NATS 1575

TEXTBOOK CHAPTER NOTES

Need to do notes on VIDEOS AND POWERPOINTS*

NEED TO PRINT NOTES FROM EACH LECTURE:

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION:
CASE: TED BUNDY
Forensic odontologist matched the bite mark on the victims buttock to Bundys front teeth.
1. DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF FORENSIC SCIENCE:
Forensic Science is the application of science to law.
o As society has grown more complex, it has become dependent on rules of law to regulate
the activity of its members.
o Forensic science applies the knowledge of technology and science to the definition and
enforcement of such laws.
Science and Law:
o Laws are being broadened and revised in response to increases in crime rates.
o Law enforcement agencies are looking to scientific community for advice and technical
support.
Limitations of Science:
o Science cannot offer final and authoritative solutions to problems that stem from a maze
of social and psychological factors.
o Science supplies accurate and objective information that reflects the events that occurred
at a crime.
Limited Definition:
o Forensic science is the application of science to the criminal and civil laws that are
enforced by police agencies in a criminal justice system.
CSI Effect:
o Dramatization of forensic science on T.V. led to public belief that every crime scene yields
forensic evidence and produces unrealistic expectations that a prosecutors case should
always be supported by evidence.
o This detracts from the search for truth and justice in the courtroom.
o
2. HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF FORENSIC SCIENCE:
Forensic science owes its origins to:
o 1. Those who developed the principles and techniques needed to identify or compare
physical evidence.
o 2. Those who recognized the need to merge these principles into a coherent discipline
that could be practically applied to a criminal justice system.
2A. Early Developments:
Earliest records of applying forensics to solve cases comes from 3 rd century China.
CASE: Coroner solved case of wife claiming that husband died in accidental fire.
o Husbands corpse had no ashes in its mouth.
o Two pigs were burned (one alive and one dead) to see if story was true.
o Pig that was dead had no ashes in mouth coroner concluded husband was dead before
he was burned.
Chinese were among the first to recognize potential of fingerprints as a means of identification.
1686 Marcello Malpighi recorded notes about fingerprint characteristics but did not
acknowledge the value of fingerprints as a method of identification.
2B. Initial Scientific Advances:
1775 Carl Wilhelm Scheele devised first successful test for detecting the poison arsenic in
corpses.
1806 Valentin Ross discovered more precise method of detecting arsenic in the walls of
victims stomach.
1814 Mathieu Orfila (Father of Forensic Toxicology)
o Published treatise on detection of poisons and their effects on animals.

1828 William Nichol invented the polarizing microscope.

o Years later Henri-Louis Bayard formulated procedures for microscopic detection of
sperm.
*1853 first microcrystalline test for hemoglobin.
*1863 first presumptive test for blood.
*Such tests soon found practical applications in criminal trials.
1839 toxicological evidence FIRST used at a trial.
o James Marsh detected arsenic in a victims body.
1850s science of photography was used in recording images of prisoners and crime scenes.
2C. Late 19th Century Progress:
By the late 19th century, public officials were beginning to apply knowledge from virtually all
scientific disciplines to the study of crime.
1879 Alphonse Bertillon anthropology and morphology (study of the structure of living
organisms) were applied to the first system of personal identification.
o Bertillons System Anthropometry was a systematic procedure that involved taking a
series of body measurements as a means of distinguishing one individual from another.
o MOST accurate until replaced by fingerprinting in the early 1900s.
o This made Bertillon the Father of Criminal Identification.
Fingerprinting:
o Suggested by Thomas Taylor (ideas not followed up)
o Henry Faulds made a similar assertion
o Henry Galton undertook the first definitive study of fingerprints and developed a
methodology of classifying them for filing.
1892 Henry Galton published Fingerprints, which contained the first statistical proof
supporting this method of personal identification. His system describes the basic principles that
form the present system of identification by fingerprints.
1893 Hans Gross Wrote first treatise describing the application of scientific disciplines to
the field of criminal investigation.
Sherlock Holmes Fictional Character Influence:
o Holmes applied the newly developing principles of serology (blood and bodily fluids),
fingerprinting, firearms identification, and questioned-document examination long before
it was accepted by real-life criminal investigators.
2D. 20TH- Century Breakthroughs:
1901 DR. Karl Landsteiner - Blood Grouping
o Found blood can be grouped into blood types A,B,AB, and O.
1915 Leone Lattes Uses blood grouping to devise blood grouping system for dried
bloodstains
o Used information from Karl Landsteiner to devise a relatively simple procedure for
determining the blood group of a dried blood stain immediately applying it to criminal
investigations.
1910 Albert Osborn Document Examination
o Wrote a book about document examination Questioned Documents.
o Still used today as a primary reference for document examiners.
o His development of the fundamental principles of document examination was responsible
for the acceptance of documents as scientific evidence by the courts.
1910 Edmond Locard started a police laboratory Britain
o Locards Exchange Principle when two objects come into contact with one another,
there is exchange of materials between them.
o Believed that every criminal can be connected to a crime by dust particles carried from
a crime scene.
th
20 century Walter McCrone worlds preeminent microscopist
o Advocate for applying microscopy to analytical problems (forensic cases)
20th century Army Colonel Calvin Goddard firearm examination using microscope
o Able to determine whether a particular gun fired a bullet by comparing the bullet with one
test-fired from suspects weapon.
2E. Modern Scientific Advances:

Chromatography, spectrophotometry, and electrophoresis allow the modern forensic scientist to

determine identity of suspect substance and connect tiny fragments of evidence to a particular
person and place.
1984 Sir Alec Jeffreys DNA Profiling Test
o Developed the DNA profiling test and applied it to solve a crime that identified Colin
Pitchfork as the murderer of two young English girls.
o Offers precise identity of a suspect even when there is only a small amount of physical
evidence available.
REVIEW:
First system of personal identification was anthropotemry and it distinguished one person from
another based on bodily measurements.
Forensic science owes its origins to Bertillon, Galton, Lattes, Goddard, Osborn, and Locard who
developed the principles and techniques needed to identify or compare physical evidence.
3. CRIME LABORATORIES:
Forensic science technologies led to establishment of facilities for forensic analysis of criminal
evidence.
3A. History of Crime Labs in the US:
1923 August Vollmer Police Chief Created first forensic laboratory in the United
States
o Lacked status until 1948
1932 FBI organized a national laboratory that offered forensic services to all law
enforcement agencies in the country.
o The FBI Laboratory is now the worlds largest forensic laboratory.
o It conducts research to develop new and reliable scientific methods that can be applied to
forensic science and is used to train crime laboratory personnel in the latest forensic
science techniques and methods.
Despite the FBI Laboratory there is NO national system of forensic laboratories.
o Instead, many local jurisdictions each operate their own INDEPENDENT crime labs.
1972 California Department of Justice created a network od integrated state-run
crime labs of regional and satellite facilities.
o Informal exchange of information and expertise within Californias criminalist community.
o This organization (California Association of Criminalists) was the forerunner of a number of
regional organizations that have developed throughout the United States to foster
cooperation among the nations growing community of criminalists.
3B. Organization of a Crime Laboratory:
Development of crime laboratories in United States has been characterized by:
o Rapid growth
o Lack of national and regional planning and coordination
Operate at various levels of government
Laboratory staff size range and services may be diverse or specialized, depending on the
responsibilities of the agency that houses the laboratory.
Growth of Crime Laboratories:
Crime labs have been organized by agencies that saw the potential application to criminal
investigation or were pressed by the increasing demands of casework.
Reasons for Growth:
o 1. Supreme Court decisions in the 1960s made greater police emphasis on securing
scientifically evaluated evidence
Successful prosecution requires police investigation incorporating the skills of
forensic science experts.
Modern technology has increased their participation.
o 2. Increase crime rates resulted in increased use of crime lab services by police agencies.
All illicit-drug seizures must be sent to a lab for confirmatory chemical analysis
before the case can be adjudicated.
Since 1960s, drug abuse has accelerated with uncontrollable levels.
Nearly half of requests for examination of forensic evidence deal with abused
drugs.

3. Advent of DNA profiling lead to recent growth and maturation of crime labs.
Since 1990s, traces of blood, saliva, semen stains, hair residues made possible
the individualization of biological evidence.
To meet the demands of DNA technology, crime labs have expanded staff and
modernized equipment.
Problem Facing the Forensic DNA Community:
o Backlog of unanalyzed DNA samples from crime scenes.
o 57000 unanalyzed casework DNA samples.
o 500000 untested convicted offender samples.
o SOLUTION: government has initiated funding for in-house analysis of samples at the
crime lab or outsource samples to private labs for analysis.
Beginning in 2008, California began collecting DNA samples from all people arrested on suspicion
of a felony, not waiting until a person is convicted.
o The system has over 1 million DNA profiles the third largest in the world behind those
of U.K. and FBI.
Crime Laboratories in the United States:
Federal government system combined with desire to retain local control has produced a variety
of independent labs in the U.S precluding the creation of a national system.
Federal government has NO single law enforcement or investigative agency with unlimited
jurisdiction.
FOUR major federal crime labs have been created to investigate and enforce criminal laws that
extend beyond jurisdictional boundaries of state and local forces:
o 1. FBI has the largest crime lab in the world.
o 2. DEA (Drug Enforcement Administration) analyze drugs seized in violation of
federal laws regulating the production, sale, and transportation of drugs.
o 3. Bureau of alcohol, tobacco, firearms, and explosives analyze alcoholic
beverages and documents relating to alcohol and firearm excise tax law enforcement and
examine weapons, explosive devices, and related evidence to enforce the Gun Control Act
of 1968 and the Organized Crime Control Act of 1970.
o 4. US Postal Inspection Service maintains labs concerned with criminal investigations
related to postal service.
Most states maintain a crime lab to service state and local law enforcement agencies that do
NOT have ready access to a lab.
o Local labs provide services county and municipal agencies and operate INDEPENDENTLY
of the state crime lab and are financed DIRECTLY by LOCAL government.
OVERALL:
o Larger cities have their own crime lab under direction of local police dep.
o High population and high crime rates combine to make a municipal facility such as New
York City, the largest crime lab in the state.
Crime Laboratories Abroad:
Like the US, most countries have created and now maintain forensic facilities.
Difference between US and UK:
o American system consists of independent local laboratories.
o Great Britain has developed a NATIONAL system of regional labs under the direction of the
governments Home Office.
o Fee-for-service concept in the U.K. has encouraged the creation of private labs that
provide services to BOTH police and criminal defense attorneys.
Canada:
o Forensic services are provided by THREE government-funded institutes:
1. Six Royal Canadian Mounted Police regional labs.
2. The Centre of Forensic Sciences in Toronto
3. Institute of the Legal Medicine and Police Science in Montreal
Other Countries:
o Have at LEAST one lab facility offering forensic science services.
3C. Services of the Crime Laboratory:
The independent development of crime labs in the US with the variation of total services offered
is because of:
o

