1.

Cover Sheet
1.1. Project Title
Field test of plants and fungi on bioretention performance over time

1.2. Effectiveness Study Question Answered

[LID Flow and Pollutant Reduction] What soil amendment and bioretention soil mixes
combined with plant selection combines optimum removal of nutrients, bacteria, and metals?
o Where and when are nutrient and metal outputs from LID of concern?

1.3. Lead Entity

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

1.4. Tax ID Number

15-1157950 (DUNS)
520852695 (Tax ID No.)

1.5. Staff/Project Manager and Contact Information

Jay Davis
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
510 Desmond Dr. SE
Suite 102
Lacey, WA 98503
360-753-9568
jay_davis@fws.gov

1.6. Certification and Signature

See attached PDF

2. Abstract
Recent bench and field scale bioretention studies have indicated a significant potential for pollutant
exports from bioretention installations that meet the SMMWW specifications. Replicated mesocosm
studies indicate that the role of plants in bioretention systems needs further research to evaluate
whether adding plants as an installation amendment provides additional pollution control benefits.
Recent studies have also indicated that wood-decomposing fungi can be used in bioretention mulch to
achieve unique environmental services. This project will evaluate the effects of plants and fungi on
toxicity, water quality, and hydraulic properties of bioretention cells under field conditions. Four
treatments (no plants / no fungi; plants / no fungi; no plants / fungi; plants / fungi) will be evaluated in
triplicate. The study will leverage existing and forthcoming bioretention study data by using a
minimally-leaching bioretention soil mix recommended by the Kitsap County monitoring study and a
plant community informed by the ongoing WSU Puyallup mesocosm study. The results will critically
inform the Regional Stormwater Management Programs goal to optimize bioretention systems and
evaluate the risk of nutrient and metal exports from bioretention soil and will help to understand the
interplay of soils, plants, and fungi and their role in stormwater remediation.

3. Work Plan
3.1. Purpose of the project
New stormwater permits are requiring the use of LID where feasible, and bioretention is expected to be
among the most commonly utilized LID techniques. Accordingly, there is an increasing need to
understand how soils, plants, or microorganisms affect water quality and toxicity of stormwater.
We know that current bioretention cells may leach nutrients and heavy metals into the environment and
that compost plays a key role. Our project goal is to study the interplay of soil, plants, and fungi with
respect to improving stormwater quality and to reducing stormwater toxicity. Improved understanding
of amendments to bioretention soil media (i.e., plants, fungi) in a field application will be broadly
applicable throughout the region.

3.2. Project Description

1

Background

Regionally relevant data justifies the necessity to improve our understanding of the performance
drivers of bioretention systems for the Puget Sound region beyond simply the composition of the soil:
Compost
Recent bench and field scale bioretention studies have indicated a significant potential for pollutant
exports from bioretention installations that meet the SMMWW specifications (Herrera, 2012). Of
particular concern in recent applications of bioretention containing compost is the leaching of copper.
Commercial compost (manure feedstock) in Washington State may contain up to 750 mg/kg (drymass)
(WAC 173-350-220). As a result, commercial composts may leach unacceptably high concentrations
of copper (> 10 g/L) when infiltrated with stormwater runoff. This data has initiated a comparison of
the leachate of 24 soil types in a study led by Kitsap County. The present study will leverage results
from the Kitsap trial to evaluate the effects of plants and fungi on the performance of new soil
recommendations in a field setting. Background Remediation with Plants
Replicated mesocosm studies indicate that the role of plants in bioretention systems needs further
evaluation. While pilot work at WSU in Puyallup has showed that bioretention achieves significant
reductions in conventional water quality parameters and toxicity to fish and invertebrates, the presence
of plants in half the replicated bioretention systems had very little influence on water chemistry and no
apparent added benefit for removing toxicity compared to bioretention columns without plants (Palmer
et al. 2013; McIntyre et al. 2014). The current study will test the reproducibility of this finding, which,
if confirmed, will critically inform permitees selection of bioretention plants based on aesthetics and
maintenance of hydraulic performance rather than bioremediation/bioimmobilization of water
contaminants.

