ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES

Spoken by Aboriginal Austra. before the arrival of English colonizers.

ACROLECT =/= BASILECT
(MESOLECT)
When Decreolization takes place, a range of varieties develop. In such a
situation a continuum appears in the language and speakers show a
range of different pronunciation features, which are usually associated
with social stratification. The acrolect is the top and educated variety,
which is closer to the standard and further away from the creole (the
basilect is at the bottom; the mesolect is the intermediate variety or
varieties).
AFRICAN AMERICAN VERNACULAR ENGLISH = B.E.V.
Language spoken by lower-class black communities in the United States.
Some linguists consider it a significantly different linguistic system from
the Standard English since it does not conform to its pronunciation,
grammatical structure, idiomatic usage, vocabulary
ANALYTIC LANGUAGE =/= SYNTHETIC
Languages can be classified into typological categories based on how
words are formed. An analytic language is one in which words tend to be
one syllable long with no affixes, as in Chinese or Vietnamese.
SYNTHETIC LANGUAGE =/= ANALYTIC
Languages can be... In synthetic or inflectional languages words have a
number of suffixes, which vary their shape according to the word they are
added to. A single suffix can express a number of different grammatical
concepts, as in Latin.
AUXILIARY LANGUAGE
Language used for a special purpose and has, among others, a specific
functional goal. Pidgins are auxiliary languages but there are also
instances of artificial auxiliary languages such as Espe. or Air-Traffic C.E.
BIDIALECTAL
This term is closely related to bilingualism. In the same way that someone
speaking two languages would be considered bilingual, someone who can
use two dialects can be considered bidialectal.

BORROWING
Words or phrases, which have spread from one language and are used in
another. Borrowings can occur at a different linguistic level and can be
originated by a wide range of different causes including:
a. Contact between language codes in multilingual situations
b. The domination of some languages by others.
c. A sense of need because technology or culture advances more
rapidly in countries speaking certain languages.
d. A sense of prestige associated with other languages.
CO-ORDINATE BILINGUAL =/= COMPOUND BILINGUAL
This term applies to someone who has learnt two languages and both
languages have been learnt in different contexts, and they are kept
distinct. It probably entails the existence of two meaning systems with two
different words. This raises the question whether both languages develop
together or separately in the brain.
COMPOUND BILINGUAL
This term applies to someone who has learnt two languages in which one
language has been learnt after the other and, therefore, through the first
one. Both languages are closely connected, as they are composed of a
single meaning system with two words or labels for a single meaning.
LINGUISTIC COMPETENCE
It refers to lexical, phonological, syntactical knowledge and skills and
other dimensions of language as system. This component relates to the
range and quality of knowledge but also to cognitive organization and the
way this knowledge is stored.
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE
Term was introduced by Hymes in opposition to the chomskian conception
of linguistic competence. Hymes considered that the linguistic knowledge
of grammar, pronunciation and lexicon is not enough as speakers also
have other types of knowledge about how to use that language properly in
society. This additional knowledge allows speakers to be sensitive to some
determining factors such as the context, the type of interlocutor, and the
register, for example.
CORPUS PLANNING =/= STATUS PLANNING
Actions undertaken in order to partially

modify

the

nature

or

characteristics of a language in some way, for instance, decisions

regarding what pronunciation to adopt from those available; what
syntactic or morphological patterns to use; or, even what regional forms
adopt as the standard.
STATUS PLANNING
Actions undertaken in order to rise or lower the status of a language and
which basically refers to decisions regarding the selection of particular
varieties for particular purposes or communicative functions. Status
planning is closely related to corpus planning.
DIALECT
Geographical variation affects languages in the form of dialects. This
refers to how locality correlates with differences in the way people speak
the language (vocabulary, pronunciation, syntactic structures or
intonation patterns). Sometimes the distinction between dialects and
languages is not quite clear as sociopolitical factors may play an important
role in the decision. It must be added that not even dialectologists agree
on a single definition of dialect.
DIALECTOLOGY
The study and search for idiosyncratic features in language use within a
geographical area. Dialectologists usually analyze the vocabulary,
pronunciation, intonation patterns, and other characteristics, and try to
match these with specific geographic areas
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
This field of research refers to the analysis of linguistic units above the
sentence level, i.e., texts or conversations.
DISCOURSE MARKER
These are words, phrases or sounds that have no content meaning but,
however, play an important role in marking conversational structure,
indicating conversational intentions and assuring cooperation on the part
of listeners. Some discourse markers in English are: actually, really, Yeah.
DOMAIN
Combination of social factors that influence the choice of code by
speakers: dialect, location, register, etc. For example, the language of