o 1. Variations in local laws

o 2. The different capabilities and functions of the organization to which a lab is attached
o 3. Budgetary and staffing limitations.
In recent years, labs have been created solely processing drug specimens.
FIVE Basic Services Provided by Full-Service Crime Labs:
1. Physical Science Unit:
o Applies principles and techniques of chemistry, physics, and geology to the identification
and comparison of crime scene evidence.
o Staffed with criminalists who have expertise to examine drugs, glass, paint, explosives,
and soil.
o In a large enough lab, there could be further subdivision into drug identification, soil and
mineral analysis, and examination of physical trace evidence.
2. Biology Unit:
o Staffed with biologists and biochemists who identify and perform DNA profiling on dried
bloodstains and other body fluids, and compare hairs and fibers, and identify and
compare botanical materials such as wood and plants.
3. Firearms Unit:
o Examines firearms, discharged bullets, cartridge cases, shotgun shells, and ammunition.
o Examine garments for firearm discharge residue.
o Examine objects to approximate the distance from a target at which a weapon was fire.
o Compare marks made by tools.
4. Documentation Examination Unit:
o Study the hand-writing and typewriting on questioned documents to ascertain
authenticity and/or source.
o Analyze paper and ink, indented writings, obliterations, erasures, and burned or charred
documents.
5. Photography Unit:
o Examines and records physical evidence.
o Techniques used are digital imaging, infrared, UV, and x-ray photography, to make visible
information to the naked eye.
o Prepares photo evidence for court.
FIVE OPTIONAL Services Provided by Full-Service Crime Labs:
6. Toxicology Unit:
o Examines body fluids and organs to determine the presence or absence of drugs and
poisons.
o Intoxilyzer used to determine alcohol consumption of individuals.
7. Latent Fingerprint Unit:
o Processes and examines evidence for latent fingerprints.
8. Polygraph Unit:
o Essential tool of a criminal investigator rather than a forensic scientists.
o Police use lie detectors by criminal investigation and interrogation trained individuals.
9. Voiceprint Analysis Unit:
o Tie the voice to a particular suspect.
o Spectrograph transforms speech into a visual graphic display (voiceprint).
o Validity rests on the premise that the sound patterns produced in speech are unique to
the individual and that the voiceprint displays this uniqueness.
10. Crime-scene Investigation Unit:
o Dispatches specially trained personnel (civilian and/or police) to the crime scene to collect
and preserve physical evidence that will later be processed at the crime lab.
o Lab administrators need to keep open lines of communication between analysts (police
and civilian), crime scene investigators, and police personnel.
SEVEN OTHER SPECIAL Forensic Science Services:
11. Forensic Psychiatry:
o Specialized area that examines the relationship between human behaviour and legal
proceedings.
o Used for both civil and criminal litigations.
o Civil: determine if person is competent to make decisions.

Criminal: evaluate behavioural disorders and determine whether defendants are

competent to stand trial.
12. Forensic Odontology:
o Help identify victims based on dental evidence when the body is left in an unrecognizable
state.
o Teeth are composed of enamel, which is the hardest substance in the body.
Because of the enamels resilience, the teeth outlasts tissues and organs as
decomposition begins.
o The characteristics of teeth, their alignment, and the overall structure of the mouth
provide individual evidence for identifying a specific person.
o Also used for bite-mark analysis.
o Dental remains can be compared to a suspected victim (including x-rays and picture of
smile).
13. Forensic Engineering:
o Failure analysis, accident reconstruction, and causes and origins of fires and explosions.
o Accident scenes are examined, photos are reviewed, and mechanical objects involved are
inspected.
14. Forensic Computer and Digital Analysis:
o Identifying, collecting, preserving, and examining information derived from computers
and other digital devices.
o Recover deleted or overwritten data from a computers hard drive and track hacking
activities.
15. Forensic Pathology, Anthropology and Entomology:
4. THE FUNCTIONS OF THE FORENSIC SCIENTIST:
Primarily relies on scientific knowledge and skill.
Other part of job is in the courtroom where significance of evidence is determined.
Analyze evidence and persuade jury to accept the conclusions derived from that analysis.
4A. Analyzing Physical Evidence:
Forensic scientists must be skilled in applying the principles and techniques of the physical and
natural sciences to analyze the many types of physical evidence that may be recovered during a
criminal investigation.
There are three avenues available to police officers for assistance in solving a crime:
o 1. Confessions
There are concerns with wrongfully convicting someone using confessions and
eyewitness accounts.
o 2. Eyewitness accounts by victims or witnesses
o 3. Evaluation of physical evidence retrieved from crime scene
Free of inherent error or bias
Must undergo scientific inquiry.
Science derives its integrity from adherence to strict guidelines that ensure careful
and systematic collection, organization, and analysis of information = SCIENTIFIC
METHOD
Scientific method provides a safety net to ensure that the outcome of an
investigation is NOT tainted by human emotion or compromised by distorting,
belittling, or ignoring contrary evidence.
Scientific Method:
o 1. Formulate a question worthy of investigation.
o 2. Formulate a hypothesis (a reasonable explanation proposed to answer the question).
o 3. Testing of hypothesis through experimentation.
Testing process must be thorough and organized by other scientists as valid.
Scientists must accept the findings
o 4. Hypothesis is validated and becomes suitable as scientific evidence and available for
admission in a court of law.
Determining Admissibility of Evidence:
Scientific validity of polygraph test has been rejected.
o

In Frye v. United States the court ruled that in order to be admitted as evidence at trial, the
questioned procedure, technique, or principles must be generally accepted by a meaningful
segment of the relevant scientific community.
o In practice, this approach requires the proponent of a scientific test to present to the court
a collection of experts who can testify that the scientific issue before the court is
generally accepted by the relevant members of the scientific community.
o Courts take note of books and papers written on the subject, as well as prior judicial
decisions relating to the reliability and general acceptance of the technique.
Frye Standard:
The Federal Rules of Evidence = Alternative to the Frye Standard more flexible standard for
admitting scientific evidence.
o A witness qualified as an expert by knowledge, skill, experience, training, or education
may offer expert testimony
1. The testimony is based upon sufficient facts or data.
2. The testimony is the product of reliable principles and methods.
3. The witness has applied the principles and methods reliably to the facts of the
case.
General acceptance or the Frye Standard is not an absolute prerequisite to the admissibility of
scientific evidence under the Federal Rules of Evidence.
o The Rules of Evidence Rule 702 assign to the trial judge the task of ensuring that
an experts testimony rests on a reliable foundation and is relevant to the case.
o Many courts are expected to use this decision as a guideline in setting standards for the
admissibility of scientific evidence.
Judging Scientific Evidence:
In Daubert, the Court advocates that trial judges assume the ultimate responsibility for acting as
a GATEKEEPER in judging the admissibility and reliability of scientific evidence presented in
their courts.
The court offered some guidelines as to how a judge can gauge the veracity of scientific
evidence, emphasizing that the inquiry should be flexible. Suggested areas of inquiry include:
o 1. Whether the scientific technique or theory can be (and has been) tested.
o 2. Whether the technique or theory has been subject to peer review and publication.
o 3. The techniques potential rate of error.
o 4. Existence and maintenance of standards controlling the techniques operation.
o 5. Whether the scientific theory or method has attracted wide-spread acceptance within a
relevant scientific community.
Abandoning the Fryes general-acceptance test will result in the introduction of absurd and
irrational pseudoscientific claims in the courtroom.
o Supreme Court rejected these concerns, pointing out the inherent strengths of the
American judicial process in identifying unreliable evidence.
1999 Kumbo Tire, the Court unanimously ruled that the gatekeeping role of the trial judge
applied not only to scientific testimony, but to all expert testimony.
Case of Coppolino VS State:
o Exemplifies the flexibility and wide discretion that the DAUBERT ruling gave to trial
judges in matters of scientific inquiry.
o Issue at Question: whether the results of a new procedure that have not been widely
accepted in the scientific community are necessarily inadmissible as evidence.
o Coppolino ruling acknowledged that even well established scientific procedures were
once new and unproven and noted the courts duty to protect the public when weighing
the admissibility of a new test.
New tests are admissible ONLY if they are based on scientifically valid principles
and techniques.
4B. Providing Expert Testimony:
Trial courts accept expert witnesses because results of their work may be a factor in determining
a persons guilt or innocence.
o Expert Witness: an individual whom the court determines to possess knowledge
relevant to the trial that is not expected of the average layperson.
Court will consider knowledge acquired through experience, training, education, or a combination
as sufficient grounds for qualification as an expert witness.

In court, expert witness will be asked questions to demonstrate their competence

pertaining to the matter.
Cite degrees, courses, membership in professional societies, and articles or books
published.
Number of years of occupation experience the witness has in areas related to the
matter.
o Before the judge rules on the witnesss qualifications, the opposing attorney may crossexamine the witness and point out weaknesses in background and knowledge.
o Most courts are reluctant to disqualify an individual as an expert because the question of
what credentials are suitable for qualification are ambiguous and highly subjective.
o Judge or jury assign weight to expert testimony.
o The problem of sorting out the strengths and weaknesses of expert testimony falls to
prosecution and defense counsel.
Ordinary or Lay Person:
o Testify on events or observations that arise from personal knowledge.
o Testimony must be factual and NOT contain personal opinions.
Expert Witness:
o Cannot render any view with absolute certainty.
o Offer an opinion based on a reasonable scientific certainty derived from training and
experience.
o Defends the techniques and conclusions of the analysis but must not be reluctant to
discuss impartially any findings that could minimize the significance of the analysis.
o Should not advocate for one partys cause.
o Should advocate for the truth.
o

4C. Furnishing Training in the Proper Recognition, Collection, and Preservation of Physical
Evidence:
Competence of lab staff has no value is evidence is not properly recognized, collected, and
preserved at the site of a crime.
There are evidence technicians on 24 hour call to help criminal investigators retrieve evidence.
o Trained by lab staff.
o Many police forces have NOT adopted this approach and the detective or patrol officer
collects the evidence.
o EVERY officer should become familiar with the capabilities of a crime lab because at some
point they will have to process evidence.
REVIEW:
A forensic scientists must be skilled in applying the principles and techniques of the physical and
natural sciences to analyzing evidence that may be recovered during a criminal investigation.
The cases Frye VS United States and Daubert VS Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals set guidelines for
determining the admissibility of scientific evidence into the courtroom.
An expert witness evaluates the evidence based on specialized training and experience.
Forensic scientists participate in training law enforcement personnel in the proper recognition,
collection, and preservation of physical evidence.
CHAPTER 2 THE CRIME SCENE:
1.PHYSICAL EVIDENCE AND THE CRIME SCENE:
Crime labs run on physical evidence.
Physical evidence is any object that can establish that a crime has or has not been committed
or can link a crime and its victims or its perpetrator.
Physical evidence achieves its optimum value when it is collected selectively with the collectors
knowledge of the crime lab techniques, capabilities, and limitations.
Crime labs do NOT solve crimes.
Forensic science begins at a crime scene.
o If the investigator cannot recognize physical evidence or cannot properly preserve it in lab
examination, no amount of sophisticated laboratory instrumentation or technical
expertise can salvage the situation.

*Not all crime scenes require retrieval of physical evidence, and limited resources and personnel
have forced many police agencies to restrict their efforts in this area to crimes of a more serious
nature.
Once a commitment has been made to process a crime, certain fundamental practices must be
followed.