Fungi
Bench and field-scale studies, including two in the Puget Sound region, indicate that wood
-decomposing fungi can be used in bioretention mulch to achieve important environmental services. A
study of two underdrained rain gardens in the Dungeness watershed of the Olympic Peninsula found
that inoculating the wood mulch layer with fungi removed 24% more fecal coliform from runoff than
the control (Thomas et al. 2009). A 2012 EPA study by Fungi Perfecti, LLC and WSU found that the
mushroom-forming fungus Stropharia rugoso-annulata grown on Alder wood chips yielded a 20%
improvement in E. coli removal relative to the wood chips alone (p<0.05) at the hydraulic loading rate
of 0.5 L/min (0.43 m3/m2d) under laboratory conditions (Taylor et al. 2014). Importantly, the research
also indicated that S. rugoso-annulata is resilient to the year-round environmental conditions of a Puget
Sound stormwater bioretention setting. Notably, S. rugoso-annulata, can also degrade polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in contaminated soil, with reductions of up to 70%, 86% and 84% for
benzo(a)anthracene, benzo(a)pyrene, and dibenzo(a,h)anthracene, respectively (Steffen et al. 2007).
Fungal biomass has also been studied as an effective sorptive agent with the ability to bind and retain
significant amounts of copper from aqueous solutions (Simonescu and Ferdes 2012). Replicated field
data is now needed to quantify performance and lifetime to inform sizing and maintenance decisions in
BMP applications.
Toxicity
Stormwater runoff can be acutely toxic to aquatic animals causing mortality and sublethal toxicity such
as reproductive impairment (invertebrates) and cardiovascular toxicity (fish). Recent bioretention
research by WSU/USFWS/NOAA has shown that bioretention media (60:15:15:10
sand:compost:bark:WTR and 60:40 sand:compost) significantly reduced toxicity from highway runoff
(McIntyre et al. 2014; Spromberg et al. In prep), for one (McIntyre et al.) to four (Spromberg et al.)
storm events. More specifically, mortality was completely eliminated and sublethal metrics reduced to
near-background levels.
Chemical analyses for these experiments also showed significant
improvement in water quality, particularly for Zn as well as a large suite of PAHs. It is unknown how
bioretention will perform in terms of biological effectiveness for toxicity prevention as bioretention
systems age. By comparing influent and effluent toxicity from biorentention cells aged in the field
under natural runoff regimes, we will be able to track chemical and biological performance over time.

3.2.1. Objectives
The objective of this project is to evaluate the effects of plants and fungi on toxicity, water quality and
hydraulic properties of bioretention cells. We will gain knowledge of whether plants and fungi help to
remediate stormwater pollutants and nutrients. We will better understand the fate of pollutants in soils,
plant, and fungal tissue. By studying the hydraulic properties over time we can determine if plants or
fungi affect the hydraulic conductivity or the water holding capacity of the bioretention soil mix. These
results will help to estimate the lifetime of a bioretention cell.
We will address the effectiveness study question:
What soil amendment and bioretention soil mixes combined with plant selection combines
optimum removal of nutrients, bacteria, and metals?
A toxicity monitoring component of the research will also evaluate the subtopic:
Where and when are nutrient and metal outputs from LID of concern?
Based on these objectives, we hypothesize that:
Copper accumulates in plant tissue
Bioretention soil mix with compost from organic feed stock will leach less copper
Fungal amendment will increase the nutrient retention capacity of the bioretention soil mix
Amendment with plants and fungi will improve the retention of metals
Fungal amendment will show improved metabolism of PAHs in the bioretention soil mix

Pollutants move slower through soils with amendments and therefore bioretention cells with
amendments have a longer lifetime than bioretention cells without amendments
Removal of fecal bacteria will be improved by fungal amendment
The presence of plants will prevent loss of hydraulic conductivity but will not significantly alter
the effluent chemistry or toxicity

3.2.2. Activities and Tasks

Task 1: Prepare bioretention soil mix
Task 2: Develop Quality Assurance Project Plan (QAPP)
Task 3: Baseline soil testing
Task 4: Build and deploy bioretention cells
Task 5: Monitoring toxicity and hydraulic properties
Task 6: Post-experiment soil testing
Task 7: Data analysis & communications

3.2.3. Outcomes
Through this project we will better understand the interplay of soils, plants, and fungi. We will know if
plants and fungi as soil amendments will improve the water quality of effluent from bioretention cells.
Furthermore, this project will increase the understanding of the fate of pollutants like heavy metals and
PAH in bioretention soil and in plant tissue. This knowledge helps to determine the lifetime of a
bioretention cell and whether this lifetime can be extended by plant or fungi soil amendments.
The time series of hydraulic properties contributes to our understanding of water movement in the
bioretention cells. This data will allow to design and dimension bioretention cells and maintenance
intervals in greater detail as well as to better predict and avoid hydraulic failure. Our use of organic
(and therefore low copper) feedstock will enable contrast with copper leachate results from previous
studies using commercial composts (i.e., WSU Puyallup, City of Redmond).

