alternative palette listed above, your Winsor
Red, Winsor Yellow, Cobalt or Ultramarine Blue, etc. will be much brighter than the
traditional palette of blueblack, venetian red, yellow ochre, etc. There, blue and yellow
will make a bright green; cadmium yellow and cadmium red together will make a bright
orange; ivory black and yellow will make an acidy green; cadmium red and ultramarine
blue will make a brighter purple, etc.
Oil painting: To mix your painting medium, pour a little (halfinch) of refined linseed oil
into your metal container or bottle; add a little distilled turpentine. If you want a thinner
medium, for beginning a painting, try a mix of 6575% linseed oil and 2535% rectified
turpentine. For a little thicker medium, try 85% oil with 15% rectified turpentine. Roll the
mixture around to mix the two liquids together. Put the brush into the medium to wet it,
and wipe off excess against the lip of the jar. After mixing the color you want with the
palette knife, dip the brush into your color (not too much), and you can either sketch in
your subject, or start painting, reloading the brush when dry; I redip the brush into the
medium mixture if needed. (Generally, not too much medium is used in oil painting.)
Some pigments are very strong venetian red, for one; just a tiny dab will overpower
everything; others are very weak, like cerulean blue. Some colors are also thicker and
drier than others (needing more medium), and also vary with manufacturer. For acrylic
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paints, water is used as the medium, with any desired additives, such as extender or
retarder, which will keep the acrylic paints from drying so quickly.
Approaching the Canvas:
Try not to think about style or technique; just try to study the objects in front of you and
render their threedimensional forms, their values (lights and darks), and colors. Try to
enjoy the experience: like the boxer before he goes into the ring, psyche yourself into an
alpha state play nonintrusive, inspiring music; try to be physically and mentally
relaxed, not afraid. This is one of the few places in life where, if you make a "mistake," no
one gets hurt. And in art, "mistakes" often teach valuable lessons, or even lead to
wonderful discoveries. The purpose is not perfection it is learning, and selfexpression.
Be free to experiment, take chances.
Painting is not the same as drawing it is not filling in the outlines of shapes with color.
Contours can be used in painting, but painting is more concerned with areas, or masses of
color than with line. The directions of your paint strokes become important in the overall
composition; they contribute to the visual, or directional movement caused by lines,
shapes, patterns, and repetitions of your forms throughout the composition. Try to be
aware of these movements, and orchestrate them to the advantage of the design. Try not to
let the movement through the composition get stuck anywhere; or leave the picture area
(go off the edge) without bringing the viewer's eye back in in a nearby area.
Basic Design Concepts:
The picture surface of the canvas is equally important in all areas; there is not an object
and an unimportant background. The subject/object of a painting can be called the figure;
the space around it is the ground. Figure and ground are equally important in a painting.
These can also be called positive (figure) and negative (ground); in other words, the space
around a figure/object is as important as the figure/object. It is one continuous area, to be
divided into compositional areas. The placement of the figure/object is important; to just
plop it down in the middle of the painting is a nono! Also, its relationship to the edges of
the painting is important does it touch the edges? Is it placed so there is a dynamic
relationship to the edges? Are the objects placed so that there is balance of left and right,
top and bottom, without being too symmetrical (and boring)? An asymmetrical balance is
the ideal: instead of identical bottles, one on the left and one on the right; there can be
one large bottle on the left, and two smaller on the right to balance the composition.
Generally, the "weight" of the image should be more on the bottom than the top larger
objects or areas near the bottom, smaller near the top however, this is not a hard and fast
rule, this is just a guideline, to be broken when necessary.
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Cleanup (oil painting): When finished, wipe the excess paint from the brushes with a
lintfree rag; dip brush into either distilled turpentine or regular, brushcleaning
turpentine, and wipe again. Brushes can be cleaned with various commercial products
available at an art supply store; I just use regular hand soap, with lukewarm water (not an
oily soap like Dove, however); rub the brush lightly into the bar of soap, and rub against
the palm of your hand, then rinse; do this several times until you are sure no paint remains
on the brush, including down by the ferrule (the metal part). Rinse the brush, and wipe
lightly against a towel to dry; while still moist, shape the brush into its original shape with
your fingers, and leave either standing, brush end up, or lying flat with the brush end
extending beyond the table edge, so that the brush end does not touch any surface.
Cleanup for acrylic paints is regular hand soap (but not anything oily like Dove) and
lukewarm water.
Finally, a quote from the Impressionist painter, Claude Monet; it was written about
landscape painting, but it can also be applied to any kind of painting:
"When you go out to paint, try to forget what objects you have in front of you, a tree, a
field. Merely think, here is a little square of blue, here an oblong of pink, here a streak of
yellow, and paint it just as it looks to you, the exact color and shape, until it gives your
own naive impression of the scene."
This advice may not extend to all the painting you will ever do but it is a good
beginning, a way to discard our visual preconceptions and roadblocks. It allows a student
to see forms abstractly, for their shape, value and color alone, regardless of their identity
in the world, and this is a very important first step to SEEING. Once you learn to see, you
can follow your own path, into something more substantial than mere appearances.
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Red Pears, oil on canvas In this painting, the paint has been applied rather thickly, and
brushstrokes are evident.
Zinnias, oil on canvas Flowers are good to paint, but many kinds only last a short time,
meaning that you need to finish a painting in one or two sessions.
Iris and Carnation, oil on canvas A simple painting of two flowers, with a shadow on
the left. The composition forms the letter 't,' slightly offcenter.
Red Teapot, oil on canvas Using a patterned tablecloth under the objects allows the
image to cover most of the picture surface, therefore interacting with the edges.
Christmas Tree, oil on canvas A painting of glass ornaments and ceramic house, painted
as touches of colored lights and reflections.
Mum Plant, oil on canvas Here I put the flowering mum in front of a mirror, which
brought a double image to the composition, and a sense of spatial depth.
Red Pansies, oil on canvas If red is used in the composition (here in the background, or
negative space), the color relationships are brought to a higher key.
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