2. PRESERVING AND RECORDING THE CRIME SCENE:

2A. Secure and Isolate the Crime Scene:
The first officer arriving on the scene of crime must preserve and protect the area as much as
possible.
First you provide medical assistance.
Second, exclude all unauthorized personnel from the scene.
o As additional officers arrive, measures are immediately initiated to isolate the area with
ropes or barricades and strategic positioning of guards to prevent unauthorized access.
o Excluding unauthorized personnel is difficult in high-violent crimes because of attention
from higher level police officials, members of the press, and emotionally charged
neighbours and curiosity seekers.
o Every person who enters the crime scene has the potential to destroy evidence even if it
is by unintentional carelessness.
Securing and isolating the crime scene are critical steps in an investigation, the accomplishment
of which is the mark of a trained and professional crime-scene investigative team.
o Once it has been secured, a lead investigator evaluates the area.
1. They determine the boundaries of the scene and establish perpetrator path of
entry and exit.
2. The investigator does a walk-through to gain an overview of the situation
3. Develop a strategy for systematically examining and documenting the entire
crime scene.
2B. Record the Scene:
The opportunity to permanently record the scene in its original state must not be lost
therefore, they only have a limited amount of time to work on a crime site in its untouched state.
Three methods for recording the crime scene:
o 1. Photography
o 2. Sketches
o 3. Notes
Ideally, all three should be used but personnel and monetary limitations often prohibit the use of
photography at every crime site.
Photography:
Prerequisite: scene must NOT be altered.
o Unless injured people are involved, objects must not be moved until they have been
photographed.
o If they are moved, photos may NOT be admissible as evidence at a trial and intended
value will be lost.
If objects are moved, it should be noted.
Evidence should not be reintroduced in order to take photographs.
Photos should be as complete as possible:
o Include areas of where crime took place and all adjacent areas where important acts took
place before or after the crime from various angles (points of entry, points of exit).
o Photo must be taken of the body and its position relative to the entire scene.
o After body is removed, surface beneath should be photographed.
o Items are photographed to show their position and location relative to the entire scene.
o Close ups are taken to record the details of the object itself.
Electronic images can be stitched to reveal a near 3-D panoramic view of the crime scene.
Videotaping and digital video is becoming more popular because of its low cost.
o One narrates the events and scenes being recorded while another does the shooting.

Videotaping cannot replace photos because photos remain unsurpassed in the definition
of detail it provides to the human eye.

Sketches:
After a scene has been photographed, the crime-scene investigator sketches the scene.
A ROUGH SKETCH a sketch, drawn at the crime scene, that contains an accurate depiction of
the dimensions of the scene and shows the location of all objects having a bearing on the case.
o Objects are located by distance measurements from two fixed points (walls of room).
o Distances must be accurate (made with tape measure).
o Items are given numbers and then a legend is used correlating letter to items description.
o Sketch includes compass heading designating NORTH.
A FINISHED SKETCH a precise rendering of the crime scene, usually drawn to scale and with
concern for aesthetic appearance.
o Information must reflect rough sketch in order to be admissible in court.
o CAD Computer-Aided Drafting is used to reconstruct crime scenes.
Allows users to select scale size so that the final product can be produced in a size
suitable for courtroom presentation.
Notes:
Constant throughout the processing of a crime scene.
Include:
o Detailed written description of the scene with location of items of physical evidence
recovered.
o Identify the time an item of physical evidence was discovered, by whom, and how and by
whom it was packaged and marked, and the disposition of the item after is was collected.
Sufficiently detailed to refresh ones memory later, even years later.
Tape-recording notes can be advantageous.
Narrate a video recording of scene.
Eventually both must be transcribed into a written document.
REVIEW:
Physical evidence includes any and all objects that can establish that a crime has been
committed or link the crime and its victim or its perpetrator.
Forensic science begins at the crime scene, where investigators must recognize and properly
preserve evidence for laboratory examination.
First officer must secure the crime scene.
Investigators record the crime scene by using photos, sketches, notes, and make a preliminary
examination of the scene as the perpetrator left it.
3. DEALING WITH PHYSICAL EVIDENCE:
After the preliminary walk-through, a more thorough search for physical evidence begins.
Once found, it must be collected and preserved in a way that preserves its integrity for forensic
comparison and analysis.
3A. Conduct Systematic Search for Evidence:
Search must be thorough and systematic.
For an unbiased reconstruction investigator must not overlook any pertinent evidence.
o Failure may lead to accusations of negligence or charges that the investigative agency
knowingly covered up evidence.
Even when suspects are immediately seized and circumstances of crime are
apparent, a thorough search for physical evidence must be conducted at once.
Forensic scientist is NOT needed at a crime scene their role begins when evidence is
submitted to the crime lab.
Considerations in Searching the Crime Scene:
Conducting a crime scene search depends on:
o Locale and size of area
o Actions of suspects and victims at the scene
Area searched must include ALL points of exit and entry.
Methods: Pg 53
o Spiral search

o Grid
o Strip or line
o Quadrant or zone
Nature of the case determines how detailed the search must be and what relevant physical
evidence to look for.
o Homicide: weapon, cross-transfer of evidence such as hairs, fibers, and blood.
Vehicle searches must be planned and systematically carried out.
o In a hit-and-run the outside and undercarriage of the car must be examined with care.
o Particular attention is paid to looking for any evidence between the car and the victim
(cross-transfer of evidence)
Blood, tissue, hair, fibers, and fabric impressions.
o Traces of paint or broken glass on victim.
Homicide: all areas inside and outside of car are searched with equal care.
3B. Collect Physical Evidence:
Physical evidence can be microscopic or massive objects.
Some are obvious, some are only detected in examination in the crime lab.
Minute traces of blood may be discovered on garments only after a thorough search in the lab
and presence of hairs and fibers may be revealed in vacuum sweepings or on garments after
close lab examination.
o Therefore, may be important to take custody of clothes worn by suspects.
Critical areas of scene are vacuumed and sent to lab.
Fingernail scrapings from individuals in contact with other may contain evidence linking victim to
assailant.
o Scrapings subjected to microscopic examination in the lab.
Moving from crime scene to victim autopsy, the following are collected:
o 1. Victim clothing
o 2. Fingernail scrapings
o 3. Head and pubic hairs
o 4. Blood (for DNA typing)
o 5. Vaginal, anal, and oral swabs (in sex related crimes)
o 6. Recovered bullets from the body
o 7. Hand swabs from shooting victims (for gunshot residue analysis)
Crime-scene search vehicle is a police vehicle that has supplies to protect the crime scene,
photograph, collect, and package physical evidence, and develop latent prints.
Procedures For Collecting and Packaging Physical Evidence:
Physical evidence must be handled and processed in a way that prevents any change from
taking place between the time it is removed from the crime scene and the time it is received by
the crime lab.
o Changes Causes:
Contamination,
Breakage
Evaporation
Accidental scratching or bending
Improper or careless packaging
o Integrity of evidence is maintained when it is kept in its original condition as found at the
crime site.
o Entire object should be sent to lab (piece of clothing with hair on it).
o Bloodstain:
Scrape the stain off surface
Transfer the stain to a moistened swab
Cut out the area of the object bearing the stain
o Packaging evidence separately prevents damage through contact and prevents crossexamination.
Tools for Evidence Collection:
Forceps: used to pick up small items
Unbreakable plastic pill bottles with pressure lids: used for hairs, glass, fibers, and various
other kinds of small or trace evidence.

Manila envelopes, screw-cap glass vials, or cardboard pillboxes are used for most trace
evidence.
o Ordinary mailing envelopes should not be sued because powders and fine particles will
leak out of their corners.
Druggist Fold: small amounts of trace evidence packaged in carefully folded paper.
Wrapping paper, manila envelopes, or paperbags: recommended for blood because if in
airtight container, mold will grow.
Paper bags: Clothing
o Used for clothing
o Keeps air circulation constant
o Prevents mold and mildew formation
Airtight Containers: Charred remains
o Prevents the evaporation of volatile petroleum residues

3C. Maintain the Chain of Custody:

Chain of custody (continuity of possession) must be established whenever evidence is presented
in court as an exhibit.
o Chain of Custody: a list of all people who came into possession of an item of evidence.
o Failure to do this may lead to questions regarding authenticity and integrity of evidence
and examination of it.
o Adhering to standard procedures in recording the location of evidence, marking it for
identification, and properly completing evidence submission forms for lab analysis
guarantees that the evidence will withstand inquiries.
Evidence need to be carefully packaged and marked.
o Packaged to avoid destroying evidential value.
o Marked for identification (collectors initial and date collected)
Needs to be tagged for identification if unsure of where to mark.
o Once evidence container is selected for evidence, it must be marked for identification.
Transfers of evidence must be recorded in notes and other appropriate forms.
o Written report of acquisition and disposition.
Chain of custody should be kept to a minimum because anyone in contact with evidence can be
requested to testify in court.
3D. Obtain Standard/ Reference Samples:
Standard/Reference Sample: physical evidence whose origin is known, such as blood or hair
from a suspect, that can be compared to crime-scene evidence.
o Examination of evidence requires comparison with a known standard/reference sample.
o Such materials may be obtained from the victim, a suspect, or other known sources.
o Quality and quantity of standard/reference specimens often determine the evidential
value of crime scene evidence.
o Example: Hit-and-Run Case:
May require the removal of standard/reference paint from a suspect vehicle.
This will permit its comparison to paint recovered at the scene.
Example: Hair
o Hair found at a crime scene will be of value when compared to standard/reference hairs
from suspect and victim.
Example: Buccal Swab
o A swab of the inner portion of the cheek, performed to collect cells for use in determining
the DNA profile of an individual.
o When you have bloodstained evidence you must then collect whole blood or buccal swab
standard/reference specimens from all relevant crime scene participants.
Example: Substrate Control
o Uncontaminated surface material close to an area where physical evidence has been
deposited; used to ensure that the surface on which a sample has been deposited does
NOT interfere with lab tests.
o These are materials close to areas where physical evidence has been deposited.
o Normally collected at arson scenes.

If arson is suspected, investigator should ALSO collect surface material that is NOT
have been believed exposed to the accelerant.
The substrate control is tested to ensure that the surface on which the accelerant
was deposited does not interfere with testing procedures.
Another example of a substrate is material on which a bloodstain has been
deposited.
Unstained areas close to the stain may be sampled to determine whether
this material can interfere with the interpretation of the lab results.
3E. Submit Evidence to the Laboratory:
Evidence is submitted either by personal delivery or by mail shipment.
Method of transmittal is determined by:
o The distance the submitting agency must travel to the lab
o The urgency of the case
If personal delivery deliverer should be familiar with case
Mail shipment desired but postal regulations restrict shipment of certain chemical, live
ammunition, and explosives.
Most labs require that an evidence submission form accompany ALL evidence submitted.
o Brief description of case is include.
o Particular kind of examination requested for each type of evidence should be delineated.
Examiner will not be restricted to tests requested by investigator.
During examination, new evidence may be uncovered.
A list of items submitted for examination must be included on the evidence submission form.
o Each item is to be packaged separately and assigned a number or letter, which should be
listed in an orderly and logical sequence on the form.
REVIEW:
The search pattern selected depends on size and locale of scene and number of collectors
participating in search.
Many items of evidence may be detected only through examination at the crime lab. Thus, it is
important to collect possible carriers of trace evidence, such as clothing, vacuum sweepings, and
fingernail scrapings.
Each item of physical evidence collected at a crime scene must be placed in a separate
appropriate container to prevent damage through contact or cross examination.
Investigators must maintain the chain of custody, a record for denoting the location of evidence.
Proper standard/reference samples such as hair, blood, and fibers must be collected at the crime
scene and from appropriate subjects for comparison purposes in the library.
4. THE MURDER SCENE: DEATH AND AUTOPSIES:
Most important piece of evidence: dead body of a victim.
o When foul play is suspected, body is subjected to intense physical analysis like any other
piece of evidence.
Done by forensic pathologist and aided by anthropologist and entomologist.
4A. Role of the Forensic Pathologist:
Pathology determines CAUSE of death.
o Investigation of sudden, unnatural, unexplained, or violent deaths.
Questions to answer:
o Who is the victim?
o What injuries are present?
o When did the injuries occur?
o Why and how were the injuries produced?
Autopsy = medical dissection and examination of a body in order to determine the cause of
death.
o Performed if death is suspicious or unexplained.
o The cause of death may not always be what it seems (a guy with a gunshot wound and
suicide note... upon autopsy reveals he actually died of suffocation).
o Normally performed to establish the cause of death and manner of death is classified
into five categories:
1. Natural
2. Homicide

