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The spectrum analyzer, like an When digital technology first became To get better spectrum analyzer
oscilloscope, is a basic tool used for viable, it was used to digitize the measurements the input signal must
observing signals. Where the oscil- video signal, as shown in Figure 2. be undistorted, the spectrum ana-
loscope provides a window into the As digital technology has advanced lyzer settings must be wisely set for
time domain, the spectrum analyzer over the years, the spectrum analyzer application-specific measurements,
provides a window into the frequency has evolved to incorporate digital and the measurement procedure
domain, as depicted in Figure 1. signal processing (DSP), after the final optimized to take best advantage of
IF filter as shown by the dotted box, the specifications. More details on
Figure 2 depicts a simplified block to be able to measure signal formats these steps will be addressed in the
diagram of a swept-tuned super- that are becoming increasingly hints.
heterodyne spectrum analyzer. complex. DSP is performed to pro-
Superheterodyne means to mix or vide improved dynamic range, faster
to translate in a frequency above sweep speed and better accuracy.
audio frequencies. In the analyzer,
a signal at the input travels through
an attenuator to limit the amplitude
of the signal at the mixer, and then
through a low-pass input filter to
eliminate undesirable frequencies.
Past the input filter, the signal gets
mixed with a signal generated by the
local oscillator (LO) whose frequency Time domain Frequency domain
is controlled by a sweep generator. measurements measurements
2
Hint 1. Selecting the Best Resolution Bandwidth (RBW)
3
Hint 2. Improving Measurement Accuracy
Before making any measurement, input signal according to these cor- In the modern spectrum analyzer,
it is important to know that there rections. In Figure 8, the unwanted you can also directly store different
are several techniques that can be attenuation and gain of the signal corrections for your antenna, cable
used to improve both amplitude and delivery network have been elimi- and other equipment so calibration
frequency measurement accuracies. nated from the measurement, pro- will not be necessary every time a
viding for more accurate amplitude setting is changed.
Available self-calibration routines measurements.
will generate error coefficients (for One way to make more accurate
example, amplitude changes versus frequency measurements is to use
resolution bandwidth), that the ana- the frequency counter of a spectrum
lyzer later uses to correct measured analyzer that eliminates many of the
data, resulting in better amplitude sources of frequency uncertainty,
measurements and providing you such as span. The frequency counter
more freedom to change controls counts the zero crossings in the IF
during the course of a measurement. signal and offsets that count by the
known frequency offsets from local
Once the device under test (DUT) is oscillators in the rest of the conver-
connected to the calibrated analyzer sion chain.
the signal delivery network may
degrade or alter the signal of interest, Total measurement uncertainty
which must be canceled out of the involves adding up the different
measurement as shown in Figure 6. Figure 7. Original signal sources of uncertainty in the spectrum
One method of accomplishing this analyzer. If any controls can be left
is to use the analyzer’s built-in unchanged such as the RF attenuator
amplitude correction function in setting, resolution bandwidth, or
conjunction with a signal source reference level, all uncertainties
and a power meter. Figure 7 depicts associated with changing these
the frequency response of a signal controls drop out, and the total mea-
delivery network that attenuates the surement uncertainty is minimized.
DUT’s signal. To cancel out unwanted This exemplifies why it is important
effects, measure the attenuation or to know your analyzer. For example,
gain of the signal delivery network there is no added error when chang-
at the troublesome frequency points ing RBW in the high-performance
in the measurement range. Amplitude spectrum analyzers that digitize the
correction takes a list of frequency IF, whereas in others there is.
and amplitude pairs, linearly con-
nects the points to make a correc- Figure 8. Corrected signal
tion “waveform,” and then offsets the
Spectrum analyzer
DUT
• Cables
• Adapters
• Noise
4
Hint 3. Optimize Sensitivity When Measuring Low-level Signals
A spectrum analyzer’s ability to An amplifier at the mixer’s output To achieve maximum sensitivity,
measure low-level signals is limited then amplifies the attenuated signal a preamplifier with low noise and
by the noise generated inside the to keep the signal peak at the same high gain must be used. If the gain
spectrum analyzer. This sensitivity point on the analyzer’s display. In of the amplifier is high enough (the
to low-level signals is affected by addition to amplifying the input noise displayed on the analyzer
the analyzer settings. signal, the noise present in the increases by at least 10 dB when the
analyzer is amplified as well, raising preamplifier is connected), the noise
Figure 9, for example, depicts a the DANL of the spectrum analyzer. floor of the preamplifier and analyzer
50 MHz signal that appears to be combination is determined by the
shrouded by the analyzer’s noise The re-amplified signal then passes noise figure of the amplifier.
