CHAPTER 2

PIPE AND IDENTIFICATION DIAGRAMS (P&ID)

1.1 DOCUMENTATION AND SYMBOLS

Documentation covers front-end engineering and detailed engineering drawings. Of the
overwhelming amount of documentation needed in a plant, the only documentation that will be
introduced is limited to documentation you may encounter and need to use, such as alarm and
trip Systems, PLC documentation, and pipe and identification diagrams (P and ID). Of these the
P and ID is the detailed documentation covering instruments, their location, process control
loops, and process flow details. Documentation standards and symbols have been set up and
standardized.
1.2 STANDARDIZATION
P and IDs or engineering flow diagrams were developed for the detailed design of the processing
plant. The diagrams show complete details of all the required piping, instruments and location,
signal lines, control loops, control systems, and equipment in the facility. The process flow
diagrams and plant control requirements are generated by a team from process engineering and
control engineering.

Fig 1.1 Standardized instrument

1

Fig 1.2 Symbols for instrument line

interconnection

Fig 1.3 Instrument Identification letters

2

Instrument symbols also contains letters and numbers. The letters are a shorthand way of giving
the type of instrument, its use in the system, and the numbers identify the control loop. Usually 2
or 3 letters are used. The first letter identifies the measured or initiating variable, the following is
a modifier, and the remaining letters identify the function. Examples of instrument identification
are shown in a,b,c and d:

The first letter T indicates that the instrument is in temperature loop number178. The
second letter Y denotes conversion, which from the line description gives the
conversion from a current of 4 to 20 mA to a pressure of 3 to 15 psi. The instrument
is a discrete instrument located in the field.

The designation of F indicates flow, R is for recorder, and C is a controller indicating

a recording flow controller in loop 97. This is an accessible computer function.

The letter P denotes pressure, R is recorder, and the third letter T is transmitter, giving
a recording pressure transmitter in loop 89 which is located in a secondary accessible
location and is a PLC function.

The first letter L stands for level, A indicates alarm, and H is high, which is an alarm for
high liquid levels located in loop 222 and is not accessible.

1.3 FUNCTIONAL SYMBOLS

A number of functional symbols or pictorial drawings are available for most P and ID elements.
A few examples are given here to acquaint the student with these elements. They have been
divided into actuators, primary elements, regulators, and math functions for clarity.

Fig 1.4 Actuator

Examples of basic and actuator symbols.

The first row of examples and the last three drawings shown in Fig. are the basic sections used in
some of the actuator diagrams. The other drawings show how these basic sections can be
combined to form families of actuators. For instance, the hand actuator and the pneumatic
Actuator are shown combined with the control valve symbol to give a representation of a hand
operated valve and a pneumatic operated valve in the second row. Note should also be taken of
the arrows to represent the state of the valve under the system fail conditions.

1.3.1 Primary elements

By far the largest numbers of elements used in P and ID are the primary elements; a sampling of
these elements is given in Fig. Lettering and numbers are included in the examples.

Fig 1.5 Few of the primary elements used in P and ID

Fig 1.6 Examples of

regulators and safety valve
symbols used in P and ID

Fig 1.7 Examples of math symbols used in P and ID

CHAPTER 3

INTRODUCTION TO FLOW MEASUREMENT

3.1 GENERAL
3.1.1 Definition
Flow is the study of fluids in motion. It is a measured quantity (either volume or mass) of the
fluid moving through a given location per unit time. Flow is thus defined in either volumetric
units or mass units.

3.2 NEED FOR FLOW MEASUREMENT

Product consistency: Flow is used as an input to process control systems so that the product
produced is the same. Accurate flow measurement ensures product consistency.
Efficiency: Precise flow measurement provides indications of process efficiency based on the
amount of inputs used and the amount of product produced.
Control of process variables: Flow rate is measured and controlled during applications. Several
process applications use flow rate control to manipulate variables such as pressure, level in a
vessel, chemical composition, weight etc.
Safety: Regulation of flow is often essential for safety reasons. Flow rates outside the desired
range can be an indication that something in the process is in an upset condition.