3.2.4. Deliverables
Task 1: 2 m3 of organic compost
Task 2: Quality Assurance Project Plan (QAPP)
Task 3: Report on baseline testing of bioretention soil medium and gravel drainage layer
Task 4: Replicated bioretention system receiving ambient surface runoff
Task 5-7: Final report

3.2.5. Schedule
Table 1: Timeline for task completion on a quarterly basis.

Task
1. Prepare and ferment
compost
2. Develop QAPP
3. Baseline testing
4. Build & deploy bioretention
cells
5. Monitoring
6. Post experiment testing
7. Data analysis and
communications

201
4
2015
2016
2017
3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

3.3. Detailed Scope of Work

This study will evaluate performance of 12 bioretention cells (200 L) each containing a 5 cm diameter
underdrain within a 15 cm gravel drainage layer (Western WA Stormwater Manual). The bioretention
soil mix (60 cm) will be tamped down on top of the gravel layer. Six of the 12 bioretention cells will be
planted and 6 of the 12 bioretention cells will be inoculated with the mushroom-forming fungus
Stropharia rugoso-annulata. This will result in 4 treatments (no plants / no fungi; plants / no fungi; no
plants / fungi; plants / fungi) with 3 replicates. The study will leverage existing and forthcoming
bioretention study data by using a minimally-leaching bioretention soil mix recommended by the
Kitsap County monitoring study and a plant community informed by the ongoing WSU Puyallup
mesocosm study.
We will determine whether the incorporation of plants and/or fungi into an optimized bioretention soil
mix has a significant impact on hydraulic conductivity, effluent water chemistry and toxicity; and soil
microbial diversity of stormwater runoff under replicated field conditions. Analyses will be performed
on a quarterly basis to determine if there is a seasonal effect (e.g., dry periods, warm or cold weather
conditions) on performance of plants and fungi. Assuming that Kitsap Countys recommended soil mix
will contain compost, this study will use compost from controlled fermentation and organic feedstock
to develop baseline copper leaching concentrations from a compost matrix without potential
contamination from copper-containing pesticides. Overall, the study will generate publishable data to
help address the RSMPs goal to determine what soil amendment and bioretention soil mixes
combined with plant selection combines optimum removal of nutrients, bacteria, and metals?

Task 1: Prepare Bioretention Soil Mix

We will prepare a bioretention soil mix based on the recommendation of ongoing soil research at WSU
Puyallup, Kitsap County, and City of Redmond. In preparation for a soil mix containing compost, we
will ferment compost at WSU-Puyallup from organic feedstock under controlled conditions. Dry mass
copper concentrations in compost at WSU-Puyallup typically contain around 15 mg/kg, in comparison
with 50 mg/kg or more from commercial compost. Composting will be conducted in 1.7 m3 pilot-scale
composting units (1.2 x 1.2 x 1.2 m) under ambient outdoor conditions during the summer 2014
(Puyallup, WA, USA). Dial-type compost temperature probes (90 cm in length) will be placed
horizontally at a low (30 cm from the bottom) and high depth (30 cm from the top) in each composting
unit. Temperature will be recorded daily. The compost will ferment and cure for 9-12 months until it
reaches a stable condition. By summer 2015 we expect to have more information on recommended
bioretention soil mixes from the above-mentioned studies. We will use this information to prepare the
soil mix for the proposed project.
Costs: $13,195 (labor, materials, and equipment)
Deliverables: 2 m3 of compost, data to be included in report on baseline conditions (Task 3, below)

Task 2: Develop a Quality Assurance Project Plan (QAPP)

We will prepare a Quality Assurance Project Plan (QAPP) that follows Ecologys Guidelines and
Specifications for Preparing Quality Assurance Project Plans for Environmental Studies, February
2001 (Ecology Publication No. 01-03-003) prior water quality testing. We will submit this QAPP to the
Department of Ecology with time for revision, comment and approval.
Costs: $10,109 (labor)
Deliverables: QAPP