floor. To measure the low-level signal, through the RBW filter. By narrow-
the spectrum analyzer’s sensitivity ing the width of the RBW filter, less In many situations, it is necessary to
must be improved by minimizing the noise energy is allowed to reach the measure the spurious signals of the
input attenuator, narrowing down envelope detector of the analyzer, device under test to make sure that
the resolution bandwidth (RBW) fil- lowering the DANL of the analyzer. the signal carrier falls within a
ter, and using a preamplifier. These certain amplitude and frequency
techniques effectively lower the Figure 10 shows successive lowering “mask”. Modern spectrum analyzers
displayed average noise level (DANL), of the DANL. The top trace shows provide an electronic limit line capa-
revealing the low-level signal. the signal above the noise floor after bility that compares the trace data
minimizing resolution bandwidth to a set of amplitude and frequency
and using power averaging. The (or time) parameters. When the sig-
trace that follows beneath it shows nal of interest falls within the limit
what happens with minimum atten- line boundaries, a display indicating
uation. The third trace employs PASS MARGIN or PASS LIMIT (on
logarithmic power averaging, lowering Agilent analyzers) appears. If the
the noise floor an additional 2.5 dB, signal should fall out of the limit line
making it very useful for very boundaries, FAIL MARGIN or FAIL
sensitive measurements. LIMIT appears on the display as shown
on Figure 11 for a spurious signal.
5
Hint 4. Optimize Dynamic Range When Measuring Distortion
An issue that comes up with mea- harmonic distortion, third-order 1 dB increase in the level of the
suring signals is the ability to intermodulation distortion, and dis- fundamental at the mixer, the SHD
distinguish the larger signal’s funda- played average noise level (DANL) increases 2 dB. However, since
mental tone signals from the smaller specifications of the spectrum distortion is determined by the
distortion products. The maximum analyzer. From these specifications, difference between fundamental and
range that a spectrum analyzer can a graph of internally generated dis- distortion product, the change is
distinguish between signal and dis- tortion and noise versus mixer level only 1 dB. Similarly, the third-order
tortion, signal and noise, or signal can be made. distortion is drawn with a slope of 2.
and phase noise is specified as the For every 1 dB change in mixer level,
spectrum analyzer’s dynamic range. Figure 12 plots the –75 dBc second- 3rd order products change 3 dB, or 2
harmonic distortion point at –40 dBm dB in a relative sense. The maximum
When measuring signal and distor- mixer level, the –85 dBc third-order 2nd and 3rd order dynamic range
tion, the mixer level dictates the distortion point at a –30 dBm mixer can be achieved by setting the mixer
dynamic range of the spectrum level and a noise floor of –110 dBm at the level where the 2nd and 3rd
analyzer. The mixer level used to for a 10 kHz RBW. The second- order distortions are equal to the
optimize dynamic range can be harmonic distortion line is drawn noise floor, and these mixer levels
determined from the second- with a slope of 1 because for each are identified in the graph.
TOI SHI
0
–10
–20
er
ord
–30
r
de
3rd
or
d
2n
–40
–50
No
(dBc)
ise
(1
0k
–60 Hz
BW
)
–70
Maximum 2nd order
dynamic range
–80
Maximum 3rd order
dynamic range
–90 Optimum
mixer levels
–100
–60 –50 –40 –30 –20 –10 0 +10
Mixer level (dBm)
6
To increase dynamic range, a nar-
–30
r
de
rower resolution bandwidth must be
er
or
ord
d
used. The dynamic range increases
2n
3rd
when the RBW setting is decreased
–40
from 10 kHz to 1 kHz as showed in
Figure 13. Note that the increase is
5 dB for 2nd order and 6+ dB for –50 No
3rd order distortion. ise
(1
)
0k
Hz
(
Lastly, dynamic range for intermod- BW
–60 Noi )
se
ulation distortion can be affected (1
kH
by the phase noise of the spectrum zB
W
analyzer because the frequency –70 )
spacing between the various 2nd order
spectral components (test tones and dynamic range improvement
distortion products) is equal to the –80
spacing between the test tones. For 3rd order
example, test tones separated by dynamic range improvement
10 kHz, using a 1 kHz resolution –90
bandwidth sets the noise curve
as shown. If the phase noise at a
10 kHz offset is only –80 dBc, then –60 –50 –40 –30 –20 –10 0 +10
80 dB becomes the ultimate limit of Mixer level (dBm)
dynamic range for this measurement,
instead of a maximum 88 dB dynam- Figure 13. Reducing resolution bandwidth improves dynamic range
ic range as shown in Figure 14.
