Introduction to Materials(C-steel)

As we all know, many materials are used in industrial engineering. In the past
rocks, copper, brass are the mainly components of work pieces. After discovered of
metal, the revolution of engineering is setting up and new technologies are presented to
worldwide. Two types of popular metal materials which widely used in nowadays
industrial are steels and cast irons. Because of the simply production, those metals
containing in ore which easily found in earth crust. This reason can answer completely
in the aspect of Economy. Moreover, the physical properties and the mechanical
properties contain various benefits. This essay will describe about a plain C steel, alloy
steel and a grey cast iron in term of the solidification of microstructure, the formation
and how it related with mechanical properties.
First of all, the steel generally contain carbon for promoting the properties,
therefore the steel is usually called plain C steel. The allotropic of the plain C steel has
various formations in different condition. First is the melting form above 1538 C. Then
steel become a solid as BCC structure at 1538 C which is called -iron (delta iron) or ferrite (delta ferrite). At 1394 C, the structure is changed from BCC to FCC which is
called austenite or -iron (gamma iron). The phase changed at 912 C from -iron
(gamma iron) to -iron (alpha iron) or -ferrite (alpha ferrite) which has BCC structure
same as delta iron but it has shorter distance between atoms causing from lower
temperature formation.

Figure 1 The delta region of the iron-iron carbide diagram [1]

There are 3 reactions which are used to explain the phase transformation in plain
C steel system. All of the reactions happen in isothermal condition. First is the Peritectic
which reacts at 1495 C shown in figure 1. The solid solution of Austenite or -iron is

obtained at 0.18% Carbon from the liquid phase containing 0.50% Carbon mixed with iron containing 0.10% Carbon. The reaction is
L(0.50%C) + (0.10%C) (0.18%C)

Figure 2 The Fe-Fe3C phase diagram [2]

Second reaction is Eutectic which liquid containing 4.3% Carbon. Then the liquid reacts
at 1148 C and forms solid solution of (2.11% Carbon) and intermetallic Fe3C (6.67%
Carbon). The reaction is
L(4.30%C) (2.11%C) + Fe3C(6.67%C)
The last reaction is called Eutectoid which reacts at 727 C. -iron containing 0.77%
Carbon turned into -iron (0.0218% Carbon) and intermetallic Fe3C (6.67% Carbon).
The reaction is
(0.77%C) (0.0218%C) + Fe3C(6.67%C).

In addition, microstructure of plain C steel is influenced by proportion of Carbon

in there. There are two types of steels divided by microstructure. First is called as Iron
which containing Carbon not over than 0.008% at room temperature such as Ferrite.
Other significant type is called Steel which is containing Carbon between 0.008%2.11% and they can classify into 3 types by microstructure.
First is Eutectoid steel, This steel
contain about 0.77% Carbon. From figure
2 at 800 C, the phase is . After slow
cooling process until the temperature
reach 727 C, the eutectoid reaction is
happened by turning to + Fe3C
(Pearlite) which placed as alternative
layers with ratio of 7 : 1 thickness . The
is thicker layer and has brighter colour
while Fe3C is thinner layer and has darker
colour shown in figure 3. The mechanical
properties of Pearlite are combined of
brittleness of Cementite (Fe3C) and
ductility of ferrite ().
Figure 3 Pearlite 2500X [1]
Forming
the
structure
between ferrite and Cementite is
built by carbon atoms. The process
starts with forming Cementite
around the boarder of Austenite
boundary. Then is forming of
Ferrite layer which require lower
proportion of Carbon (0.0218%).
Then carbon diffuses to next
Cementite layer and goes on this
process in triangle shape as shown
in figure 4.

Figure 4 Schematic picture of the

formation and growth of pearlite[1]

Second plain C steel microstructure is Hypo-eutectoid, this steel contain

proportion of Carbon between 0.008% to 0.77%. From figure 5A, the steel is cooling
down along the line at 0.2% Carbon with structure (Austenite) until it meets x1 point.
The structures of (Ferrite) formed and expand around grain boundary. During the
temperature decreased to x2 point, proportion of has increased while has decreased.

The proportion of Carbon in is increased due to Carbon required of forming is

0.0218% (It is smaller compared with ). While is expanding, Carbon atoms are
moving into and reach the maximum proportion at 0.77%. When the temperature fell
to HJ line (1133 F), the eutectoid reaction is found and the Pearlite is formed. While the
eutectoid is reacting, the formed Ferrite is not change and it is called Proeutectoid
ferrite shown in figure 5B as a brighter area.