3.3 TYPES OF FLOW

Laminar flow - The fluid travels as parallel layers (known as streamlines) that do not mix as
they move in the direction of the flow.

 Turbulent flow - The fluid does not travel in parallel layers, but moves in a haphazard manner
with only the average motion of the fluid being parallel to the axis of the pipe.

Transitional flow - Both types of flow may be present at different points along the pipeline or
the flow may switch between the two.

Lamina
r

Turbulent

Transition
al

Fig 3.1 Types of Flow

This report presents some of the most common flow measurement devices being used in the
industry. The classes of flow meters that have been discussed here are:
Differential pressure flow meters including

Orifice plate
Venturi tube
Pitot tube
Mass flow meter
Coriolis mass flow meter

Also the in house calculations to design the orifice plate using the
ISO 5167 method of calculation have been presented.

CHAPTER 4

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOW METERS

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Differential pressure devices work on the principle of equation of continuity and Bernoullis
theorem, where a restriction in the fluid path causes an acceleration in the fluid velocity hence an
increase in kinetic energy. The gain in kinetic energy is at the expense of pressure energy and this
is manifested as a drop in fluid pressure across the narrowest part of the restriction. DP flow
meters calculate the volumetric flow rate. The drop in pressure and flow rate of the fluid have the
following relationship:
Q = k p
Where,
Q = Volumetric flow rate
k = Constant for the DP device
p = Pressure difference across the restriction

4.2 ORIFICE PLATE AND VENTURI TUBE

The following section describes the orifice plate and Venturi tube according to the ISO 5167
protocol. Also the in house calculations for calculating the diameters of the devices and the
diameter ratio and their verification using Flowel 4 have been provided.
4.2.1 Basic Terminologies
Pressure tapping: Small perpendicular hole or annular slot drilled into the wall of the
pressurized, fluid containing pipe, used for connection of pressure sensitive elements to measure
the static pressure.
Static pressure (p): Pressure which can be measured by connecting a pressure measuring device
to a pressure tapping.
Differential pressure (p): Difference between the measured static pressures at the pressure
tapping, one of which is on the upstream side and the other on the downstream side of the device.
Internal pipe diameter (D): The internal diameter of the pipe at the upstream side of the device
mounted on the pipe.
Diameter ratio (): Ratio of the diameter of the device to the internal diameter of the pipe, at the
upstream of the device.
Flow rate (q): Mass or volume of fluid passing through the device per unit time.
9

Mass flow rate (qm): Mass of fluid passing through the device per unit time.
Volume flow rate (qv): Volume of fluid passing through the device per unit time.

Mathematically volume and mass flow rates are related as:

qm = qv p ( is the density of the fluid)

Reynolds number (Re): Dimensionless parameter expressing the relationship between inertia and
viscous forces.
Pipe Reynolds number (ReD): Dimensionless parameter expressingthe ratio between inertia and
viscous forces in the upstream pipe.
Orifice or throat Reynolds number (Red): Dimensionless parameter expressing the ratio between
the inertia and viscous forces in the device.
Discharge coefficient(C): Coefficient which relates the actual flow rate to the theoretical flow
rate through the device.

Differential Pressure Flow Measurement:

i) Standard orifice plate:

10

An orifice plate is a thin disk placed in the path of fluid flow with a sharp-edged opening
(orifice) in it.The orifice plate acts as the primary element of a DP flow meter. Fluid velocity
increases and pressure decreases as a fluid passes through the orifice, which creates a pressure
drop. The value of the pressure drop is determined by measuring the pressure before the plate at
a high pressure tap and after the plate at a low pressure tap. The pressure drop is typically
measured with a DP or multivariable transmitter.

