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Article history:
Received 9 January 2013
Received in revised form
24 March 2013
Accepted 3 April 2013
Available online 19 April 2013
Despite the wine industrys reputation as being environmentally safe, prior research has shown the
cultivation of wine grapes and production of wine to be associated with a large number of environmental
concerns. The present study utilised an integrative literature review to investigate key areas of environmental concern currently faced by organisations in the global wine industry. Concerns discussed
include water use and quality, the generation and management of organic and inorganic waste streams,
energy use and the production of greenhouse gas emissions, chemical use, land use issues and the impact
on ecosystems. The review reveals current practice within wine organisations to be largely unexplored
and inadequate. Practice is characterised by a lack of the quantitative environmental data required if the
industry is to bring about lasting environmental improvement to operational processes, products, and
towards economically and environmentally improved performance.
2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Wine industry
Environmental management
Viticulture
Wine production
Sustainable wine
1. Introduction
Recent years have seen mounting interest in research into
environmental management in high prole dirty industries
(Handeld et al., 2005). Growing interest in carbon dioxide emissions reduction has recently broadened the number of industries
which are seen to pollute and require better environmental management (Kauffmann and Tbar Less, 2010; Ratnatunga and
Balachandran, 2009). Some industries portray a clean and green
image yet their environmental implications remain under
researched. Wine production, one of the worlds oldest industries
(Pretorius, 2000), is one industry for which environmental issues
have gone largely unexplored (Barber et al., 2009; Marshall et al.,
2005). While the industry is often promoted with idyllic images
that depict sweeping green vistas (Delmas and Grant, 2010), the
cultivation of wine grapes and production of wine are far from
environmentally benign activities (Gabzdylova et al., 2009).
Although subject to less political and media scrutiny when
compared with other industries such as chemicals and mining, there
remain many environmental issues with which wine producers
have to contend (Ene et al., 2013; Marshall et al., 2005). The industry
inuences the physical environment within which it operates and at
the same time its future viability is inextricably linked to environmental impacts and conditions (Schaltegger and Burritt, 2000).1
Given the economic and cultural signicance attributed to wine
production across many of the worlds regions, it is vital that
research be undertaken to understand and minimise the negative
environmental impacts associated with the industrys activities.
Such effort is crucial to ensuring the industry remains economically
and environmentally sustainable, both now and in the future. In
order to encourage further research and provide a foundation for
understanding environmental management in the global wine industry, the present article will utilise an integrative literature review
to investigate the key areas of environmental concern currently
facing wine producing organisations.
The remainder of this paper is arranged as follows. Section 2
discusses the lack of extant academic efforts in the area of winerelated environmental management research. Section 3 discusses
the methods used in this study. This is followed by Section 4 which
offers a detailed integrative literature review concerning the key
areas of environmental impact associated with wine production at
the vineyard and processing levels. This section also incorporates a
number of sub-sections in which areas of environmental concern
1
While the production of wine undoubtedly impacts the physical environment
paradoxically the environment in which the grapes are grown is also of utmost
importance in determining the quality of the wine produced. It can be argued,
therefore, wine producers have an inherent interest to engage with and promote
sound environmental management principles.
2
Examples of such initiatives include the Entwine Australia program, Sustainable
Winegrowing New Zealand, the Code of Sustainable Winegrowing Practices in the
USA, the Integrated Production of Wine Scheme in South Africa, and other more
generic programs such as ISO 14001 which are popular across the Old World wine
regions of Europe (Knowles and Hill, 2001; Marshall et al., 2010; Warner, 2007;
Winemakers Federation of Australia, 2012).
233
234
3
The latter is most problematic where sodium based cleaners are used in the
winery (see Mosse et al., 2011).
235
4
Readers interested in obtaining a further understanding of current options for
the reuse of organic winery waste are advised to consult Arvanitoyannis et al.
(2006) and Devesa-Rey et al. (2011) who each provide comprehensive reviews of
this topic.
