Moment by vertical wing

Yawing Moment produced by vertical wing = Nv = lvYv = lv Cl``v (+)QvSv, in

coefficient form CN = (lvSv/Sb) (Qv/Qw) Cl``v (+) = v v Cl``v (+), where v
= vertical tail volume ratio, v = ratio of dynamic pressure at tail to dynamic
pressure at wing. Contribution of vertical tail to directional stability = C N``v =
v v Cl``v (1+d/d).

6 DOF A/C motion

Lateral/Directional characteristic equations

Roll subsidence, spiral divergence dutch roll.
2 DOF approximation for spiral divergence (neglecting side force eqn and
, and dutch roll (neglecting rolling moment eqn and ).

6 Rigid body dynamic equations

3 force equations
3 moment equations
X mgsin = m(+qw-rv)
L=IXX - IXZ + (IZZ-IYY)qr IXZpq
Y+mgcossin=m( +ru-pw)
M=IYY(dq/dt) + (IXX-IZZ)pr + IXZ(p2-r2)
Z+mgcoscos=m(+pv-qu)
N=-IXZ+IZZ+(IYY-IXX)pq+IXZqr

Spiral divergence approximation

Neglecting side force and , consider rolling and yawing moment in
and r
= (Lr/L)r & dr/dt + [(LrN-LNr)/L]r =0
characteristic eqn for spiral approximation
= (LrN-LNr)/L = (CLrCN-CLCNr)/CL`.
Therefore for spiral mode < 0, therefore we need to have CLrCN <
CLCNr, since CL<0, CNr<0, CLr >0, CN >0.
CL (dihedral effect) and CNr (damping in yaw) = stable spiral

Yawing coefficient due to rudder

6 Kinematic equations
CN = - (lvSv/Sb) (Qv/Qw) (dCL`v/drudder) rudder, therefore a +ve rudder
displacement will have a ve yawing moment. Rudder control effectiveness = 3 translational equations
rate of change of yawing moment with rudder deflection angle. C N``rudder =
-vv(dCL`v/drudder), dCL`v/drudder = CL``v , =rudder effectiveness (flap
i
effectiveness).
Requirements for directional control
Adverse yaw
when a/c is banked to execute a turning maneuver, the ailerons may cre8 a
yawing moment that oppose the turn. The rudder must be able to overcome
the adverse yaw occurs when the a/c is flying slowly. Pilot coordinated turn
(no sideslip) requires bank angle (cos =1/n), therefore will deploy ailerons
to have a roll angle. After having an angle, ailerons deployed at opposite dir n
to counter rolling (aileron is rate controller). During rolling, outer wing will
experience a larger drag than inner wing, therefore creating a
counterclockwise yawing (adverse yaw). To counter this, rudder is deployed
to counter the yawing.
Crosswind landing
To maintain alignment with the runway during a crosswind landing, requires
the pilot to fly the airplane at a sideslip angle. Rudder must be powerful
enough to permit the pilot to trim the a/c for the specified crosswinds.
Direction for crosswind takeoff: for the wind that is moving from the right to
the left of the a/c, it creates a clockwise moment (+ve CN). Therefore there is
a need to counter by applying the rudder to counter. Since CN = CN` +
CN``rr, we apply a clockwise deflection of r, to counteract the clockwise
yawing effects due to crosswind (remember CN``r <0, while CN`<0)
Asymmetric power conditions
The critical asymmetric power condition occurs for a multiengine airplane
when one engine fails at low flight speeds. The rudder must be able to
overcome the yawing moment produced by the asymmetric thrust
arrangement. Yawing moment due to engine failure NE = (T + Dead Engine)
X d/2. Thus there is a need to counter this yawing moment. Rudder deployed
to counteract. Rudder deflection req for engine failure = r = - NE /
(0.52SbCN``r)
Spin recovery
At high AOA, near stall angle, if one of the wings drops, autorotation sets in
with roll rate and yaw rate, pitch rate and loss of lift. Spin is a high
phenomenon in which a/c has a combi of angular rates in pitch, yaw and roll
often oscillatory in nature and CG moves in a helical path rapidly losing
altitude for every turn. For recover frm spin, AOA is reduced (pushing stick
forward), and rudder opposite spin direction applied. A/c directional ctrl
(rudder)should b able to enable recovery frm spin motion.
Roll stability, also known as dihedral effect, denoted by Cl`. A/c possess
static roll stability if restoring moment developed when it is disturbed from a
wings-level attitude. Static roll stability depends on wing dihedral angle, wing
sweep, position of wing on the fuselage, vertical tail. Dihedral cause a
stabilizing roll, and high wing also. For vertical fin, when there is a +ve side
slip, it has a ve side force on vertical fin. As side force acts above Fuselage
Reference line, there is an negative rolling moment (stabilizing).