Design:

Standard orifice plate (Source: ISO 5167-2:2003)

Upstream face(1): The upstream face of the plate shall be flat when the plate is installed in the
pipe with zero differential pressure across it. The flatness may be measured by removing the
plate from the pipe provided during mounting, the plate is not distorted.
Downstream face(2): The downstream face is flat and parallel to the upstream face.
Thicknesses E and e:
11

The orifice thickness e is between 0.005D and 0.02D.

The plate thickness E is between e and 0.05D.
Angle of bevel (): When the plate thickness E exceeds the orifice thickness e, the plate is
beveled on the downstream side at an angle . = 45+/- 15
Edges G, H and I:
The upstream edge G should not have wire-edges or burrs. It should also be sharp.
The downstream edges H and I are in the separated flow region and therefore their requirements
are not so stringent.
Diameter of orifice (d): This diameter is always greater than or equal to
12.5 mm. Thus the diameter ratio, is always between 0.10 and 0.75.

Pressure tapping:
For the orifice plate, one pressure tapping has to be installed at the upstream and one at the
downstream to measure the differential pressure.

The types of tapping for orifice are:

D and D/2 tapping
Flange tapping
Corner tapping.

1) D and D/2 tapping and Flange tapping

The length l of a pressure tapping is the distance between the centerline of the pressure tapping
and the plane of the specified face of the orifice plate.

12

D and D/2 tapping and Flange tapping (Source ISO 5167-2:2003)

Key
1

D and D/2 pressure tapping

Flange tapping

Direction flow

l1 = D 0.1D

l2 = 0.5D 0.02D for 0.6

= 0.5D 0.01D for > 0.6

d l1 = l2

= 25.4 0.5 mm for > 0.6 and D <150mm

= 25.4 1 mm for 0.6
= 25.4 1 mm

for > 0.6 and 150 mm D 1000 mm

D and D/2 tapping The upstream tapping is located on the pipe at a distance equal to the inner
diameter of the pipe (D). The downstream tapping is also located on the pipe at a distance equal
to half the inner diameter of the pipe (D/2). Both the distances are measured from the upstream
face.
Flange tappings These tapping are located on the flange connections. The lengths l1 is
nominally 25.4 mm, measured from the upstream face and l2 is nominally 25.4 mm, measured

13

from the downstream face. Due to symmetry, they can be used to measure flow in either
direction. Flange tapping is the most commonly used pressure tapping.
2) Corner tapping

Corner tappings (Source: ISO 5461-2:2003)

These are located in either the pipe or the flanges or the carrier rings. The length between the
centerlines of tapping and the faces of the plate is equal to half the diameter or half the width of
the tapping itself. The pressure tapings are either single tapping or annular slots. Corner tappings
are used in line sizes which are lesser than 2.

Advantages:
Its cost is low.
They can be used in a wide range of pipe sizes (3.175 to 18211.8mm). They can be used with the
differential pressure devices.

14

They are well known and have predictable characteristics. They are available in any material.
Limitations:
They cause relatively high permanent pressure loss. They tend to clog, thus reducing use in
slurry services. Their accuracy depends upon care during installation.
They have changing characteristics because of erosion, corrosion and scaling.
Specifications:

ii) Classical venturi tube-

Venturi tube is a differential pressure device used for flow measurement, consisting of a
convergent inlet which is a standardized ISA 1932 nozzle connected to a cylindrical part called
the throat and an expanding section called the divergent which is conical.

15

Classical Venturi Tube (Source: ISO 5167-4:2003)

The classical Venturi tube is made up of an entrance cylinder A connected to a conical
convergent section B, a cylindrical throat C and a conical divergent section E. The internal
surface of the device is cylindrical and concentric with the pipecentreline. The coaxiality of the
convergent section and the cylindrical throat is assessed by visual inspection.
The ISO 5167 applies to the classical venturi tubes which have:
Subsonic flow throughout the measuring section and the fluid is single phase.
The flow is not pulsating.
Pipe size is greater than 50 mm but less than 1200 mm.
Reynolds number is above 2 x 105.
Design
Three types of classical venturi tubes according to the method of manufacture of the internal
surface of the entrance cone and the profile at the intersection of the entrance cone are
Cast
Machined
Rough welded sheet iron
Cast convergent type This is a classical Venturi tube made by casting in a sand mould, or by
other methods which leave a finish on the surface of the convergent section similar to that
produced by sand casting. The throat is machined and the junctions between the cylinders and