–60
(dBc)
–70
Phase noise
–80
Dynamic range (10 kHz offset)
reduction due
to phase noise
–90
–100
–110
–60 –50 –40 –30 –20 –10 0 +10
Mixer level (dBm)
Figure 14. Phase noise can limit third order intermodulation tests
7
Hint 5. Identifying Internal Distortion Products
8
Hint 6. Optimize Measurement Speed When Measuring Transients
Fast sweeps are important for A good balance between time and sweep times than the swept mode
capturing transient signals and sensitivity is to use fast fourier in narrow spans. The difference in
minimizing test time. To optimize transform (FFT) that is available in speed is more pronounced when the
the spectrum analyzer performance the modern high-performance spec- RBW filter is narrow when measur-
for faster sweeps, the parameters trum analyzers. By using FFT, the ing low-level signals. In the FFT
that determine sweep time must be analyzer is able to capture the entire mode, the sweep time for a 20 MHz
changed accordingly. span in one measurement cycle. span and 1 kHz RBW is 2.2 s com-
When using FFT analysis, sweep pared to 24.11 s for the swept mode
Sweep time for a swept-tuned super- time is dictated by the frequency as shown in Figure 18 below. For
heterodyne spectrum analyzer is span instead of the RBW setting. much wider spans and wide RBW’s,
approximated by the span divided Therefore, FFT mode proves shorter swept mode is faster.
by the square of the resolution band-
width (RBW). Because of this, RBW
settings largely dictate the sweep
time. Narrower RBW filters trans-
late to longer sweep times, which
translate to a tradeoff between sweep
speed and sensitivity. As shown
in Figure 17, a 10x change in RBW
approximates to a 10 dB improve-
ment in sensitivity.
Figure 18. Comparing the sweep time for FFT and swept mode
9
Hint 7. Selecting the Best Display Detection Mode
Modern spectrum analyzers digitize Negative peak detection mode dis- Average detection can provide the
the signal either at the IF or after plays the lowest power level in each average power, voltage or log-power
the video filter. The choice of which bucket. This mode is good for AM or (video) in each bucket. Power
digitized data to display depends FM demodulation and distinguishes averaging calculates the true average
on the display detector following between random and impulse noise. power, and is best for measuring the
the ADC. It is as if the data is sepa- Negative peak detection does not power of complex signals. Voltage
rated into buckets, and the choice of give the analyzer better sensitivity, averaging averages the linear voltage
which data to display in each bucket although the noise floor may appear data of the envelope signal measured
becomes affected by the display to drop. A comparative view of what during the bucket interval. It is often
detection mode. each detection mode displays in a used in EMI testing, and is also
bucket for a sinusoid signal is shown useful for observing rise and fall
in Figure 20. behavior of AM or pulse-modulated
signals such as radar and TDMA
Higher performance spectrum ana- transmitters. Log-power (video)
lyzers also have a detection mode averaging averages the logarithmic
called Normal detection, shown amplitude values (dB) of the envelope
Bucket in Figure 21. This sampling mode signal measured during the bucket
number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 dynamically classifies the data point interval. Log power averaging is best
as either noise or a signal, providing for observing sinusoidal signals,
Figure 19. Sampling buckets a better visual display of random especially those near noise because
noise than peak detection while noise is displayed 2.5 dB lower than
Positive peak, negative peak and avoiding the missed-signal problem its true level and improves SNR for
sample detectors are shown in of sample detection. spectral (sinusoidal) components.
Figure 20. Peak detection mode
detects the highest level in each
One bucket
bucket, and is a good choice for
analyzing sinusoids, but tends to Positive peak
over-respond to noise. It is the
fastest detection mode.
10
Hint 8. Measuring Burst Signals: Time Gated Spectrum Analysis
How do you analyze a signal that In a time gated measurement, the Other types of time-gating available
consists of a bursted (pulsed) RF analyzer senses when the burst in the modern high-performance
carrier that carries modulation when starts, then triggers a delay so the spectrum analyzer are gated-video,
pulsed on? If there is a problem, how resolution filter has time to react to gated-LO and gated-FFT. Gated-LO
do you separate the spectrum of the the sharp rise time of the pulse, and sweeps the local oscillator during
pulse from that of the modulation? finally stops the analysis before the part of the pulsed signal so sev-
Analyzing burst signals (pulses) burst ends. By doing this, only the eral trace points can be recorded
with a spectrum analyzer is very information carried by the pulse is for each occurrence of the signal.
challenging because in addition to analyzed, as is shown in Figure 24. Whereas gated-FFT takes an FFT of
displaying the information carried It is now clear that our pulse con- the digitized burst signal removing
by the pulse, the analyzer displays tained a modulation. the effect of the pulse spectrum. Both
the frequency content of the shape provide advantages of increased
of the pulse (pulse envelope) as well. speed.
The sharp rise and fall times of the
pulse envelope can create unwanted
Digital signal processor
frequency components that add to Preselector Resolution
Input or input bandwidth Log Envelope
the frequency content of the original attenuator filter Mixer filter IF gain amp detector Gate
signal. These unwanted frequency
components might be so bad that
they completely obscure the signal
of interest. Video
filter
Figure 22, for example, depicts the Local
oscillator
frequency content of a burst signal.
A/D
In this case, the EDGE waveform
Ramp
modulation is almost completely generator
hidden by the pulse spectrum.
Display
Figure 23. Spectrum analyzer block diagram with gated video time-gating
11
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