 3. Suicide
4. Accident
5. Undetermined
4B. Estimating Time of Death:
There are several stages of decomposition and is used to estimate time of death.
o 1. Rigor Mortis:
TIME: Occurs within 24 hours and disappears within 36 hours.
EVENTS: Muscles relax and then become rigid.
o 2. Livor Mortis:
TIME: Immediately after death and continues for up to 12 hours after death.
EVENTS: when the human heart stops pumping, the blood begins to settle in the
parts of the body closest to the ground.
Skin appears dark blue or purple in these areas.
No discoloration in areas restricted by clothing or an object pressing against
the body (useful in determining if position of body was changed after
death).
o 3. Algor Mortis:
TIME:
EVENTS: A process that occurs after death in which the body temperature
continually cools until it reaches the ambient room temperature.
Rate of heat loss: influenced by factors such as the location and size of
the body, victims clothing, and weather conditions.
o RESULT: this method can only APPROXIMATE TOD.
o RATE: beginning an hour after death, the rate of heat loss is 1-1 F
per hour until the body reaches the environmental temperature.
o Potassium Levels In The Ocular Fluid:
After death, eyes release potassium into ocular fluid.
Can determine the rate at which potassium is released into the vitreous humor and
use it to approximate TOD.
o Amount of Food in Stomach:
Can help estimate when a persons last meal was eaten to help investigate a
death.
4C. Role of the Forensic Anthropologist:
Identification and examination of human skeletal remains.
Skeletal bones are durable and undergo a SLOW breakdown process that lasts decades or
centuries.
Resistance to rapid decomposition and can provide:
o Sex
o Approximate age
o Race
o Height
o Physical injury
Recovering and Processing Remains:
Sites where human remains are found must be treated as a crime scene.
o Secured immediately to prevent further alteration.
o Need to locate all bones and any footwear impressions or discarded items near the TOMB
SITE.
o Tools used: metal detectors, aerial photography, ground penetrating radar, infrared photo,
apparatuses that detect gases produced by biological decomposition and cadaver dogs to
detect the odors of biological decomposition.
Scene sketch is made to show location of all items using preferably a GPS.
Once remains have been recovered, they can be examined to deduce information about the
identify to descendant.
Determining Victim Characteristics:
GENDER: determined by size and shape of various skeletal features. (pg 65)
o Pelvic Bones:
Female: wider, more circular opening, approximately at right angle.

 Male: acute (less than 90 degrees)

Pelvic bone: if there is a groove, tell she gave birth to children.

o Sacrum:
Female: wider and shorter.
Male: length and width are roughly equal
o Cranium:
Males: larger in overall size than females, more pronounced brow bone and
mastoid process.
AGE: varies on victims growth stage
o For infants and toddlers: age can be estimated by the length of the long bones (femur
and humerus) when compared to a known growth curve.
o Different sections of the skull also fuse together at different stages in early development,
and the appearance of a fused or divided sections can be used to estimate the age of
bones still in early developmental stages.
o In infant skeletons: formation of teeth can be used in age determination. (based on fact
that permanent teeth start from birth)
Age determined by fusion or lack of fusion of epiphyseal regions of bones such as
those of mandible (lower jaw), fingers, wrist, long bones, and clavicle.
Average age at which these fuse is KNOWN and can be compared against the state
of remains.
o Childs cranium: smaller size and presence of developing teeth.
o After age 21: age is estimated by the level of change experienced by the surfaces of the
bones, especially in areas of common wear such as pubic symphysis.
Pubic Symphysis changes over years from a rough, rugged surface to a smooth,
well-defined area.
RACE: pg 69
o Mongoloid Skeletons (Asian):
Eye orbits are circular
Frontal plane of cranium may be flat or projected
Nasal cavity is small and rounded
o Caucasoid Skeletons (European):
Eye orbits are oval
Frontal plane is flat
Nasal cavity is long and narrow
o Negroid Skeletons (African):
Eye orbits are square
Frontal plane is projected outward
Nasal cavity is wide
o Asian ancestry and Native American descent:
Scooped out or shovel-shaped incisor teeth.
HEIGHT:
o When alive, determined by measuring the long bones, especially lower limbs.
o Even partial bones can yield results.
o Equations on pg 69 yield estimations within 5cm of the actual height.
Other Contributions of Forensic Anthropology:
1. Create facial reconstruction to help identify skeletal remains.
o Use the victims actual cranium and takes into account estimate age, ancestry, and
gender.
o Composite can be drawn to attempt to identify victim.
o Skull photo superimposition: photograph of the person is overlayed at

the skull to see whether it is a good match.

o
2. Identify victims of plane crash.
o Identify victims through collection of bone fragments.
o Definite identification can ONLY be made through analyzing the decedents DNA profile,
fingerprints, or medical records.

Recovered remains may still contain some soft tissue material and may yield a
DNA profile.
It may be possible to rehydrate tissue to yield fingerprints.
4D. Role of the Forensic Entomologist:
The study of INSECTS and their relation to a criminal investigation.
Studies development of insect larvae in a body to estimate TOD.
Used when circumstances surrounding the crime are unknown.
Studying the stage of development of maggots or insect sequence of arrival.
Determining Time of Death:
1. Necrophilious Insects:
o TIME: usually within 24 hours
o WHAT: insects that feed on dead tissue are first to infest the body
o EXAMPLE: Blowfly (blue or green colour)
2. Blowfly Eggs: One hour to one month
o Laid in human remains and hatch into maggots, or fly larvae, which consume human
organs and tissues.
o Bowfly lays 2000 eggs in its lifetime.
o The larvae maggot mass feed on the decomposing remains.
o Estimate TOD by examining stage of fly
o This kind of determination is best for one hour to one month because bowfly goes through
stages of lifecycle at known intervals and sequence.
By determining the most developed stage of fly found on the body, entomologists
can approximate POSTMORTEM INTERVAL (PMI) or the time that has elapsed
since death.
Newly emerged flies indicate an entire bowfly cycle has been
completed on the decomposing body.
Empty pupal cases indicate that a fly has completed its entire life cycle
on the body. (same as above)
3. Cheese Skippers Flies:
o Found on human corpses in the later stages of decomposition long after the bowflies have
left the corpse.
Limitations:
o Stage development is affected by environmental influences, and the entomologist must
consider these when estimating PMI.
Other:
o Information about the arrival of other species of insects may also help determine the PMI.
o The sequence of arrival of these groups depends on the bodys natural
decomposition process.
1. Predator insects arrive and prey on necrophilious insects:
Several kinds of beetles will be found, either feeding directly on the corpse
or as predators feeding on bowfly eggs and maggots on the corpse.
2. Omnivore insects arrive at the body:
They feed on the body, other insects, and on surrounding vegetation.
Ants and wasps are examples.
3. Last is the arrival of indigenous insects:
Spiders
Presence on or near the body is coincidental as they move about their
environment.
o The sequence of arrival of different insect groups can help determine PMI.
This method is usually used when months have elapsed since the decedent died.
To be accurate species must be compared to experimental data from the
geographical area.
Then, they look for what species are missing to set a minimum PMI.
Then, they look at what groups have NOT yet arrived (this determines
season of death).

Limitation: the diversity of insects found on a body is also affected by the

bodys location, weather and temperature conditions, habitat
characteristics, indigenous species, and characteristics of the body.
Other Contributions of Forensic Entomology:
Insects first colonize natural moist orifices. (holes/openings).
If wounds are present, they colonize there first.
Decomposition may conceal wounds, but colonization away from natural orifices may help locate
wounds on body.
Lots of maggots on hands and forearms defensive wounds of victim
Insects fed on body accumulate drugs present in flesh and yield identity of drugs.
CHAPTER 3 PHYSICAL EVIDENCE:
CASE:
Peterson convicted in wifes death:
o Witness testimony: wife wearing khaki pants night before her disappearance clothes she
was found in
o Peterson failed to bring appropriate rod to catch the fish he said he was catching.
o Body of wife found near where he was fishing.
o A black hair (matching wife DNA profile) found on pair of pliers in Petersons boat.
1. COMMON TYPES OF PHYSICAL EVIDENCE:
1. Blood, Semen, Saliva:
o Good source of DNA
o Can be liquid or dried
o Includes cig butts that may contain saliva residues
o These substances are subjected to serological and biochemical analysis to determine their
identity and possible origin.
2. Documents:
o Any handwriting and typewriting submitted so that authenticity or source can be
determined.
3. Drugs:
o Any substance seized in violation of laws regulating the sale, manufacturing, and
distribution of drugs.
4. Explosives:
o Any device containing an explosive charge, as well as objects removed from the scene of
an explosion that are suspected to contain the residues of an explosive.
5. Fibers:
o Any natural or synthetic fiber whose transfer may be useful in establishing a relationship
between objects and/or people.
6. Fingerprints: All prints hidden(latent) and visible.
7. Firearms and Ammunition:
o Any firearm as well as discharged or intact ammunition suspected of being involved in a
criminal offense.
8. Glass:
o Any glass particle or fragment that may have been transferred to a person or object
involved in a crime.
o Windowpanes containing holes made by a bullet or other projectile.
9. Hair: (she has more detail on her slides)
o Any animal or human hair.

Brown hair
person.

Cannot distinguish two brown hair from two blonde hair

Morphological
Cuticle determines species
Context pigmentation
Medullas fragmented or absent
can be individualized if it has root/can give the DNA of a specific

Footwear that has been worn for a few days has become individual
characteristics. Same thing with a tire from a car.
o
o
10. Impressions:
o Tire markings, shoe prints, depressions in soft soils, and all other forms of tracks.
o Glove and other fabric impressions.
o Bitemarks in skin or foodstuffs.
11. Organs and physiological fluids:
o Body organs or fluids submitted to detect traces of drugs and poisons.
o Blood is analyzed for alcohol or other drugs.
12. Paint:
o Any paint that is liquid or dried that may have been transferred from one surface to object
during crime.
o Transfer of paint from one vehicle to another during car crash.
13. Petroleum Products:
o Any petroleum product removed from a suspect or found at crime scene.
o Gasoline residue from scene of an arson
o Grease or oil stains whose presence may suggest involvement in a crime.
14. Plastic Bags:
o Disposable polyethylene bag such as garbage bag may be evidence in homicide or drug
case.
o Examinations are done to associate a bag with a similar bag in the possession of the
suspect.
15. Plastic, Rubber, and other Polymers:
o Remnants of these manufactured minerals recovered at crime scenes may be linked to
objects recovered in the possession of a criminal suspect.
16. Powder Residues:
o Any item suspected of containing power residues resulting from the discharge of a
firearm.
17. Serial Numbers:
o This category includes all stolen property submitted to lab for restoration of erased
identification numbers.
18. Soil and Minerals:
o All items containing soil or minerals that could link a person or object to a particular
location.
o Soil embedded in shoes
o Insulation found on garments.
19. Tool Marks:
o Object suspected of containing the impression of another object that served as a tool in a
crime.
o Screwdriver or crowbar could produce tool marks by being impressed into or scraped
along a surface of a wall.
20. Vehicle Lights:
o Examination of a vehicle headlights and taillights is normally conducted to determine
whether a light was on or off at the time of impact.
21. Wood and Other Vegetative Matter:
o Any fragments of wood, sawdust, shavings, or vegetative matter discovered on clothing,
shoes, or tools that could link a person or object to a crime location.