16

cones are rounded. These classical Venturi tubes can be used in pipes of diameter between 100
mm and 800 mm and with diameter ratios between 0.3 and 0.75 inclusive.
Machined convergent type - This is a classical Venturi tube cast or fabricated as the cast
convergent type but in which the convergent section is machined as are the throat and the
entrance cylinder. The junctions between the cylinders and cones may or may not be rounded.
These classical Venturi tubes can be used in pipes of diameter between 50 mm and250 mm and
with diameter ratios between 0.4 and 0.75 inclusive.
Rough-welded sheet-iron convergent type This is a classical Venturi tube normally fabricated
by welding. For larger sizes it may not be machined, but in the smaller sizes the throat is
machined. These classical Venturi tubes can be used in pipes of diameter between 200 mm And
1200 mm and with diameter ratios between 0.4 and 0.7 inclusive.The minimum cylinder length
measured from the plane of intersection between the cone frustum B and the cylinder A varies
according to manufacturing process but is recommended to be equal to D.
The convergent section B is conical and has an angle of 21 1 for all types of classical venturi
tube. It lies between the plane of intersection of cylinder A and cone frustum B at the upstream
and the plane of intersection of the throat C and the cone frustum B at the downstream. The
length of B is equal to 2.7(D d).The throat C is a cylinder with a diameter d. It lies between the
plane of intersection of cone frustum B and throat C at the upstream and the plane of intersection
of cone frustum E and throat C. The length of the throat is equal to d 0.03d for all classical
venturi tubes.The divergent section E is conical and its angle is of the range 7 to 15. The
recommended angle is between 7 to 8. Its smallest diameter is never lesser than the throat
diameter.

The cylinder A and convergent section B are connected at the entrance of A by a radius of
curvature R1. The throat C is connected with convergent section B by a radius of curvature R2
and to the divergent section E by a radius of curvature R3. R1, R2 and R3 depend on the type of
classical venturi tube.

The classical venturi tube is called truncated when the outlet diameter of divergent section is less
than D. The divergent portion can be truncated upto 35% without causing significance change to
the permanent pressure loss or coefficient of discharge.
Pressure tappings:
17

The upstream and throat pressure tappings are of the form of separate wall pressure tappings
which are interconnected to each other by annular chambers, piezometer rings or a triple-T
arrangement(in case of four tappings).The triple T arrangement is the most commonly used
tapping for the venturi tube. At least four tappings shall be provided for the upstream and throat
pressure measurements. The centrelines of each pressure tapping meet the centreline of the
classical venturi tube and form equal angles to each other and are perpendicular to the centreline
of the classical venturi tube.

Triple T arrangement (Source ISO 5167-1:2003)

Coefficients of discharge-

For the classical venturi tube, extreme values of ReD, D and are avoided as they lead to
increased uncertainties.

Discharge coefficient for Venturi tube with cast convergent sectionFor

100 mm D 800 mm
0.3 0.75
2 x 105 ReD 2x 106
C = 0.984
Discharge coefficient for Venturi tube with machined convergent sectionFor
50 mm D 250 mm
0.4 0.75
2 x 105 ReD 2x 106
C = 0.995
18