236
governments from around the world on improving the environmental performance of business entities, it can be argued organisations that fail to seek out opportunities for waste minimisation
may have such practices forced upon them through the enactment
of stricter laws and industry-specic regulation (Devesa-Rey et al.,
2011; Saint-Ges and Blis-Bergouignan, 2009).
In summary, it can be argued there are numerous economic and
environmental incentives for wine industry participants to improve
current approaches to waste management. In addition to obvious
environmental benets, anecdotal evidence suggests waste
reduction may decrease overall production costs (Environmental
Protection Authority, 2004; Pullman et al., 2009). As markets for
winery waste become increasingly viable, it is in the interests of
industry participants to monitor waste streams to ensure the future
feasibility of by-product capture. Although not certain at present, it
is anticipated future events will see the creation of new markets for
winery waste that may increase the economic viability of wine
producing organisations. This suggests improved waste management within the wine industry has potential to be economically and
environmentally benecial.
5
The amount of CO2 reported as being associated with each bottle of wine
produced is expected to vary according to the amount of information included in
the calculation. For example, a life-cycle approach would increase the amount of
CO2 reported, whereas the inclusion of carbon sequestration to grapevines would
be expected to reduce it.
237
238
products over time which may also confound attempts to undertake benchmarking activities at the intraorganisational level.
Nonetheless, even where a full LCA is not practical there remain
many options for organisations within the wine industry to work
together to optimise supply chain management with a view to
shared economic and environmental benet. An example of such
activity can be seen in a South Australian Environmental Protection
Authority (EPA) study in which the Yalumba wine company
collaborated with the EPA and ten suppliers with varied operations
to undertake an eco-efciency driven project aimed at optimising
environmental activities within this network of organisations
(Environmental Protection Authority, 2004).6 At the end of the rst
year this collaborative effort resulted in tangible benets equivalent to $AU 86,500 with the majority of participants attaining some
form of economic improvement. In addition, numerous environmental benets arose including reduced energy use, increased efciency, reduction in waste disposal to landll, reduced water use
and a reduction in the amount of chemical sprays used by the grape
growers (Environmental Protection Authority, 2004).
The discussion presented above serves to demonstrate several
points. First, environmental concerns are not necessarily conned
to individual organisations and attempts to manage the environmental impacts associated with the wine industry will, in the long
term, require a broader perspective informed by LCA and supply
chain management techniques. Second, there are many opportunities for collaboration in the wine industry with potential to
produce tangible, shared economic and environmental improvements. Finally, industry associations and regulators may need to
provide the means to facilitate such collaboration if the industry is
to make meaningful inroads towards becoming environmentally
sustainable.
6. Discussion
The previous two sections introduced the myriad of environmental issues currently facing wine organisations around the
world. However, the aforementioned evidence also suggests that, to
date, the need to address areas of environmental concern has been
met with a mixed level of commitment and success at the organisational level. While it can be argued widely-held views that link
environmental conditions to wine quality provide a powerful
incentive for winery managers from all regions, and regardless of
their organisations size, to engage in proactive forms of environmental management, it would appear this logic does not always
prevail (Marshall et al., 2010). One possible explanation for this
discrepancy may be that, despite the positive attitude towards
sustainably produced wine on the part of many winemakers, the
relationship between environmentally sustainable practice and
ultimate wine quality remains tenuous. For example, as noted by
Pullman et al. (2010, p. 48) in discussing the benets of environmentally sustainable wine: thus far it has been difcult to
demonstrate the positive effects of sustainability in the product. As
a result markets for green wine remain underdeveloped and
additional research investigating the relationship between environmentally friendly activities and the quality of the end product
may be required (Marshall et al., 2005). In addition, as suggested by
Zucca et al. (2009, p. 193), it will also be important to develop
appropriate programs that help the consumer [to be able to]
identify and distinguish [sustainable wine] products.
6
Organisations involved included Yalumba, a wine producer; a capsule manufacturer; a label manufacturer; a cork supplier; a nursery products supplier; a
refrigeration services company; a wine bladder manufacturer; a distiller; two grape
growers; and a wine maker (Environmental Protection Authority, 2004).
239
240
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