REVIEW:
Biological crime-scene evidence:
o Blood
o Saliva
o Semen
o DNA

o Hair
o Organs
o Physiological fluids
Impression crime-scene evidence:
o Tire markings, shoe prints, depressions in soft soils.
o Forms of tracks, glove and other fabric impressions, tool marks, bite marks.
Manufactured items considered common items of crime-scene evidence:
o Firearms, ammunition, fibers, paint, glass, petroleum products, plastic bags, rubber,
polymers, and vehicle headlights.
Evidence that yields DNA:
- blood, semen, saliva
- hair with root (HAIR FOLLICLE)
2. THE EXAMINATION OF PHYSICAL EVIDENCE:
2A. Identification:
Identification is the process of determining a substances physical or chemical identity.
o Identify what drug it is.
o Identify what explosive residue it is.
o Identify hair, blood, semen origin to determine if animal or human.
Process:
o 1. Adoption of testing procedures that give characteristic results for specific standard
materials.
Results recorded and done again to prove identity of suspect material by
comparing to known heroin sample.
o 2. Identification requires that number and type of tests needed to identify a substance
be sufficient to exclude all other substances. .
Each type of evidence requires different tests and each test has a different degree
of specificity.
One substance may require one test for identification while another requires a
combination of tests.
Because the practitioner has no control of quantity or quality of specimens
received, a standard series of tests cannot encompass all possible problems and
pitfalls.
Ultimately, the conclusion will have to be sustained beyond any reasonable doubt
in a court of law.
2B. Comparison:
Comparison is the process of ascertaining whether two or more objects have a common origin.
Example: hair at scene and of suspect comparison; paint of car and on victim comparison.
Procedure:
o 1. Combinations of select properties are chosen from the suspect and the
standard/reference specimen for comparison.
Which and how many properties depend on type of material begin examined.
o 2. After examination, forensic scientist must make conclusion about the origin of the
specimen.
Just because all the properties compare, it does not mean they come from the
same source because of individual and class characteristics.
Individual Characteristics:
o Properties of evidence that can be attributed to a common source with an extremely high
degree of certainty.
o Example:
Comparing ridge characteristics of two fingerprints.
Comparison of random striations (markings) on bullets or tool marks.
Comparison of irregular and random wear patterns in tire or footwear impressions
Comparison of handwriting characteristics.
Fitting together irregular edges of broken objects
Matching sequentially made plastic bags by striation marks running across the
bags.

Probability is high that both are of common origin but CANNOT be stated with
mathematical exactness.
o Victor Balthazard said that finding two ALIKE fingerprints has a probability so small that
you can exclude the possibility of two people having the same fingerprint.
Class Characteristics: Evidence associated with a GROUP:
o Properties of evidence that van be associated only with a group and NEVER with a single
source:
o Example:
CARS: If you have two paint chips with single-layer car paint chips of a similar
colour their chance of originating from the same car is NOT nearly as great as
when we compare two paint chips with seen similar layers of paint, not all of which
were part of the cars original colour.
The first one can be associated with one car model.
The second one can have individual characteristics and have a high
probability of originating from one specific car.
BLOOD: More than one person can be of the same human origin type.
Product Rule:
o A formula for determining how frequently a certain combination of
characteristics occurs in a population.
o The product rule states that the one must first determine the
probability of EACH characteristic separately and then multiply
together the frequencies of all independently occurring
characteristics.
o RESULT: overall frequency of occurrence for that particular
combination of characteristics.
Product Rule Example: OJ. Simpson Trial:
o Blood combination was 0.44 percent.
o 1 in 200 people have that particular combination of blood factors
and it didnt belong to either Nicole or Ronald,
3. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF PHYSICAL EVIDENCE:
Limitations of Forensic Science:
o Inability of the examiner to assign exact or even approximate probability values to the
comparison of most CLASS physical evidence.
o In a society that is increasingly dependent on mass-produced products, the gathering of
such data has ben an elusive goal.
o Forensic scientists must rely on personal experience when interpreting the significance of
class physical evidence.
o Most evidence is from class characteristics.
o Always try to uncover evidence with individual characteristics (fingerprints, tool marks,
and bullets).
o Most evidence is SUBJECTIVE and prone to human error and bias.
3A. Assessing the Value of Physical Evidence:
Value of CLASS evidence lies in its ability to corroborate events with data in a manner that is,
nearly as possible, free of human error and bias.
o It is the thread that binds together other investigative findings that are more dependent
on human judgments and, therefore, more prone to human failings.
o Defining the significance of class evidence in mathematical terms is impossible.
The chances of encountering two indistinguishable items at a scene are LOW.
Only objects that exhibit significant diversity are classified as physical evidence.
Collective presence of many physical evidence MAY lead to an extremely high certainty that they
originated from the same source.
o As the number of different objects linking an individual to a crime scene increases, the
probability of involvement increases.
o Example: 28 different types of fibers linked Wiliams to the murder victims.
3B. Cautions and Limitations in Dealing With Physical Evidence:
The weight or significance accorded physical evidence is a determination left to the TRIER of the
fact, usually a jury of laypeople.
o

Physical evidence, class and individual, usually has great weight and becomes a primary factor in
reinforcing or overcoming lingering doubts about guilt or innocence.
Physical evidence exonerate a person from suspicion.
o If blood A is linked to the suspect, persons with blood types B, AB, and O will be
eliminated from consideration.
Class VS Individual:
o It is difficult to determine what distinguishes an individual from class characteristics.
o How many striations individualize a mark to a single tool?
o How many colour layers individualize a paint chip to a single car?
o RESULT: Find as many characteristics to compare one substance to another.
The significance attached to the finding is decided by:
o 1. Quality and composition of evidence
o 2. The case history
o 3. The examiners experience.
o RESULT: conclusion can range from mere speculation to near certainty
Practical limits to properties and characteristics:
o No two things are alike in every detail.
o Evidence needs to be conducted at less magnified material because too much
magnification reveals two details that could not be duplicated in any other paint chip and
under these circumstances, even those coming from the same surface would not be the
same.
Variations:
o Evidential Variations:
Differences due to different sources.
o Natural Variations:
Differences among the sides/ pieces of evidence of a common origin.
4. FORENSIC DATABASES:
4A. Fingerprint Databases:
Premier model of all forensic database is the Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification
System (IAFIS) 1999.
o This is a national fingerprint and criminal history system maintained by the FBI.
o Contains information for 50 million subjects, which are submitted voluntarily to the FBI by
state, local, and federal law enforcement agencies.
Process:
o 1. A fingerprint is seemed suitable for the IAFIS search.
o 2. The examiner creates a digital image of the print with a camera or scanner.
o 3. The examiner marks points on the print to guide the computerized search.
o 4. Print is electronically submitted to IAFIS and completed against all fingerprints in IAFIS.
o 5. May receive a list of potential candidates for comparison and verification.
Many countries have national automated fingerprint identification systems.
Gerald Wallace Case:
o Wallace was killed and for 16 years it remained unsolved.
o Police used database for fingerprint found on cigarette pack.
o That person led police to other people who led police to the man who murdered Wallace.
4B. DNA Databases:
Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) 1998.
o Enables federal, state, and local crime labs to exchange and compare DNA profiles and
thereby linking crimes to each other and to convicted offenders.
o Creates leads from TWO sources:
1. Forensic Index
Contains 110,000 profiles from unsolved crime evidence.
Used to identify serial crimes.
2. Offender Index
Contains profiles of 7 million convicted or arrested individuals.
o DNA samples from those awaiting trial and detained immigrants will go into the Arrestee
Index database.
o Limitation: hundreds of samples are backlogged and awaiting entry into CODIS system.

Several countries have a national DNA data bank.

o U.K. est in 1995 was the worlds FIRST national database.
In a typical month matches are found linking suspects to 26 murders, 57 rapes and
other offences, and three thousand motor vehicle, property, and drug crimes.
Center City Rapist Case Mr. Graves:
o He moved to Colorado from Pennsylvania.
o His DNA identified him as the killer.
4C. Other Databases:
1. National Integrated ballistics Information Network (NIBIN) maintained by the Bureau of Alcohol,
Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives allows firearms analysts to acquire, digitize, and compare
markings made by a firearm on bullets and cartridge casings recovered from crime scenes.
o Heart of NIBIN is the Integrated Ballistic Identification System (IBIS) comprising a
microscope and computer unit that capture the image of a bullet or casing which are then
forwarded to a regional server where they are stored and correlated against other images
in the regional database.
o LIMITATION: it does NOT positively match bullets or casings fired from the same weapon
this is the job of a firearms examiner.
o PURPOSE: facilitate the work of the firearms examiner by producing a short list of
candidates for the examiner to manually compare.
o CASE: NIBIM LINKS HANDGUN TO SUSPECTS:
Casings were entered into system.
Gun was test-fired and the resulting evidence entered into NIBIN which indicated a
possible link between the handgun and the four previous armed robberies.
Firearms examiners confirmed the link by examining the original evidence.
2. The International Forensic Automotive Paint Data Query (PDQ) database contains chemical
and colour information pertaining to original automotive paints.
o Developed and maintained by RCMP.
o Contains information about make, model, year, and assembly plant on more than 13,000
vehicles with a library of more than 50,000 layers of paint.
o Accredited users of PDQ give 60 new car paint samples per year.
o CASE: AZTEC GOLD METALLIC HIT AND RUN:
Paint chip found with two primer layers and a topcoat.
Topcoat was Aztec gold.
Found that 11000 1997 ford mustangs were produce in Aztec gold.
2 of those were registered in the jurisdiction of the offense.
Molding from the vehicle and known paint samples were submitted for comparison
and the paint from victims clothing was consistent with paint samples taken from
the suspect vehicle.
ALL PREVIOUSLY DESCRIBED DATABASES ARE MAINTAINED AND CONTROLLED BY GOVERNMENT
AGENCIES:
SICAR (shoeprint image capture and retrieval) commercially available computer
retrieval system for comparing and identifying crime-scene shoe prints.
o Entered by scanner or camera.
o Includes more than 17000 footwear entries, representing more than 700 shoe brands.
o Has shoe sole database (Solemate)
o Link crime-scene footwear impression to a particular shoe manufacturer.
CHAPTER 4 PROPERTIES OF MATTER AND THE ANALYSIS OF GLASS:
CASE:
Roger killed his parents.
Found Horse chestnut pollen in his car which was very rare in the region of his residence. so
a geologist located possible areas where chestnut pollen was found and there they found the
bodies of his parents.
1. PROPERTIES OF MATTER:
Forensic scientist must constantly determine the properties that impart distinguishing
characteristics to matter, giving it a unique identity.