Discharge coefficient for Venturi tube with rough-welded sheet-iron convergent sectionFor
50 mm D 1200 mm
0.4 0.7
2 x 105 ReD 2x 106
C = 0.985
Advantages:
It causes low permanent pressure loss. It is widely used for high flow rates.
It is available in very large pipe sizes. It has well-known characteristics.
It is more accurate over wide flow ranges than orifice plates or nozzles. It can be used at low and
high beta ratios.
Limitations:
Its cost is high.
It is generally not useful below 76.2mm pipe size.
It is more difficult to inspect due to its construction.
It has the limitation of a lower Reynolds number of 150,000
3. Averaging Pitot Tube
The averaging pitot tube is an effective differential pressure flow measurement device. It is an
insertion device that measures the average velocity across the pipe. The fluid flow velocity is
measured by converting the kinetic energy in fluid flow to potential energy. The measured
velocity of fluid is then used to calculate the rate of flow.
Principle:
When a solid body is held centrally and stationary in a pipeline with fluid streaming down, due
to the presence of the body, the fluid while approaching the body starts losing its velocity till it is
directly in front of the body where the velocity is zero. This point is known as stagnation point.
As the kinetic head is lost by the fluid, it gains a static head. By measuring the differential
pressure between that at normal flow line and that at stagnation point, the velocity is found out.
To understand the principle of the averaging pitot tube, the working of the basic pitot tube must
be understood.
19

Typical pitot tube

The basic pitot tube consists of a cylindrical probe inserted into the process pipe, bent at a 90
angle so that it points toward the source of fluid flow, parallel to the pipe wall.
The velocity of the moving fluid creates a high-impact pressure inside the probe. This point of
impact where the pressure is maximum and fluid velocity is zero is called the stagnation point
and this pressure is the stagnation pressure.
The pressure of the fluid at normal flow line, called static pressure is measured through a port on
a surface parallel to the pipe wall. The port is usually present on the probe itself.
The differential pressure of these two pressures is obtained using a differential pressure
transducer.
As the regular pitot tube measures only one-point velocity, it is easily affected by changes in the
velocity profile. To get an average measurement the tube has to be traversed back and forth in the
flowstream. Due to this the pitot tube is used for rough measurement in applications like low
pressure gas flow where high accuracy is not required.
The pitot tube follows the Bernoullis principle:
Static pressure + dynamic pressure = stagnation/total pressure

20

Design:
The limitations of the regular pitot tube is eliminated by the averaging pitot tube. The averaging
pitot tube is a multiple port pitot tube that covers the entire span of the pipe. It has multiple
pressure ports which are located on mathematically defined positions on the tube. These give the
average value of the stagnation pressure thereby eliminating the need to transverse the pipe to
determine the flow profile and average velocity. Therefore averaging pitot tubes are more
commonly used for industrial purposes over the regular pitot tube.

Typical averaging pitot tube

The stagnation pressure (high pressure) ports are located at the upstream side ofthe pitot tube
directly pointing to the source of the fluid flow. The static pressure (low pressure) ports are
located at the downstream. The stagnation pressure and the static pressure are continuously
sampled by the multiple high pressure and low pressure ports at the upstream and downstream
respectively.
The interpolating tube within the high pressure sensor transmits the continuous average of the
stagnation pressure detected by the multiple high pressure ports to the high pressure side of the
differential pressure measuring device. The stagnation pressure is the sum of the line static
pressure and the dynamic pressure due to the velocity of the fluid. The low pressure ports at the
21

rear transmits the average static pressure to the low pressure side of the differential pressure
measuring device.

Pressure profile in averaging pitot tube (Source: Instrumentation Engineers Handbook, Bela G
Liptak)
Advantages :
Very low permanent pressure drop.
Available for wide range of pipe sizes (from 2 72) Pitot tube installation is simple and
inexpensive.
Using the hot tap, pitot tube can be installed and removed from the pipeline without shutting
down the process.
Limitations
Dirty or sticky fluids usually clog the ports, reducing accuracy.
Pitot tubes create a relatively low differential pressure, which can make measurement of the
pressure drop difficult.
22

Applications :

Due to the low differential pressure produced by the pitot tube and its ease of installation, it is
generally used in pipe lines with large diameter containing low pressure gas.
Mass flow meters