home will definitely be different to the language used at a formal meeting

at work. The same speaker will use different styles, an informal one for the
former situation and a formal one for the latter.
DORMANT BILINGUAL
Bilingual who does not longer use their languages, but who acquired them
in the past and reached a comprehensive knowledge and command.
ENDANGERED LANGUAGE
Languages normally develop, merge or die, and whenever a language is at
risk because the number of speakers decreases we can say that that
language is endangered. This can be the result of many factors (bad
language planning, economics, lack of importance of a language for
business etc.) Many Amerindian languages are in this situation.
LEXIFIER
This term refers to the language from which most of the vocabulary has
been taken to form a pidgin or creole. English, French, Spanish and
Portuguese have been lexifier languages as a consequence of the former
colonial past of countries speaking native languages.
ENGLISH-LEXIFIER CREOLE (ADD )
This term refers to any creole, which is English-based and therefore has
received borrowings from English.
ETHNOGRAPHY OF SPEAKING
Branch of sociolinguistics that studies the norms and rules for using
language in social situations in different cultures. Some instances of this
would be how to make requests, grant permission or ask for a favor; how
to express your opinion or interrupt your interlocutor etc.
ETHNOGRAPHY OF COMMUNICATION (ADD )
EOS + includes nonverbal aspects of communication, for instance,
distance between speaker and hearer, eye contact, etc.
ETHNOMETHODOLOGY
This branch of sociology deals with the content of what is being said
rather than the way it is being said.
HERITAGE LANGUAGE

This is a language spoken by an immigrant group or individual in another

country. For example, in Canada, a country largely composed of
immigrants, there are close to 200 languages spoken by these types of
groups. This term is to be distinguished from Indigenous Language, which
also refers to a minority language but in this case alludes to the natives of
that land.
HYPERCORRECTION
A manifestation of linguistic insecurity, for instance, in a social group. It
can manifest itself by the overuse of the socially desired forms in careful
speech or reading, especially in an attempt to speak or write in an
educated manner.
INFORMANTIn empirical research this term refers to any person who
provides information to be analyzed and is consequently a source of data
for the researcher.
INTERFERENCE
In language teaching and learning this term is used to refer to any
negative influence (lexical, syntactic, phonological, etc.) that one language
exerts over the other, either the L1 on the L2 or vice versa. Interference
usually hinders the learning process and causes a problem to the
language learner.
LANGUAGE ACADEMY
In some countries like Spain (The Royal Academy), France (The French
Academy), there are institutions which play a role in safeguarding
standards, so they try to regulate the evolution of the language by means
of protecting it.
LANGUAGE ATTRITION =/= LANGUAGE LOSS
Gradual language loss. This term can refer to the loss of a mother tongue
that has been acquired and due to lack of use it is gradually forgotten.
This happens quite frequently among the second and the third generation
of immigrants.
LANGUAGE LOSS
This term refers to a situation where language shift in a speech
community ends in the total shift to another language. For instance, a

group of immigrants that go to a new country and in one or two

generations blend into the new speech community as their language
becomes eventually extinct (Dutch immigrants in Australia).
LANGUAGE CONFLICT
In multilingual situations languages are frequently in some sort of conflict
caused by ideological, political or economical reasons. Some issues
typically generate problems in multilingual settings such as decisions
regarding the election of an official language or the choice of a given
language for formal education, among others.
LANGUAGE ELECTION/SELECTION
Some developing countries, at some point, need to make decisions with
regards to their sociopolitical evolution and their international recognition.
For instance, Mozambique adopted Portuguese, the former colonial
language, as its official language. These decisions are normally made for
practical purposes.
LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS (or functions of language)
Language is frequently described as having THREE MAIN FUNCTIONS:
The descriptive function is to carry factual information. The expressive
function is to provide information about the speaker s personal feelings,
preferences, etc. And the social function serves the purpose of
maintaining social relations between people.
LANGUAGE POLICY DIVISION
This department of the EU is located in Strasburg and has responsibility
for actions concerning the progress of language education policies within
the EU member states.
LANGUAGE REVITALIZATION (or Language revival)
Language planning efforts made to revive a language that because of
social or economic reasons has decreased in number of speakers or which
was even lost. The reasons underlying LR are often caused by a group s
search for cultural or ethnic identity of a group. The best example of a
successful Language Revitalization is Hebrew.
LANGUAGE SPREAD