Search for unique characteristics ends when they have individualized a substance to one
source.
Physical Properties:
o A property that describes the behaviour of a substance WITHOUT reference to any other
substance.
o Weight, volume, colour, BP, MP
o Can be measured without altering the materials composition through a chemical reaction
o Only associated with physical existence of a substance
Chemical Properties:
o A property that describes the behaviour of a substance when it combines with another
substance.
o Behaivour when it REACTS or COMBINES with another substance.
o Example: wood burning it chemically combines with oxygen in the air to form new
substances
This transformation describes a chemical property of wood
o Example: to determine heroin you test it with Marquix agent which turns purple in the
presence of heroin.
If the property can be assigned a numerical value, it must relate to a standard of measurement
accepted throughout the scientific community = METRIC SYSTEM.
METRIC SYSTEM:
This is the standard system.
United States uses English System.
1971 French devised the Metric System.
Purpose: has basic measurements for length, mass and volume: the meter, gram, and liter.
o These three units can be converted into subunits that are decimal multiples of the basic
unit by simply attaching a prefix to the unit name.
Prefix
Equivalent
Equivalent
Value
Value
Deci
1/10
0.1
Centi
1/100
0.01
Milli
1/1000
0.001
Micro
1/1,000,000
0.000001
Nano
1/1,000,000,0
0.000000001
00
Kilo
1000
1000
mega
1,000,000
1,000,000
o

0.1gram is the same as 1 decigram.

0.01 metre is the same as 1 centimeter.
0.001 litre is the same as 1 milliliter.
Process:
o Metric conversion is carried out by simply moving the decimal point to the right or left and
inserting the proper prefix to show direction and the number of places that the decimal
place has been moved.
Volume can be defined in terms of Length
o 1 liter volume of a cube with sides of length of 10cm.
o 1 liter = volume of 10cm3
o RESULT: 1mL = 1cm3
Other:
o 2.54 cm = 1 inch
o 453.6g = 1 pound

2. NATURE OF MATTER:
Matter comprises ALL substances.
Matter = anything that has mass and occupies space.
o Air, water, fire, and earth are maters fundamental building blocks.
2A. Elements and Compounds:

Element:
o A fundamental particle of matter that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by
chemical means.
o Provide the building blocks for which all matter is composed.
o 118 elements have been identified.
o 89 occur naturally on earth, and the remainder have been created in the laboratory.
Periodic Table:
o A chart of all the known elements arranged in a systematic fashion.
o Arranges elements with familiar chemical properties in the same vertical or horizontal
rows.
o Vertical Rows: groups or families
Similar properties (atomic mass or density)
Exhibit clear trend in properties as one moves down a group
MOST IMPORTANT way of classifying elements.
o Horizontal Rows: series
Symbols for elements from English, Latin, or Greek names.
Atom:
o Smallest unit of an element that can exist and still retain its identity as an element
o When we write C we mean one atom of carbon.
o CO2 One atom of carbon and two atoms of oxygen.
Compound:
o A PURE substance composed of two or more elements.
o New substance is different in its physical and chemical properties from its elemental
components.
Molecule:
o Smallest unit of a compound.
o One molecule of carbon dioxide C02
o One molecule of table salt NaCl
2B. States of Matter:
Physical state: the PHYSICAL form of matter: solid, liquid, or gas.
Solid State:
o A state of matter in which molecules are closely held together by strong attractive forces.
o Tight arrangement makes it rigid and gives it its definite shape and volume.
Liquid State:
o A state of matter in which the attractive forces are strong enough to allow molecules to
be in contact with one another but too weak to hold them rigidly in place.
o Liquid occupies a specific volume but its fluidity causes it to take the shape of the
container it is in.
Gas (vapor) state:
o A state of matter in which the attractive forces between molecules are weak enough to
permit them to move with complete freedom.
o It will completely fill ANY container into which it is placed.
o Appreciable attractive forces no longer exist between the molecules; thus, they may
move in any direction at will.
Changes of State:
Substances can change from one state to another.
In each change of state, NO new chemical species are formed, matter simply changes states.
o Whether water is in liquid or gas form chemically it is still H2O.

Condensation: water vapour to liquid gas to liquid

Boiling: liquid to gas

Freezing: liquid to solid

Melting: solid to liquid

Sublimation: a change of state from a solid DIRECTLY to a gas.

Phases:

Phase: a uniform substance separated from other substances by definite VISIBLE boundaries.
o Whenever substances can be distinguished by visible boundaries, phases are said to
exist.
o Example: oil and water do not mix.
Oil floating on water is a two-phase system.
Oil and water each constitute a separate liquid phase, clearly distinct from each
other.
o Example: sugar and water
When sugar is first added to water, it does not dissolve.
Two distinct phases exist: solid sugar and liquid water.
AFTER STIRRING sugar dissolves and there is just ONE liquid phase.
3. THEORY OF LIGHT:
Matter and nature and behaviour of light is important to understanding physical properties in the
examination of forensic evidence.
3A. Light As A Wave:
Wavelength: the distance between crests of adjacent waves.
o Designated by Greek letter Lambda
o Measured in nanometers
Frequency: the number of waves (crests or troughs) that pass a given point per unit of time.
o Designated by letter F
o Expressed in cycles per second (cps).
Frequency and wavelength are inversely proportional to one another.
o F=c/lambda
Dispersion: process of separating light into component colours
o Hold a glass prism toward sunlight and it transforms into colors of the rainbow.
Refraction: the bending of a lightwave caused by a change in its velocity.
o Visible light usually travels at a constant velocity of nearly 300 million meters per second.
o On passing through a glass prism EACH colour component of light is SLOWED to a
speed slightly different from those of the others.
RESULT: Causes each component to BEND at a different angle as it emerges from
the prism.
Description of Light Consistent with Observation that Substance Has Colour:
o When light passes through a red glass, the glass absorbs all the component colours of
light except red, which passes through or is transmitted by the glass.
o One can determine the color of an opaque object by observing its ability to absorb some
of the component colours of light while reflecting others back to the eye.
Visible Light: coloured light ranging from red to violet in the electromagnetic spectrum.
o COLOUR is a visual indication that objects absorb certain portions of visible light and
transmit or reflect others.
Application: use this concept to characterize different chemical substances by
the type and quantity of light they absorb.
Electromagnetic Spectrum:
The entire range of radiation from the most energetic cosmic rays to the least energetic
radiowaves.
Visible light is only a SMALL portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Electromagnetic waves:
o ALL travel at the speed of light.
o Distinguishable by their different wavelengths or frequencies.
o X-ray the high-energy short wavelength form of electromagnetic radiation.
o X-ray vs radio waves = only different is the difference in frequencies.
Visible Spectrum:
o The range of colours that make up the spectrum can be correlated with frequency.
o Lowest Frequencies: red and lower frequency fall into the invisible infrared (IR)
region
o Highest Frequencies: violet and higher frequency fall into the invisible ultraviolet
(UV) region.
o No definite boundaries exist between colours or regions.

Each region is composed of a continuous range of frequencies, each blending into the
other.

Light:
o In any region, it is a collection of waves that possesses a range of wavelengths.
o Under normal circumstances, this light comprises waves that are all out of step with each
other (incoherent light).
Laser:
o An acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
o Light that has all its waves pulsating in unison = OPPOSITE of incoherent light.
o Light is very intense and can be focused on a small area.
o Laser beams are so intense they can zap microscopic holes in a diamond.

3B. Light As A Particle:

As electromagnetic radiation is moving through space behaves like a wave
Once electromagnetic radiation is absorbed by a substance behaves like a particle
o Light is depicted as consisted of photons = a discrete particle of electromagnetic
radiation.
Energy Related to Frequency of Light:
o Formula: E=hf
E= energy of the photon
h=frequency of radiation
f=universal constant called Plancks constant
o Energy is DIRECTLY proportional to its frequency.
Photons of UV light are more energetic than photons of visible or infrared light.
Exposure to more energetic photons like x-rays is more dangerous than radio
waves.
Absorption phenomenon is the basis for SPECTROPHOTOMETRY which is an analytical
technique that measures the quantity of radiation that a particular material absorbs as a function
of wavelength or frequency.
o Just like a substance can absorb visible light to produce a colour, many of the invisible
radiations of the electromagnetic spectrum are likewise absorbed.
4. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER:
4A. Temperature:
Determining the physical properties of any material OFTEN requires measuring in TEMPERATURE.
o MP or BP are readily determinable characteristics that will help identify it.
Temperature: measure of heat intensity or the amount of heat in a substance.
Method to Measure: thermometer in contact with a substance.
o Mercury in glass expands MORE THAN GLASS when heated and contracts MORE THAN
GLASS when cooled.
Length of mercury measures surrounding environments temperature.
Reference Points:
o Temperature scale requires TWO reference points and a choice of units.
o Two most common temperature scales are Fahrenheit scales and Celsius scales.
Fahrenheit Scale:
o Defines the melting point of ice as 32 degrees and boiling point of water as 212 degrees,
with 180 equal divisions or degrees between.
o Based on the assignment of a value of 32 to FREEZING POINT of water and 212 to its
BOILING POINT.
o A degree Fahrenheit is 1/180 of the temperature change between freezing point and
boiling point of water.
Celsius Scale:
o Scale that defines the melting point/ freezing point of ice as 0 degrees and the boiling
point of water as 100 degrees with 100 equal divisions or degrees in between.
4B. Weight and Mass:
Weight: the FORCE with which gravity attracts a body
o If your weight is 180 pounds = means that the earths gravity is pulling you down with a
force of 180 pounds

o On the moon, force of gravity is 1/6 so your weight would be 30 pounds.

Mass: a CONSTANT property that refers to the amount of matter an object contains.
o Mass differs from weight because it refers to the amount of matter an object contains
and is independent of its location on earth or in the universe.
o Basic unit grams
o Application:
Mass of an object is determined by comparing it against the KNOWN mass of
standard objects.
Comparison process: weighing
Tools Used: weights
Result: when the two masses are equal left pan and right pan is at the centre
mark.
o Common Method Used: single=pan analytical balance.
Other versions of single-pan balances rely on an electromagnetic field to
generate a current to balance the force pressing down on the pan from the sample
being weighed.
When the scale is calibrated, the amount of current needed to keep the pan
balanced is used to determine the WEIGHT of the sample.
The strength of the current is converted to a digital readout.
o Top-loading balance: accurate to 0.001gram
o Analytical balance: accurate to 0.0001 gram
Formula: w=mg
o g=acceleration imparted to a body by the force of gravity.
Proportion:
o Weight of a body is DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL to its mass large mass weighs more than
a small mass.
Metric System:
o Mass of an object is always specified rather than its weight.

4C. Density:
Density: a physical property of matter that is equivalent to the mass per unit volume of a
substance
o Formula: D=m/v
Density is an intensive property:
o A property that is NOT dependent on the size of the object.
o Remains the same regardless of the size of the object.
Application: it is a characteristic that can be used for IDENTIFICATION.
o Solids tend to be more dense than liquids and liquids tend to be more dense than gases.
Procedure:
o 1. Solid is weighed on a balance against standard known gram weights to determine its
MASS.
o 2. Solids volume is then determined from the volume of water it displaces.
V2-V1 = volume of solid.
o 3. Density is calculated using equation.
Cautions:
o Volumes of gases and liquids vary with temperature:
RESULT: Important to CONTROL and record the temperature at which
measurements are made.
Observations:
o If solid density is GREATER than that of liquid which it is in solid SINKS.
o If solid density is LESS than that of liquid which it is in solid FLOATS.
o If solid density is EQUAL to that of liquid which it is in solid remains suspended in the
liquid medium.
4D. Refractive Index:
Refraction is visible in water (light does NOT travel in a straight line).
o Example: ball in water
OBSERVATION: Ball is observed at the bottom of a pool.