(A)

(B)

Figure 5 (A) Schematic representation of the changes in microstructure during the slow
cooling of 0.20% Carbon steel. [1] (B) 0.40% Carbon stee,l slow-cooled, 100X. [1]
Third is the Hyper-eutectoid steel which containing proportion of Carbon between
0.77% to 2.11%. From figure 6A, the steel which is form is cooling down at 1.00%
Carbon until it reaches x3 point. Then Fe3C is participated and the quantity has
increased while the temperature is falling and has decreased. These Fe3C that form
above 1133 F are called Proeutectoid Cementite. Because of the Carbon required of
forming Fe3C (6.67%), the forming of hypo-eutectoid decreases proportion of Carbon in
and the result is the Pearite is rounded by Cementite as figure 6B. It is usually called
Network Carbide which affect to mechanical properties in the way of brittleness.

(A)

(B)

Figure 6 (A) Schematic representation of the changes in microstructure during the slow
cooling of 0.20% Carbon steel. [1] (B) 1.20% Carbon steel, slow-cooled, 300X. [1]
The relationship between the microstructure and the mechanical properties is
interesting because the different microstructures have different proportion of Carbon
and they give the different actions in mechanical activities. Increasing of Carbon is raise
the proportion of Pearlite and Cementite which harden and strengthen the steel as
shown in figure 7 while the ductility and the impact strength are reduced. Moreover,
Ferrite is related with softness of the steel.

Figure 7 Effect of Carbon on mechanical properties of steel [1]

One of the alloy steel which is useful in nowadays is stainless steel. The
stainless steels are used with great properties of corrosion resistance. They generally
classify into 3 categories of stainless steels which are ferritic, austenitic and
martensitic,. Many elements are used to improve the properties of steel, but there is one
element is the most affecting on the corrosion resistance. Additions of chromium, which
have a BCC structure, equal or greater than 13%, which always was called ferritic, can
improve the corrosion resistance of steel. The corrosion resistance property is due to a
stable of Choromium oxide or Nikel oxide (sometimes). In the past, the alloy only
contains the iron (Fe) and chromium (Cr). This Fe-Cr alloy cannot obtain efficient
stainless steel properly because FCC phase cannot be quenched to obtain Martensite
(( + ) efficient stainless steel) as shown in figure 8A. For improve the hardness of
stainless steels, Carbon is the choice to produce a ternary phase diagram. However the
ternary phase diagram is complicated, so a represent of Carbon proportion is 0.6% to
simplify the phase diagram as shown in figure 8B. This component has wider area of +
which can be quenched Martensite easily.

(A)

(B)

Figure 8 (A) The Fe-Cr phase diagram. [3] (B) Simplified phase diagram for
the Fe-Cr-0.6%C system. [3]
One useful type of stainless steels is austenitic which contain Maganese 18%
and Nickel 8%. Nickel was added to stabilise the steel because nickel lowers the
temperature of transformation between FCC and BBC of iron, which is reduced from
914C to 712C. Moreover, Manganese acts as the same role of Nickel to lower the
FCC-BCC diffusive rate down to room temperature. This action means BCC structure is
not found at room temperature. This stabilization of two elements help iron atom to

participate orderly. This reason can improve the production of Austenite, however the
very slow cooling down process, which is resulted from Nickel and Manganese added,
is very far from expectation. The solidification needs the temperature reach 0C, so it
has to cool the steel below 0C to produce austenite. Austenitic steels have large
advantages such as easily formed (by stretching and deep drawing), increase
toughness and ductility. In addition creep properties are improved because the diffusion
in FCC, which has more cavities, is slower than BCC. Moreover, microscopes and mass
spectrometers can use this austenite as component because of its nonmagnetic
properties. The stainless steels typically efficiently work in chromium proportion under
22% because too much of ferrite presents brittle properties.
Nowadays, stainless steels can be improved by adding other element in it
besides Manganese and Nickel. Molybdenum helps to stabilize the oxide film which
usually coat on the surface of stainless steels. The film use for protecting outer surface
of the steels. Furthermore, other helpful element is nitrogen. The nitrogen is absorbed
as an interstitial solid solution which helps to increase yield strength because it pins
dislocations. SAF 2507 is the one of examples which is proven by adding Molybdenum.
This alloy is highly resistant to stress corrosion cracking. However, proportion of nickel
is reduced in alloy because of expenditure problem, so the alloy is found the
microstructures in FCC mixed with BCC. This alloy has not the best performance in
work, but it is the best choice by decided to use from economic limitation.
Stainless steels are widely used in many industries. The following examples are
shown which part of product that stainless steels role. Water filter on an irrigation project
was made by stainless in whole pieces. Moreover, wire helix used for wrap around the
pipe is made from stainless steels as well. This filtration is happened near the sea which
is has extreme conditions such as stress from huge wave, cold temperature and rusting
by coupling.
The last microstructure of iron that is going to be described is cast iron. Cast
iron is the iron which has carbon as a component similar with plain C steel, but it
composes of more carbon proportion which is 2% to 6.67%. However, if cast iron has
too much of carbon, it will work with highly brittle properties. Industrial using therefore
control carbon proportion at less than 4%. Basically, cast iron has low toughness; hence
it cannot shape by pressing and retrieving at room temperature. The mainly process is
used for produce cast iron is annealing. The advantages of this technique are able to
produce a complicated shape of work pieces. Cast iron can be classified into 6 types
divided by microstructures, physical properties and mechanical properties such as whit
cast iron, grey cast iron, ductile cast iron, compacted graphite cast iron, malleable cast
iron and alloy cast iron. All of this cast iron have different chemical component. The
shape of carbon, dispersive properties of carbon and additives properties have huge