()[

xx

3 rotational equations
Small disturbance theory: For conventional a/c
X = (X/u)u + (X/w)w +(X/elevator)elevator +(X/Throttle)Throttle
Y = (Y/v)v + (Y/p)p + (Y/r)r +(Y/rudder) rudder
Z = (Z/u)u + (Z/w)w + (X/) + (Z/q)q +(X/elevator)elevator +
(X/ Throttle)Throttle
L = (L/v)u + (L/p)p + (L/r)r +(X/rudder)rudder +(X/aileron)aileron
M = (M/u)u + (M/w)w + (M/) + (M/q)q +(M/elevator)elevator
+(X/ Throttle)Throttle
N= (N/v)v + (N/p)p + (N/r)r +(N/rudder)rudder +(N/ aileron)aileron
Decoupled longitudinal and lateral direction/EOM
Longitudinal

1DOF pitching motion

, a , q , e

M = function of(

=M + ( M + M q ) + M e e

Xw =

mu 0

Yaw damper
Snaking motion described by 1 DOF eqn for yawing brings out the
dependency of period on N and damping on Nr. Both these qualities
(period and damping) depend on fin size.
To improve the damping in yaw maintaining the same period, yaw rate
feedback is used to deflect the rudder and this feedback system is known
as yaw damper
From 1DOF yawing eqn. d2/dt2 Nrd/dt + N = N`r r, using yaw
rate feedback for rudder deflection, therefore r = kd/dt, we will get
d2/dt2 Nrd/dt + N = kN`r d/dt. Damping thus get modified by
= -(Nr+KN`r)/(2N).

FLYING QUALITIES: Aircraft Handling Qualities: Level 1-4

safety
=>
unquestionably
high,
pilot
load
=>
acceptable/moderately
high/excessively
high,
mission
accomplishment => full/partial/highly degraded; Class of
Aircraft and category of Flight phase; Cooper Harper Rating ->
set of criteria used by test pilots and flight test engineers to
evaluate the handling qualities of aircraft during flight test,
ranged from 1 to 10; Level 1 => Acceptable pilot load, mission
fully accomplished; Level 2 => Moderately high pilot load
and/or partial mission accomplished; Level 3 => Excessively
high pilot load and/or inadequate mission accomplished.
CLASSIFICATION OF AIRCRAFTS => Class I (Small light airplane
primary trainer, light observation aircraft); Class II (Medium
u
weight,
low
to
medium
maneuverability

Transport/Cargo/Tanker/Tactical
Bomber/Search
&
u
for = Ax+B (state
Rescue/Reconnaissance); Class III (Large, Heavy weight, low to
medium maneuverability heavy transport/cargo/tanker, heavy
0
bomber, reconnaissance); Class IV (Highly Maneuverable
Aircraft Fighter, Interceptor); FLIGHT PHASE CATEGORIES =>
Cat A (non terminal Flight Phase requiring rapid maneuvering,
space eqn).
To find Xu and Zu, look into fundamental eqn of X = -D+T, Z = -L, differentiate
precision flight path control tracking, Air-air combat, weapon
wrxt u. Therefore X/u=-u0SCD0, Z/u = -u0SCL0 for no compressibility
delivery, in-flight refueling (receiver), formation flight); Cat B
effects.
(Non Bterminal
State space Longitudinal EOM: = Ax + Bu, where A = aerody/propulsion matrix,
= control Flight Phase requiring gradual maneuvering,

state

vector,

g
0

control

vector

definition:

X () =

1 X
1 Y
1 Z
; Y ()=
; Z () =
m ()
m ()
m ()

L()=

1 L
1 M
1 N
; M ()=
; L()=
I xx ()
I yy ()
I zz ()

Xu
Zu
u
1Z w

Longtudinal derivatives
w
=
q
( C D + 2C D ) QS 1
M w Zu
M u+
Xu=
(s )

mu0
1Z w
Lateral Directional derivatives
0
QSC y
Y =
( m/s2 )
m
( C D +2 C L ) QS

Aileron reversal
Torque on wing section due to aileron load increases with speed. Wing
twist (deformation) reduces wing and rolling moment decreases with
speed. Roll rate produced by aileron reduces with speed.