DESCRIPTION: Light rays reflected from the ball travel through the water and into
the air to reach the eye.
REFRACTION: When rays leave water and enter air velocity changes and they
become refracted.
RESULT: we think the ball is lying at a higher point than it actually is because we
assume light travels in a straight line.
Refractive Index: the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to its speed given in a medium.
o Formula: refractive index = velocity of light in vaccum/velocity of light in
medium.
o Examples: Water
Refractive index of water at 25 degrees is 1.333.
RESULT: light travels 1.333 time as fast in a vaccum as it does in water at
this temperature.
Application: like density, it is an intensive physical property of matter and CHARACTERIZES a
substance.
Cautions:
o Refractive Index must be performed under carefully controlled temperature and lighting
conditions because RI varies with its temperature and the wavelength of light passing
through it.
Sodium D Light:
o Nearly all refractive indices are determined at a STANDARD WAVELENGTH usually 589.3
nanometres which is the predominant wavelength emitted by sodium light.
Transparent Solids In Water with Similar Refractive Index:
o When a transparent solid is immersed in a liquid with similar refractive index, light is NOT
refracted as it passes from the liquid into the solid.
o RESULT: eye cannot distinguish the liquid-solid boundary and the solid seems to
disappear from view.
Refractive Index for Wavelength:
o Usually solids or liquids exhibit only ONE refractive index value for each wavelength of
light (no matter where it passes through on the object, it has one RI value).
o Crystalline solids: have TWO refractive indices whose values depend on the direction
from which the light enters the crystal with respect to the crystal axis.
Crystalline Solid: a solid in which the constituent atoms have a REGULAR
arrangement.
Have definite geometric forms because of orderly arrangement of the
fundamental particles of the solid, the atom.
Relative distances and locations REPEAT throughout the solid.
EXAMPLE: NaCl is a cubic crystal
o Each sodium atom is surrounded by SIX chlorine atoms
o Each chlorine atom is surrounded by SIX sodium atoms
o NOT all solids are crystalline.
SOLID TYPES:
o 1. Crystalline Solid:
o 2. Amorphous Solid:
A solid in which the atoms or molecules are arranged in RANDOM or DISORDERED
positions.
Example: glass
CRYSTALS:
o Most crystals, EXCEPT those that have CUBIC CONFIGURATIONS (ex. Crystalline
solids ie: NaCl) refract a beam of light into TWO different light-ray components =
DOUBLE REFRACTION.
DOUBLE REFRACTION: reflect a beam of light into two different light-ray components.
o Example: crystal calcite
When calcite is on a printed page, observer sees TWO images of each word
covered.
o Explanation:

The light rays that create the DOUBLE IMAGE are refracted at different angles, and
each has a DIFFERENT Refractive Index value.
RI2-RI1 = BIREFRINGENCE the numerical difference between the two
Refractive Indices
5. FORENSIC ANALYSIS OF GLASS:
Glass that is broken and shattered into fragments and minute particles during a crime can be
used to place a suspect at a crime scene.
o Broken glass may be lodged in a suspects shoe.
o Particles of headlight glass at hit-and-run scene can be used to confirm identity of suspect
vehicle.
5A. Composition of Glass:
Glass: hard, brittle, amorphous substance composed of sand (silicon oxides) mixed with
various metal oxides.
o Soda (sodium carbonate) added to lower its melting point and make it easier to work
with.
o Calcium oxide is added to prevent soda-lime glass from dissolving in water.
o APPLICATION: Forensic scientist is usually asked to analyze soda-lime glass, which used
for manufacturing most window and bottle glass.
This manufacturing process produces FLAT GLASS typically used for windows and
is called FLOAT GLASS.
Add different metal oxides to make a variety of special glasses.
Soda-Lime Glass:
o Contain metal oxides of sodium, calcium, magnesium, and aluminum.
Borosilicates:
o OXIDE: Add boron oxide
o NAME: Glass such as PYREX.
o EXAMPLE: Car headlights and heat-resistant glass.
Tempered Glass:
o Definition: Glass to which strength is added by introducing stress through rapid heating
and cooling of glass surfaces.
o Purpose: safety feature so when glass breaks it doesnt shatter but FRAGMENTS (dices)
into small squares with little splintering.
o Application: used in side and rear windows of cars in U.S.
Laminated Glass:
o Definition: Two sheets of ordinary glass bounded together with a plastic trim.

Derives its STRENGTH by sandwiching one layer of plastic between two pieces of
ordinary glass.
5B. Comparing Glass Fragments:
METHOD: finding and measuring the properties that will associate one fragment with another
while minimizing or eliminating the possible existence of other sources.
Application: glass possesses its greatest EVIDENTIAL VALUE when it can be individualized to
ONE SOURCE.
o This can only be made when fragments are assembled and fitted together.
PROCESS:
o Comparisons of this type require piecing together IRREGULAR EDGES of broken glass AND
matching all irregularities and striations on the broken surfaces.
The possibility that two pieces of glass originating from DIFFERENT SOURCES will
fit together is SO UNLIKLEY as to exclude all other sources from PRACTICAL
CONSIDERATION.
LIMITATIONS:
o Most glass evidence is TOO fragmentary or TOO minute to permit a comparison of this
type.
o The general CHEMICAL COMPOSITION of various glass windows are found to be
RELATIVELY UNIFORM among various manufactueres and thus offers NO BASIS FOR
INDIVIDUALIZATION.
o CANNOT INDIVIDUALIZE GLASS!!!!
SUCCESS:

TRACE ELEMENTS present in glass can prove to be distinctive and measurable

characteristics.
CHARACTERIZING GLASS PARTICLES DENSITY AND RI:
o Physical properties of density and refractive indexes are used for CHARACTERIZING
GLASS PARTICLES.
o LIMITATION: These properties are CLASS characteristics and CANNOT provide criteria for
individualizing a common source.
o BENEFIT: give analyst enough data to evaluate the significance of a glass comparison.
ABSENCE of comparable density and refractive index will exclude glass
fragments that originate from DIFFERENT sources.
5C. Measuring and Comparing Density:
RECALL: Solid particle will either float, sink, or remain suspended in a liquid DEPENDING on its
density relative to the liquid medium.
FLOTATION METHOD Compare Density:
o PROCESS:
1. A standard/reference glass particle is immersed in a liquid.
A mixture of bromoform and bromobenzene may be used.
2. Composition of the liquid is adjusted by adding small amounts UNTIL the glass
chip remains suspended in the medium.
At this point standard/reference glass and glass chip have the SAME
DENSITY.
3. Glass chips of approximately the same size and shape as the standard/reference
(S/R) are now added to the liquid for comparison.
RESULT: IF both the unknown and the S/R remain suspended in the liquid
then their densities are equal to each other and that of the liquid.
CONFIRMATION: particles of different substances either sink or float.
LIMITATIONS/ACCURACY:
o Density varies by 0.0003g/ml throughout a single sheet of window
glass because it is NOT completely homogenous throughout.
o Flotation method density approach can be used but CANNOT exceed
a sensitivity value of 0.0003g/ml.
o RESULT: Flotation method can distinguish glass particles that differ in density by
0.001g/ml.
5D. Determining and Comparing Refractive Index:
Once glass has been distinguished by density determination, different origins are immediately
concluded.
Important: Comparable density results REQUIRE the added comparison of refractive indices.
o Method: Immersion
Immersion Method:
o Process: glass particles are immersed in a liquid medium whose refractive index is
adjusted until it EQUALS that of glass particles.
RI is adjusted by changing the TEMPERATURE of the liquid.
Control: Temperature
Glass is immersed in boiling liquid (silicone oil) and heated at rate of 0.2 degrees
Celsius per minute until the match point is reached.
o Confirmation: When the RI is EQUAL there is the disappearance of the BECKE LINE
Becke Line: a bright halo observed near the border of a particle immersed in a
liquid of a DIFFERENT refractive index.
Disappearance of Becke Line: indicates MINIMUM contrast between the glass
and the liquid medium.
Result: medium and fragment have similar refractive indices at this point.
o After Confirmation:
Observe the disappearance of Becke line that are illuminated with Sodium D light
or at other wavelengths of light.
RESULT:
If all other glass fragments have similar matchpoints CONCLUSION: they
have similar refractive indices.
o

 Examiner can determine the refractive index value of the immersion fluid
as it changes with temperature.
o RESULT: the exact numerical value of the glass refractive index can
be calculated at the match point temperature.
LIMITATIONS/ACCURACY:
o Like with density, a single sheet of plate glass may NOT have a uniform refractive index
value.
Accuracy: values vary as much as 0.0002.
o CONCLUSION:??? PG 131
For comparison purposes, the difference in refractive index between a
standard/reference sample and questioned glass MUST exceed this value.
This allows the examiner to differentiate between the normal internal
variations in the sheet of glass and those present in glasses that originated from
different sources.
5E. Classification of Glass Samples:
Determining Origin Using NON-COMPARABLE DENSITY or REFRACTIVE INDEX:
o Significant difference in density and RI proves that the glass examined do NOT have a
common origin.
Determining Origin Using COMPARABLE DENSITY or REFRACTIVE INDEX:
o How certain can you be they are the same source if the density and RI is comparable?
o RESULT: DATA BANK has emerged correlating these values to their frequency of
occurrence in the glass population in the US, which is available to ALL forensic labs.
o APPLICATION: Once an analyst has completed a comparison of glass fragments, they
can correlate their density and refractive index values to their frequency of occurrence
and asses the probability that the fragments came from the same source.
Tempered VS NON-Tempered Glass POWERFUL POINT OF DISTINCTION:
o This distinction can be made by slowly heating and then cooling (annealing).
o RESULT: the change in refractive index value for tempered glass upon annealing is
greater than when compared to non-tempered glass = POWERFUL POINT OF
DISTINCTION
5F. Glass Fractures:
Glass bends in response to ANY force that is exerted on any one of its surfaces.
o Glass fracture: when the limit of elasticity is reached.
Importance: can reveal information about force and direction of impact.
The penetration of an ORDINARY window glass by a projectile (bullet, stone) produces cracks that
radiate outward and encircle the hole.
o Radial Fractures:
A crack in a glass that extends outward like the spoke of a wheel from the point at
which the glass was struck.
o Concentric Fractures:
A crack in the glass that forms a rough circle around the point of impact.
LIMITATIONS:
o Distinguishing Stone Vs Gun: Difficult to determine whether hole was made by bullet
or something else.
Large Stone: resemble close-range gun shot
Small stone: resemble bullet
o Firearm Damage: Presence of gunpowder deposits on the shattered glass fragments
indicate damage caused by firearm.
o LIMITATIONS: CANNOT be applied to tempered glass because need presence of
concentric frctures and radial cracks.