effects on physical properties and mechanical properties. However, there is one type of
cast iron that role the significant play in industrial area. It is grey cast iron
The grey cast iron is called by this name because it has grey colour inside the
iron which is resulted from carbon form as a graphite .Other reason is free carbon which
has black colour affect to iron pigment. Graphite lives with iron body in the form of
mixture. This is the reason why grey cast iron lacks of abilities of toughness, however
the mixture can play the best performance in absorb the vibrations.

Figure 9 The iron-carbon phase diagram showing the relationship between the stable
iron-graphite equilibrium (solid lines) and the metastable iron-cementite reactions
(dashed-lines). [2]
To understand the solidification and formation of microstructure of a grey cast
iron, the phase diagram has to be studied. Figure 9 shows phase diagram which cool
down in equilibrium. The Eutectic reaction reacts at 4.26% Carbon and at 1146C and
the reaction is
L(4.26%C) (2.08%C) + Graphite
Normally, grey cast iron has proportion of silicon as 1.0% to 3.0%. Added silicon
help for forming more graphite in structure and it is graphite stabilizer. Moreover, silicon
change the proportion of the mixture of eutectoid by reduced the maximum dissolving of
carbon in Austenite. Other reaction is eutectoid reaction which react at 0.68% Carbon
and around 738C and the reaction is
(0.68%C) (0.0206%C) + Graphite

There are 3 different phases that are found in the structure which are Ferrite ()
BCC, Austenite () FCC and Graphite. The microstructure of graphite is called flake as
shown in figure 10. There are several factors controlling a shape and dispersion of
graphite in grey cast iron such as simple flake, rosette graphite, kishgraphite, feather
graphite and one direction graphite.

Figure 10 Microstructure of grey cast iron (200x) [4]

First is the sample flake graphite. This graphite has small flake structure and
disperses constancy. This form increases the tensile strength of grey cast iron. It is
usually found in the premium grey cast iron, so this form is required to be in grey cast
iron. Secondly, flakes of graphite are merging into the group and look like a flower, so
they are called rosette graphite. This form reduces the tensile strength of grey case iron
because of high proportion of carbon and thin of annealed work pieces. Third is
kishgraphite which has shape like thick stick. It is sometimes called hyper-eutectic grey
cast iron because it is usually found in cast iron which has at least 4.3% carbon. This
type has low tensile strength, but it can lathe and shave easily. Fourth is graphite which
has feather form. It is produced from different of temperature decrease rate in cooling
process. This makes grey cast iron fragile and has low tensile strength. The last form is
one direction graphite which found in low proportion of Carbon. The last two types
should not happen in the grey cast iron because it reduce tensile strength and can be
broken easily.
There are 3 types of grey cast iron which are ferritic, pearlitic and ferritic-pearlitic.
The first type is ferritic which has low cooling rate and low tensile strength because the
main structure is ferrite (low mechanical properties). The second type is pearlitic which
has medium cooling rate and higher tensile strength from pearlite. The last type is
ferritic-pearlitic form which has slow cooling rate and medium tensile strength.

Moreover, there are other elements added into grey cast iron to improve tensile strength
such as Phosphorous, Manganese Sulfide or Iron Sulfide.
For conclusion, plain C steel has many formations in phase diagram such as
ferrite (), austenite () and cementite (Fe3C). The higher austenite and cementite
increase the tensile strength while ferrite reduced it. The reactions found are eutectic
reaction and eutectoid reaction. Next are stainless steels which are the high
performance of corrosion resistance. It can increase the properties by adding more
elements such as Mo and N, so It is widely used in different way such as an irrigation.
The last is grey cast iron which has huge benefits to industry and has flake-liked of
graphite that disperse in grey cast iron. The benefits of grey cast iron are high compress
duration, shape easily and high duration of vibration and attrition.

References
1. Abner S. H., Introduction to Physical Metallurgy, 2nd Edition, 1974.
2. Askeland D. R., Fulay P. P., Wright Wendelin J., The Science and Engineering
of Materials, 6th SI Edition, 2011.
3. Ashby M. F., Jones D. R. H., Engineering Materials 2 an Introduction to
Microstructures and Processing, 4th Edition, 2013.
4. Colling D. A., Vasilos T., Industrial Materials Metals and Alloys Volume 1,
1995.
5. Bolton W., Engineering Materials 3, 1988.

This essay had written by Mr. SUPAKIT PICHAI ; ID1624683