When very precise flow rate measurements must be made, mass flow meters are often preferred.
Mass flow measurements give the actual weight of the fluid that is being transported per unit of
time. Mass flow meters have the advantage of measuring mass flow rate directly, without an
intermediate calculation from volume or density.
1) Coriolis mass flow meter:
The coriolis mass flow meter is a type of mass flow meter which uses the coriolis principle to
directly measure the mass flow rate of the fluid per unit time
Principle:
The coriolis mass flow meter uses the principle of the coriolis effect for measurement of flow
rate. This force appears in rotating and vibrating systems.
The coriolis effect is the deflection of a moving object when they are viewed in a rotating
reference frame. In a reference frame with clockwise rotation, the deflection is to the left of the
motion of the object and in one with counterclockwise rotation, the deflection is to the right. The
coriolis force is perpendicular to the rotation axis and the direction of velocity. It is proportional
to the mass of the object, angular velocity and the objects velocity in the rotating frame.
A curved tube is used as a sensor and Newtons second law of motion is applied to find the mass
flow rate. The tube is made to vibrate like a tuning fork at its natural frequency by the
electromagnetic forces of a drive coil at the centre of the bend of the tube.

23

Vibration of coriolis tube (Source: Instrument consultant program, Emerson Process

Management)

When fluid starts flowing through the sensor tube it is forced to take on the vertical momentum
of the vibrating tube. As the tube is displacing upwards during the first half cycle of the
vibration, the fluid resists this upward movement by pushing downwards on the tube. As the
fluid travels around the bend and out of the sensor tube, it is having the tubes upward
momentum. As it flows out from the tube its vertical motion decreases and the fluid resists this
decrement by pushing up on the tube. The force of vibration and the opposite forces of the fluid
at the inlet and outlet of the tube get superimposed and as a combined effect twists the tube. This
twisting is called the Coriolis Effect.
When a fluid is flowing in a pipe and it is subjected to coriolis acceleration through the
mechanical induction of apparent rotation into the pipe, the amount of deflecting force generated
is a function of the mass flow rate of the pipe. As per Newtons second law of motion the angle
of the twist is directly proportional to the mass flow rate of the flowing fluid.

24

Coriolis Effect (Source: Instrumentation Reference Book)

Design:
The coriolis mass flow meter consists of two major components the sensor and the transmitter.

Coriolis Flow Meter

25

Sensors:
Flow tube assembly The assembly can be either single tube or double tube. The double tube
assembly is more commonly used. The tubes are put into oscillation by the driver which is
mounted at the central bend of the tube. The two tubes oscillate in counterphase which is the
desired motion. This results in zero forces acting on the flanges. Sensors are mounted at the inlet
and outlet of the tube.
Electronic components These consist of the driving mechanism and the sensors.
Driving mechanism - The driving mechanism for the coriolis mass flow
Meter is a magnet and coil assembly. The coil is typically located on one tube and the magnet on
the opposite tube. The driving mechanism enables the tube to oscillate.
Sensors - The most commonly used device is the electrodynamic sensor. The two sensors are
located at the inlet and outlet. A coil is mounted on one tube and a magnet on the opposite tube.
The relative motion between the tubes induces a voltage in the coil, representing the differential
velocity of the tubes. The angle of twist is therefore obtained from the phase difference between
the inlet and outlet. Electrodynamic sensors have the advantages of offering very good phase
accuracy and high reliability.

Transmitters:
Electronics - The sensor signals are very small sinusoidal signals, which have to be amplified to
make them processible in the succeeding signal processing stages of the electronics. These
amplifiers need to have a very broad bandwidth to prevent the mass flow signal from containing
additional zero- point errors. The electronics can be mounted on the flowmeter directly, forming
one compact flowmeter unit, or the flowmeter can be interfaced to the electronic via a cable. This
permits the electronics to be located remotely from the sensor. The remote assembly may be
necessary for high-temperature meters, or it may be convenient if the sensor is installed in a
place that is not easily accessible.

26

Signal Processing The sinusoidal signals from the two sensors are compared to find the phase
shift between them. The mass flow rate can be directly calculated by multiplying the phase shift
with the calibration constantof the flow meter. The thermal effect on mass flow and density also
have to be considered. These calculations are done with digital signal processors.