Longitudinal characteristic equations

2 motions that is possible:
Phugoid: A/c remains tangent to flight path, slowly rising and falling motion.
AOA remains generally constant and pitching moment does not change.
Interchange of KE and PE
Short period: A/c rapidly damped out transient, rotation of a/c in pitch. a/c
inertia high to respond, thus velocity changes small/negligible.
For calculation on phugoid, approximate: AOA constant, neglect pitching
moment eq, solve axial and normal force eqn.
Using Axial force eqn after decoupling approx as small
=Xuu-g ; Zuu+u0q = 0. As q = (d/dt), (d/dt) = -Zuu0/u
From state space eqn,

matrix,

For pure pitching = , Thus,

( )

Ixx d2/dt2 = Ixx dp/dt = (L/p) p + (L/a)a. Therefore, following

subscript rule, we will get dp/dt + p = -(L`a/Lp)a.
By solving for p, we will get p = -(L`a/Lp)[1-exp(-t/)]a
Steady state is when pss = -(L`a/Lp) a,
Lp = Cl`p(b/2u0)(0.5u02Sb)/Ixx and La = Cl``a(0.5u02Sb)/Ixx
pssb/2u0 = -(Cl``a/Cl`p)a
For t= we will get p (t) = 0.63pss
Therefore by measuring roll rate build up for a given aileron i/p, including
steady state roll rate and time req to build up 0.63pss of roll rate, we can
calculate Lp or Cl`p and L`a or Cl``a

1DOF for yaw motion

Izzd2/dt2 = Izz dr/dt = (N/) +(N/r)r + (N/r)r from
yawing moment eqn
Following the subscript rule, we will have d2/dt2 Nrd/dt + N =
N`r r
From this we will get the characteristic eqn of 2 Nr + N = 0, with n =
(N) and = -Nr/(2N).

Lateral

X
u
x=
, A= Z

Engine failure in flight

Problem of trimming Side force (Y), yawing moment (N) and rolling moment
(L). Ctrl analysis carried out for possible steady state flight at engine failure
speed of , using rudder r, ailerons a, bank angle , and non-zero sideslip
angle . Formulating the 3 equations of force (Y,N, L), we get the following.
Y: CY``r r + CY``a a + CY` + Wsin/(0.52S) = 0
N: CN``r r + CN``a a + CN` + NE/(0.52Sb) = 0 (NE = yawing moment due to
engine fail)
L: Cl``r r + Cl``a a + Cl` + LE/(0.52Sb) = 0 (LE = yawing moment due to
engine fail)
Since there are 4 unknown, we need to define the last unknown, which we
can deal using the choice of piloting technique: Option 1: NO bank angle
near ground = 0, Option 2: No sideslip in flight to min drag =0.
Subsequently solve for the rest of the angles.

()

(s )

N=

QSbC n 2
(s )
I zz

force:

][

Xw
0
g cos 0
Zw
Z q +u0
g sin 0
u
1Z w
1Z w
1Z w
w +
M w ( Z q +u 0 ) M w g sin 0 q
M w Z w
Mw+
Mq +
M

1Z w
1Z w
1Z w
Summary of longitudinal approx
0Freq for phugoid
1
0
Z u g
np=
u0

()

Damping ratio for phugoid

]( )

x
cc cs + sss ss +csc u v=0
y i = cs cc +sss sc1DOF
+ capprox
ss
v u=w=0
for roll subsidence
I(roll
acceleration) = w
external rolling
moment (take rolling moment eqn
s
s

c
c
c
v=0
z i
frm small disturbance)

p=

X u
2 np