It consists of an increase in the use of a language for a given

communicative function by a specific social or ethnic group. Language
spread can either refer to a traditional language within a speech
community or a language that is adopted as lingua franca.
LINGUA FRANCA or LWC
Language used by speakers who have different mother tongues and,
therefore, need a common language to communicate among them. Lingua
francas have existed since ancient times (Arabic, Mandarin) but the most
remarkable example nowadays is English, which serves as a lingua franca
for international and intercultural communication
MACRO-SOCIOLINGUSTICS =/= MICRO-SOCIOLINGUISTICS
The study of sociolinguistic aspects in large groups of speakers as opposed
to micro-s that studies areas related to small groups. Macro-s deals with
issues such as language planning, language shift and multilingual
matters. Micro deals, for example, with the analysis of face-to-face
interaction and discourse analysis.
MINORITY LANGUAGE
These are languages that live in the shadow of a culturally dominant
language as a result of political or social factors. This situation puts the
minority language at risk. These languages can be excluded from certain
spheres due to the actions in administration, education or mass media
(e.g., Scottish Gaelic or Welsh).
NATIVE SPEAKER
A person who has spoken a language since early childhood. This term is
rather controversial in linguistics because it assumes the existence of a
speaker that can be appealed in questions or correct usage because
she/he is reported to represent the authority that can determine correct
or deviant usage.
NEW ENGLISHES
Any of the varieties of English that have emerged as a consequence of the
spread of this language during the colonial period (2 nd diaspora).
Examples of New Englishes are the English spoken in India, Kenya,
Singapore or Jamaica, among others (Outer Circle).

OBSERVER S PARADOX
Term developed by Labov to refer to a phenomenon that takes place when
doing sociol. research. When the sociolinguist needs to gather data from a
speaker or a group of speakers there can be a problem. As soon as the
informants realize that they are being observed they can change their
speech and make use of less natural talk
PRAGMATIC COMPETENCE
This term is concerned with the functional use of linguistic resources
used on aural communication or scripts of interactional exchanges. It also
concerns the mastery of discourse, cohesion and coherence, the
identification of text types and forms, irony, parody, etc.
PRAGMATICS
It is a branch of linguistics that studies the use of language in
communication, i.e., the relationship between utterances and the contexts
and situations in which they are used.
PROFICIENCY
This term describes the degree of skill that someone has attained in a
language, generally as a second language, and their ability over the four
basic skills: speaking, reading, writing and listening.
(PROTO)-INDO-EUROPEAN
Languages can be classified genetically. This classification involves
comparing the structure of different languages in order to show common
parentage. Indo-European is the best-known language family. English
belongs to the Anglo-Frisian group of the West German branch of the
Germanic subfamily. A reconstructed language is indicated by the term
proto-.
SABIR
This was a lingua franca used in the Mediterranean area from the Middle
Ages to the twentieth century. This language has been kept stable for
centuries in spite of not having native speakers and being just a contact
language. Some specialists suggest that all pidgins based on a European
language derive from this lingua franca.

SOCIOLINGUSTIC COMPETENCE
This term refers to the sociocultural conditions of language use (rules of
politeness, norms governing relations between generations, sexes, classes
and social groups, etc.) The sociolinguistic component strictly affects all
language communication between representatives of different cultures.
SOCIOLINGUISTIC INTERVIEW
It is a technique to collect speech samples to gather information about a
given speakers, or group of speakers, in a speech community. This method
of research is important for the sociolinguist as it provides face-to-face
interaction with the informant with a technique that allows recording for
later analysis.
SOCIOLINGUISTIC RELATIVITY
When people coming from different social and linguistic backgrounds
interact, they tend to analyse and judge each other s system.The more
interaction with different cultures, dialects, registers, etc, the more
capable they will be of perceiving their culture as just one of many. SR
entails the acknowledgement of sociolinguistic diversity.
SOCIOLOGY OF LANGUAGE
A branch of sociolinguistics that studies large scale processes of
interaction between language and its use in society.
SPEECH ACT
It is an utterance that represents a functional unit in interaction.
Utterances can have a locutionary meaning (the basic literal meaning of
the utterance) or an illocutionary meaning (the effect the utterance has on
the listener, or the text on the reader).
SYNCHRONIC VARIATION
This term refers to the instances and characteristics of variation that
occur at the present time in language. That is, they way variation affects
language at a given time in history. Diachronic variation, however, looks at
language from a historical point of view and considers linguistic change
through time.

TURN-TAKING
In conversation analysis this term describes the fundamental mechanisms
on which conversation is based.
VARIETY
This term is used to refer to a sort of language that is considered as a
separate entity for some reason, but which generally shares a great deal of
common features with a standard or other varieties. Therefore, it is not
considered a different language.