Task 3: Baseline Hydraulic Properties, Chemistry, and Toxicity Testing

We will analyse the soil mix for heavy metals, nutrients, and microbial communities before the
experiment. We will develop water retention curves from the gravel and the soil mix before they are
5

installed into the bioretention cells. Toxicity testing of effluent from clean water infiltration of the
bioretention soil media and drainage layer will qualify baseline toxicity (or lack thereof) of the
materials to aquatic biota.
Costs: $4,378 (labor, analytical testing)
Deliverables: report on baseline conditions

Task 4: Build & deploy bioretention cells

Task 4.1. Build bioretention cells
We will build 12 bioretention cells (Figure 1) with a volume of 200 L (55-gallon drums, 60 cm
diameter, 86 cm height), each containing a 5 cm diameter underdrain within a 15 cm gravel drainage
layer (Western WA Stormwater Manual). Soil mix (60 cm) will be tamped down on top of the gravel
layer. Six of the 12 bioretention cells will be planted (Deschampsia cespitosa, helianthus annus, and
cornus sericea) and 6 of the 12 bioretention cells will be inoculated with the fungus Stropharia rugosoannulata. This results in 4 treatments (no plants / no fungi; plants / no fungi; no plants / fungi; plants /
fungi) with 3 replicates. Every bioretention cell will be equipped with probes to measure the soil water
content, the matric potential, and the soil temperature continuously over the duration of the experiment.

Figure 1: Schematic of the bioretention cell. All units are in centimeters.

Task 4.2. Deploy bioretention cells
The 12 bioretention cells will be placed where they can receive runoff from roads. Preliminary siting
will determine a location with representative runoff. If no such location is logistically possible,
simulated runoff will be generated in accordance with natural rainfall patterns. Every bioretention cell
will receive surface runoff from 3 m 3 of contributing area, resulting in a drained surface to bioretention
area ratio of 10:1.
Costs: $12,327 (materials, equipment, labor)
Deliverables: replicated bioretention system with four treatments

Task 5: Monitoring of Hydraulic Properties, Chemistry, and Toxicity

Hydraulic performance and effluent water from bioretention cells will be collected on a quarterly basis.
Collected effluent (plus influent sample) will be submitted to certified laboratories for chemical
6

analysis (Table 2, 3) and also stored for toxicity testing.

Task 5.1. Monitoring Hydraulic Properties
The saturated hydraulic conductivity will be determined with the falling head method (SMMWW).
Task 5.2. Monitoring Chemistry
Analytes to be measured include copper and zinc, a suite of conventional water chemistry parameters,
bacteria (Table 2), and a suite of parent and alkylated homologue polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs) (Table 3).
Table 2: List of metals, conventionals, and bacteria to be analysed.
Analytes to be measured
Total and dissolved Cu, Zn
Total suspended solids
Suspended sediment concentration
Dissolved organic carbon
Chemical oxygen demand
Hardness
Alkalinity
pH
Ammonia
Total nitrogen and nitrates
Total Phosphorous and ortho-Phosphorous
E. coli, fecal coliform
Table 3: List of PAHs to be analysed.
Abbreviati
on
NPH
C1-C3NPH
ACY
ACE
FLU
C1-C4FLU
DBT

Rings
2
3
3
3
3
3
3

C1-C4DBT
PHN
C1-C4PHN
ANT
PYR
FLA
C1-C4FLA
CHR
C1-C4CHR
BAA
BBF
BKF
BEP
BAP
PER
IDP

3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
5

DBA
BZP

5
6

PAH Name
Naphthalene
Alkylated naphthalenes
Acenaphthylene
Acenaphthene
Fluorene
Alkylated fluorenes
Dibenzothiophene
Alkylated
dibenzothiophenes
Phenanthrene
Alkylated phenanthrenes
Anthracene
Pyrene
Fluoranthene
Alkylated fluoranthenes
Chrysene
Alkylated chrysenes
Benzo[a]anthracene
Benzo[b]fluoranthene
Benzo[k]fluoranthene
Benzo[e]pyrene
Benzo[a]pyrene
Perylene
Indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene
Dibenz[a,h]anthracene (and
[a,c])
Benzo[ghi]perylene

Task 5.3. Monitoring Toxicity

Toxicity testing will be conducted according to standard EPA protocols for effluent testing using
Ceriodaphnia dubia (Table 4) or per protocols previously published by McIntyre et al. (2014) for
zebrafish (Danio rerio; Table 4).
Table 4: Summary of toxicity testing for influent and effluent samples from bioretention cells.
Organism