Firearm Glass Damage Indications:

o General Observations:
High-velocity projectile leaves a round, crater shaped hole surrounded by nearly
SYMMETRICAL pattern of radial and concentric cracks.
Hole is wider on EXIT Side.
o Direction of Impact (Entry and Exit) Observations:

As Velocity Decreases: the irregularity of the shape of the hole and its
surrounding cracks INCREASES.
Result/Limitation: at some point, the hole shape will NOT help determine
direction of impact.
o At this point, examining radial and concentric fracture lines
may help determine direction of impact.
Firearm Direction of Impact By Examining Radial And Concentric Fracture Lines:
o 1. Radial and Concentric Cracks reveal stress markings whose shape can be related to
the SIDE on which the window first cracked.
Explanation: when a force pushes on ONE side of a pane of glass, the elasticity of
the glass permits it to bend in the direction of the force applied.
Once the limit is exceeded, the glass begins to crack.
Observation:
First Fracture: forms on the surface OPPOSITE that of the penetrating
force and develop into radial lines.
Continued Force: Then, continued motion of force places tension on the
front surface of the glass resulting in the formation of concentric cracks.
o 2. Stress Marks:
Shaped like arches.
Perpendicular to one glass surface.
Curved nearly parallel to the opposite surface.
Importance: perpendicular edge ALWAYS face the surface on which the crack
originated.
Conclusion Radial Cracks:
o When examining stress marks on the edge of a radial crack near the
point of impact, the perpendicular end is ALWAYS found OPPOSITE
to the side from which the force of impact was applied.
Conclusion Concentric Fracture:
o The perpendicular end will ALWAYS face the surface on which the
force originated.
RESULT 3 R RULE:
o Radial cracks from a Right angle on the Reverse side of the force.
Application: determine which side on a window was broken.
LIMITATIONS: cannot be applied to tempered glass because need
presence of concentric frctures and radial cracks.
Multiple Penetrations of Glass:
o When there have been successive penetrations of glass, it is possible to determine the
sequence.
o HOW: A fracture always TERMINATES at an existing line of fracture.
Second impacts radial lines terminate at cracks of the former impacts radial lines.
Pg 137
5G. Collection and Preservation of Glass Evidence:
Purpose: individualize the fragment to a common source, even if there is only a remote
possibility.
Example:
o Collecting fragments from a hit-and-run from the headlight and reflector lenses
1. Can place a suspect vehicle at accident
2. Headlight filaments reveal whether car headlights were on or off before impact.
When an individual fit is improbable, the collector must submit ALL glass evidence found in the
possession of the suspect along with a sample of broken glass remaining at scene.
o Standard/reference sample should be taken from remaining glass in the window or door
frames as close as possible to point of breakage.
About one square inch of sample is adequate.
Packaging:
o Packaged in SOLID containers to avoid further breakage.
o If suspects shoes and/or clothing need to be examined for presence of glass need to
be individually wrapped in PAPER and transmitted to lab.

Avoid removing from garment unless absolutely necessary for preservation.

Submission for Analysis:
o When direction of impact determined, all broken glass must be recovered and submitted
for analysis.
o Exterior and interior surfaces must be INDICATED.
When not possible, presence of dirt, paint, grease, or putty may indicate the
exterior surface of the glass.

CHAPTER 5 DRUGS:
Narcotics: most common source is opium. Morphine is extracted from opium and used to make heroin.
Opiates: not derived from opium or morphine, but have the same physiological effects. Methadone and
Oxycontin(oxycodone).
Hallucinogens: cause marked changes in normal thought process, perception, and moods. Marijuana,
LSD, PCP, MDMA (Extacy).
Depressants: decreases the activity of the CNS. Calm irritability and excitability and produce sleep.
Alcohol, barbiturates, tranquilizers (qualine), and substances that can be sniffed such as airplane glue
and model cement.
Stimulants: increase the activity of the CNS. Increase alertness and activity. Amphetamines, uppers or
speed, cocaine.
Club Drugs: synthetic drugs used at nightclubs. Some act like stimulants some like depressants.
Anabolic Steroids: synthetic compounds chemically related to male sex hormone testosterone. Used
for muscle growth illegally.
1. Analysis 2 phases: Screening and Confirmation:
Screening: a preliminary test used to reduce the number of possible identities of an unknown
substance.
Subject material to a series of colour tests that produce characteristic colours when encounter
illicit drugs.
Even if these tests produce negative results, their value lies in having excluded certain drugs.
Confirmation: a single test that specifically identifies a substance.
Consists of a series of nonspecific or presumptive tests that TOGETHER prove a drugs identity.
Qualitative determination: identity of material
Quantitative determination: percentage combination of components of a mixture.
Colour Tests: useful for screening purposes and NEVER taken as conclusive identification of unknown
drugs.
Marquis (M): turns purple in presence of heroin. Orange brown in presence of amphetamine
and methamphetamine.
Dillies-Koppanyi (DK): turns violet-blue for barbiturates.
Duquenois-Levine (DL): turns purple when chloroform is added to marijuana.
Van Urk (VU): turns blue-purple for LSD.
Scott Test (ST): blue for cocaine. Turns pink for cocaine when HCL added and blue reappears in
chloroform layer.
2. Microcrystalline Test:
A test that identifies a specific substance based on the colour and shape of CRYSTALS formed
when the substance is mixed with specific reagents.
Results show characteristic for one drug = identification.
3. Chromatography: SEPARATE AND TENTATIVELY IDENTIFY COMPONENTS.
Any of several analytical techniques for separating organic mixtures into their components by
attraction to a stationary phase while being propelled by a moving phase.
Chemical substances tend to partially escape into surrounding environment when dissolved in a
liquid or when absorbed on a solid surface.
INABILITY to produce specific identification.
3A. Thin-Layer Chromatography:
Components are separated as they travel up a glass plate, eventually appearing as a series of
dark coloured spots on the plate.

This is then compared to a standard sample of a specific drug such as heroin and all spots must
be aligned.
Uses a solid stationary phase (coated onto glass plate) and a mobile liquid phase to separate the
components.
3B. Gas Chromatography:
Separates mixtures based on their distribution levels between stationary liquid phase and a
moving gas phase.
Stationary phase is a thin film of liquid within the column.
As the carrier gas flows through the packed or capillary column, it carries with it the components
of a mixture that have been injected into the column.
RETENTION TIME: Time required for a component to emerge from the column from the time of
its injection into the column very useful identifying characteristic of a material.
4. Spectrophotometry: an analytical method for identifying a substance by its selective absorption of
different wavelengths.
An object does NOT absorb all the visible light it is exposed to.
It selectively absorbs SOME frequencies and reflects or transmits others.
4A. UV and Visible Spectrophotometry:
Measures the absorbance of UV and visible light as a function of wavelength and frequency.
Purpose: does NOT identify determines probable identity. therefore tentatively identifies a
substance.
4B. Infrared (IR) Spectrophotometry:
Absorption bands are so numerous that EACH spectrum can provide enough characteristics to
identify a substance specifically GOOD for IDENTIFICATION and CHARACTERIZING drugs.
5. Mass Spectrometry NOT spectrophotometry:
Characterizes organic molecules by observing their fragmentation pattern after a collision with a
beam of high-energy electrons.
Separates the components of a complex mixture.
Fragments pass through an electric or magnetic field where they are separated according to their
masses.
Produces a fragmentation pattern.
NO two substances produce the same fragmentation pattern = fingerprint of a substance.
Each mass spectrum is unique to each drug and therefore provides a specific test for identifying
that substance.
6. Identification of Marijuana:
Marijuana possesses botanical (plant) features that impart identifiable characteristics.
1. Identification by Microscope observing short hairs shaped like bear claws (cystolithic hairs).
2. Duquenois-Levine (DQ) colour test
1+2 = specific identification of marijuana.
Problem: if it is hashish or hashish oil colour test is supplemented by thin-layer
chromatography.
o TLC + DQ test = specific identification
Collection and Preservation:
Properly package and label and prevent loss and/or cross-contamination.
Because of the variety of drugs, there is not a single method.
Volatile solvents (glue-sniffing): airtight container to prevent evaporation
Drug screening tests must be transmitted to lab. (dont offer conclusive evidence of drugs
identity).

CHAPTER 6 FORENSIC TOXICOLOGY:

FIRST PASS EFFECT: Breakdown of drug by liver enzymes.
To bypass it increase dosage, put it under tongue, or inject it so it goes right into bloodstream
and into brain.
General Information:
Alcohol appears in the blood within minutes after it has been taken by mouth. It slowly increases
in concentration while it is being absorbed from the stomach and the small intestine into the
bloodstream.
When all of the alcohol has been absorbed, a maximum alcohol level is reached in the blood, and
the postabsorption period begins.
During postabsorption the alcohol concentration slowly decreases until a zero level is reached.
Elimination of alcohol throughout the body is accomplished through oxidation and excretion.
Oxidation takes place almost entirely in the liver, while alcohol is excreted unchanged in the
breath, urine, and perspiration.
Breath testing devices operate on the principle that the ratio between the concentration of
alcohol in alveolar breath and its concentration in blood is fixed.
1. Breath Testing For Alcohol:
Measures alcohol content of alveolar breath.
Device uses fuel cell detectors which involve a chemical reaction of alcohol producing electricity.
2. Field Sobriety Testing:
Series of psychophysical tests and a preliminary breath test.
3. Blood Analysis for Alcohol:
1. Gas chromatography determines alcohol levels in blood.
o Compare resultant alcohol peak area to ones obtained with known blood-alcohol
standards.
o High degree of accuracy.
2. Acetylaldehyde:
o Carried out in presence of enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase and NAD.
o As reaction occurs NAD converted to NADH.
o Extent of conversion is measured by spectrophotometer and related to alcohol
concentration.
3A. Collection and Preservation of Blood:
Addition of anticoagulant (EDTA OR potassium oxalate) prevents clotting.
Addition of preservative (sodium fluoride) inhibits growth of microorganisms capable of
destroying alcohol.
Blood-alcohol levels attributed solely to alcohol consumption should result in nearly similar
results for all blood samples from the same person.
Failure to adhere to any preservation requirement works to the benefit of the suspect and to the
deteriment of society.
Procedure:
1. Extraction at appropriate pH depending on if sample is a base or acid.
2. Screening tests (immunoassay, gas chromatography, thin-layer chromatography).
3. Confirmation test (gas chromatography and mass spectrometry)
4. Detecting Drugs in Hair:
Drug hair analysis is the ONLY viable approach for measuring long-term abuse of a drug.
Drugs present in blood diffuse through the capillary walls into the base of the hair and become
permanently entrapped in the hairs hardening protein structure.
Analyzing hair (growth rate of 1cm/month) defines timeline for drug abuse, dating it back over
weeks, months, or even years depending on length of hair.
As hair grows, drugs location on hair shaft becomes a marker for delineating drug intake.
Drug in blood = 24 hours
Drug in urine = 72 hours

5. Detecting Nondrug Poisons:

1. Heavy Metals:
o Usually in homicides. (antimony, mercury, thallium, arsenic, bismuth)
o REINSCH TEST: Dissolve the suspect body fluid or tissue in HCL and insert copper strip
into solution.
Silvery or dark coating on the copper indicates presence of heavy metal.
2. Carbon Monoxide:
o 1. Spectrophotometric methods measure concentration of CO in blood.
o 2. Volume of blood can be treated with a reagent to liberate the CO which is then
measured by gas chromatography.
o PURPOSE: high levels of CO in blood prove that victim breathed in the combustion
products of the fire and eas alive when fire began.
Important in uncovering cases where murders have tried to be covered up by
burning a victims house, but then when analyzed, victim does not have high
levels of CO in bloodstream.

CH
CH
CH
CH
CH
CH

1:
2:
3:
4:
5:
6:

7:00-7:10
7:10-7:30
7:30-7:50
7:50-8:10
8:10-8:25
8:25-8:40

Review case notes from class: 8:40-9:20

Get ready: 9:20-9:50
Bus: 10:00 -10:50
Print: 10:50-11:20