Phase shift between input and output signals

Output The electronic designs along with providing the mass flow output also can provide
temperature, density and volumetric pressure. Many digital output protocols (Profibus PA/DP,
HART, and Foundation Fieldbus etc.) are supported through the conventional 4 20 mA is still
most commonly used.
Frequency of oscillation - The tubes are vibrated at their natural frequency as this requires the
least amount of energy for excitation. The natural frequency depends on the elastic properties
and mass of the system. The total mass of the system consist of the mass of the tube itself, the
mass of any attached component like driver and sensors and the mass of the flowing fluid. The
material properties will remain constant so any change in the natural frequency indicates change
in density of the fluid.

Balancing Systems - The coriolis mass flow meter is required to have a very high accuracy. To
achieve such precise and stable readings from the CMF, the internal measuring system is
decoupled from all external and environmental disturbances. This prevents the oscillations of the
tube transmitting to the pipes and flanges which could cause disturbed reading in the flow meter.
The tubes are mounted into a rigid carrier housing which protects the system from external
disturbances and isolates the system from the environment. It is a very important factor that the
coriolis mass flow meter is a balanced system and this also ensures good zero-point stability.

Pressure drop The pressure drop depends on the length of the tube, inner diameter and the tube
design. The design of the flow splitter also matters in case of dual tube designs. The pressure
27

drop at maximum flow speed is normally 7 to 20 psig referred to water. This is specified by the
manufacturer. The viscosity of the fluid also accounts for the pressure drop with fluids of greater
viscosity having greater pressure drop.
Calibration Each flow meter has to be individually calibrated by the manufacturer due to the
phase difference being different for each flow meter design. Before calibration, the flow meter is
first zeroed. This eliminates the inherent signal differences between the flow detectors. During
the zeroing process, the sensor is filled with the process liquid at zero flow. There is still a phase
difference from the signals of the two sensors even at zero flow. This is due to the mechanical
vibrations present or component variations in electronics. This value is measured and stored by
the electronic and is subtracted from all subsequent measurements to eliminate this offset.
Calibration is done in a facility where the fluid is made to flow through the meter and drains out
into a high precision weighing scale. The mass readings from both the devices are compared and
the calibration factor of the CMF is adjusted so that the flow meter reading is equal to the
weighing scale reading.

Precautions
The amplitude of oscillation of CMF is very small (around 100 m).The stress of the tube is
limited to prevent damage to the tube due to oscillations and ensure long life of the tube.
The whole system including the sensors and drivers are enclosed in a solid housing usually made
of stainless steel to prevent damage. As very small excitation current is used, intrinsically safe
coriolis mass flowmeters are available for use in hazardous areas.

28

Advantages:
Coriolis mass flow meters have no Reynolds number constraints. It has no straight length
requirements.
Mass flow is calculated directly and with high accuracy.
Very high Rangeability.
Other factors like temperature and density can also be measured directly. Their maintenance cost
is very low as there are no moving parts which can wear out.
Measuring principle is independent of the fluid flow profile. Forward and reverse flows can be
measured with high accuracy.
The design of CMF enables them to operate with low power requirements.
Limitations:
Coriolis flow meters are expensive compared to other flow measuring instruments.
Cannot be used to measure flow rate of liquids with large gas content. Unsuitable for
measurement of low pressure gases.

Applications Used in areas such as hydrocarbon industries, food processing, paper and pulp
industries. As coriolis mass flow meters are so versatile they are used for process control,
batching precision filling etc.

Conclusion:

The priciples and working of some of the commonly used industrial flow meters have been
explained in this report. The in house calculations using ISO 5167 method for the diameter ratios
of orifice plate were successfully verified using Flowel 4.

29

References:

ISO 5167: 2003 parts 1 - 4

Flowel 4 Development and Marketing, Emerson Process Management
Instrumentation Engineers Handbook, Bela G. Liptak Wikipedia.

30