Endpoint

Time

Ceriodaphnia dubia

Survival

48 h

C. dubia

Reproduction

7d

Danio rerio (zebrafish) Survival,

morphometrics,

48, 96 h

Developmental
abnormalities
cardiac function &
abnormalities
Total monitoring Costs: $116,598 (labor, chemistry, toxicity testing)
Deliverables: Final report/published paper

Task 6: Post Experiment Tests

We will collect soil samples in each bioretention cell from three depths (0-10 cm, 10-20 cm, and 20-30
cm) to assess accumulation and immobilization of pollutants over the experimental period and to
develop post experiment water retention curves and to detect hydraulic conductivity. We will also
determine the plant mass (root and shoot) and perform plant tissue analysis to check for accumulated
pollutants in plant roots or shoots. We will assess the microbial communities in the bioretention soil
with PCR analysis.
Costs: $25,137
Deliverables: Final report/published paper

Task 7: Data Analysis & Communications

Data from the hydraulic properties, water quality and toxicity monitoring will be analysed with respect
to treatment effects (presence/absence of plants, fungi) as well as potential seasonal or antecedent dry
period effects.
Costs: $29,823
Deliverables: Final report/published paper

3.4. Project Management

3.4.1. Project Team Structure and Internal Controls
Fiduciary aspects of the project will be managed by the Jay Davis with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service. Davis will be responsible for tracking performance and budgets and will work closely with the
both project staff and Ecology management team to assure that milestones are met and reported on
schedule. Davis will oversee and manage expenditures for experimental work conducted at WSU.
Scholz will help oversee zebrafish-related experimental work with Jen McIntyre at WSU. Thorsten
Knappenberger, Scientist, WSU Puyallup, will manage the physical implementation of the project and
will supervise work conducted by WSU Puyallup staff and student(s). Knappenberger will lead the
construction and hydraulic monitoring of the bioretention cells as well as data analysis and reporting.
Jen McIntyre, Post-Doctoral Researcher, WSU Puyallup will work closely with Knappenberger in the
8

management of the project and will supervise all toxicity testing, biological monitoring, and the
interpretation and reporting of toxicity data. Alex Taylor, Research Project Manager, Fungi Perfecti,
LLC, will act as a liaison between Fungi Perfecti and WSU Puyallup allowing the project to leverage
Fungi Perfectis previous research in fungal stormwater treatment and maintaining fungal cultivation
expertise and monitoring in the daily experimental work. A Masters student (TBD) will conduct the
bulk of the field and experimental work during 2016-2017.

3.4.2. Staff Qualifications and Experience

Andrew Barry 1.5 months

Soil Scientist at WSU Puyallup with 20+ years of experience in fermenting compost from
various sources.

Richard Bembenek 2.5 months

Lead technician of the LID program at WSU Puyallup with 5+ years of experience in
conducting LID experiments.

Oriki Jack 3 months

Technician in the entomology lab at WSU responsible for husbandry of daphnia colonies used
in toxicity testing. Has 20 years experience in daphnia husbandry.

Tiffany Linbo 1 month

Technician at NOAA-NWFSC responsible for husbandry of zebrafish colony from which we
will source our embryos for toxicity testing. Has 10 years experience in zebrafish husbandry.

Julann Spromberg 3 months

Aquatic scientist at NOAA-NWFSC with 15 years experience with field experiments

Jenifer McIntyre 4 months

Postdoctoral researcher at WSU with 15 years experience conducting field and laboratory
based toxicity testing, 4 years specifically focused on biological effectiveness testing for LID

Alex Taylor 24 months

Research Project Manager at Fungi Perfecti, LLC with 5+ years experience in fungal cultivation
and research project management with a particular emphasis on fungal cultivation in water
quality BMPs. Alex will advise the team on aspects of the project related to fungi.

3.5. Data Management

We will create a database on a WSU server to store the acquired data. Soil moisture content, matric
potential, and soil temperature will be stored in real time. Water and soil quality data will be added
promptly after analysis. In accordance with academic norms around peer-reviewed publication, the
unpublished raw data will not be immediately available to the public; however, members of the SWG
and the permittees will have preliminary access to the results. We will also use the quarterly reports to
inform the SWG and the permittees about project progress. Following data analysis, publication of the
MS thesis, and submission of results for peer-reviewed publication, appropriate data will be archived in
the Department of Ecologys Environmental Information Management System (EIM) and the
international BMP stormwater database.

4. Budget
4.1. Budget Table
Salaries
Name

Role

Months
9

Sum

Jay Davis
Nat Scholz

USFWS project manager NOAA project manager -

Andy Barry

Assistant Scientist

1.5

TBD

24

Jenifer McIntyre

MS Graduate Student
WSU Postdoctoral
researcher

Oriki Jack

WSU Technician

Richard Bembenek WSU Technician

2.5

Steve Damm
Thorsten
Knappenberger
Alex Taylor

USFWS Technician

WSU Scientist
Research PM

4.2
1

$$$10,49
9
$43,72
5
$25,15
6
$14,45
5
$13,76
0
$15,60
0
$42,45
7
$4,000
$169,652

Contracts

$67,446

Water chemistry

Metals, conventionals

Water chemistry

PAHs

Soil chemistry

Metals, PAHs, nutrients

(Data logger, soil
sensors)
(Chemicals, fungi,
feedstock)

Equipment
Supplies

$12,48
0
$29,12
0
$25,84
6

Oth (tuition for graduate student, travel,

er publication costs)

Direct costs
Indirect costs (22%)
Summary

$8,224
$3,300
$33,000

$281 622
$61,957
$343,579

* Personnel with hours attributed but no costs allocated indicates in-kind donation

4.2. Budget Narrative

4.2.1. Salaries
Managers from USFWS (Davis), and NOAA (Scholz) will contribute 0.5 months each to the project for
2015-2017. Davis will additionally supervise Steve Damm.
Andy Barry will spend time developing the compost to be used in bioretention cells.
The graduate student (MS, TBD) will be the only team member dedicating all of their time to this
project.
Jenifer McIntyre will lead the toxicity portion of the study, supervising the graduate student for this
task.
Oriki Jack will culture the invertebrates used in the toxicity testing tasks.
Richard Bembenek will assist with hydraulic and soil sampling tasks, especially prior to the graduate
student start date.
Steve Damm will assist with runoff collection.
10

TJ Knappenberger will lead the hydraulics and soil chemistry portion of the study, supervising the
graduate student for these tasks.

4.2.2. Contractor
Sub-contracts will be placed for analysis of water and soil chemistry for the quarterly sampling events.

4.2.3. Equipment
Data logger and soil sensors.

4.2.4. Supplies
Chemicals, compost amendments.

4.2.5. Other
Graduate student tuition will enable training of a young scientist in concert with accomplishing the
project tasks. Other costs include funds for travel to present research findings and publication costs.

References:
HerreraEnvironmentalConsultants.2012.PollutantExportfromBioretentionSoilMix,185thAvenue
NE,Redmond,WA.Availableat:
http://www.redmond.gov/Environment/StormwaterUtility/LID/185ave/
McIntyreJK,DavisJ,Macneale,K,HinmanC,ScholzN,StarkJ.2014.Biologicaleffectivenessof
soilbioretentionandplantsjuvenilesalmonandtheirpreyfromthetoxicimpactsofurban
stormwaterrunoff.EnvironmentalScience&Technology.Inreview.
McIntyreJK,DavisJ,IncardonaJ,StarkJ,ScholzN.2014.Zebrafish and clean water technology:
assessing bioinfiltration as a protective treatment for toxic urban runoff. Aquatic Toxicology.
Submitted.
Simonescu CM, Ferdes M. 2012. Fungal Biomass for Cu(II) Uptake from Aqueous Systems. Pol. J.
Environ. Stud. 21(6):1831-1839.
SprombergJ,BaldwinD,DammS,McIntyreJ,ScholzN.Inprep.Highwayrunoffcausesprespawn
mortalitysymptomologyinadultcohospawners.Targetjournal:TBD.
Steffen KT, Schubert S, Tuomela M, Hatakka A, Hofrichter M. 2007. Enhancement of bioconversion of
high-molecular mass polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in contaminated non-sterile soil by litterdecomposing fungi. Biodegradation 18: 359-369.
Taylor A, Flatt A, Beutel M, Wolff M, Brownson K, Stamets P. 2014. Removal of Escherichia coli from
synthetic stormwater using mycofiltration. Ecological Engineering. In review.
Thomas SA, Aston LM, Woodruff DL, Cullinan VI. 2009. Field demonstration of mycoremediation for
removal of fecal coliform bacteria and nutrients in the Dungeness watershed, Washington. Final
Report. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. PNWD-4054-1.

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