Indian Highways Vol.41 5 May 13

INDIAN HIGHWAYS
A REVIEW OF ROAD AND ROAD TRANSPORT DEVELOPMENT

Volume 41
Number 5 May 2013
Contents
List of Advertisers
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AE&C
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4-9
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ISSN 0376-7256
From the Editors Desk

Glimpses of First Collaborative Endeavour of IRC with
Educational Institutions
Influence of Environmental Factors on Temperature
Differential in High Performance Cement Concrete
Pavements
K.S. Suresh Kumar, M.S. Amarnath and G.B. Avinash
25

Quality Audit for Concrete Constructions

C.V. Kand
41

Sustainability Challenges & Opportunities in Bridge

Building
V. N. Heggade
57

Influence of Skew Angle in the Design of Grids

Madhavi N, Baskar K, Natarajan C and Rajaraman A.R.
Perma Construction Aids Pvt. Ltd.
67

Experiences from Investigation of Expansion Joints and

Bearings in Concrete Bridges
S.K. Sharma, Lakshmy Parameswaran, Rajeev Goel and
Sushil Kumar
65
Arun Soil Lab Pvt. Ltd.
76-88 Amendments to IRC:6-2010 and IRC:78-2000
66
Coir Board
89-90 Circulars Issued by MORT&H
75
Redecon (India) Pvt. Ltd.
91
92
Alexis Enterprises Pvt. Ltd.
93
Techfab India
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Halcrow Consulting India Pvt. Ltd.
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Jalnidhi Bitumen Specialities Pvt. Ltd.
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New/Revised Publications Now Available on Sale
The Indian Roads Congress
Tender Notice of NHs Kanpur
E-mail: secretarygen@irc.org.in/indianhighways@irc.org.in
Founded : December 1934

IRC Website: www.irc.org.in
Jamnagar House, Shahjahan Road,

New Delhi - 110 011
Tel : Secretary General: +91 (11) 2338 6486
Sectt. : (11) 2338 5395, 2338 7140, 2338 4543, 2338 6274
Fax : +91 (11) 2338 1649
Kama Koti Marg, Sector 6, R.K. Puram

New Delhi - 110 022
Tel : Secretary General : +91 (11) 2618 5303
Sectt. : (11) 2618 5273, 2617 1548, 2671 6778,
2618 5315, 2618 5319, Fax : +91 (11) 2618 3669
No part of this publication may be reproduced by any means without prior written permission from the Secretary General, IRC.
Edited and Published by Shri Vishnu Shankar Prasad on behalf of the Indian Roads Congress (IRC), New Delhi. The responsibility of the
contents and the opinions expressed in Indian Highways is exclusively of the author/s concerned. IRC and the Editor disclaim responsibility
and liability for any statement or opinion, originality of contents and of any copyright violations by the authors. The opinions expressed in the
papers and contents published in the Indian Highways do not necessarily represent the views of the Editor or IRC.
From the Editors Desk
EPC IN HIGHWAY WIN-WIN FOR ALL

Dear Readers,
The visionary decision taken by the Government for getting highway projects executed through
Engineering Procurement and Construction (EPC) mode in place of traditional mode of item rate
contracts may provide the much needed relief to the road sector players. In the current scenario of
global economic downtrend with symptoms of economic contraction, the execution of highway sector
projects through EPC mode may allow much needed breather both to the Contractors & Financers, as
EPC contracts are public funding cash contracts. This may also allow much needed consolidation in the
sector which may help in strengthening the foundation for achieving greater pace of progressiveness
in the coming years.
As normally happens, the introduction of new system/mode comes with some apprehensions and
reservations among the different stakeholders. There is a need to demystify the EPC benefits, process
and procedures. This may require a concerted efforts as well as collaborative approach from all the
stakeholders. However, the visionary action of the government of introducing EPC in highway sector
is clearly a step towards building a climate perceivable to be friendly to enterprises, investment and
expeditious development in the road building activities which will have enormous positive linkages to
the overall economic development.
The EPC mode provides an opportunity as well as flexibility to the Contractor(s) to introduce cutting
edge technologies, techniques, instrumentation, new materials, etc. This may help him in not only in
improving the efficiency but may also help in improving overall durability as well as bringing down
the cost of the project(s).
The EPC entrepreneur(s) may also have the scope to make use of emerging concept of frugal
engineering which implies lean engineering methodology or process that involves optimum use of
resource(s) at hand.
Similarly, the various approvals/permissions to be provided by the client road authorities within the
stipulated time frame augurs well for all stakeholders including public, as system of implementation of
projects becomes a well-defined and transparent process. However, this may result in added pressure
on the cliental road authorities to meet the stipulated deadlines for different activities especially related
to handing over the land, environmental clearances, General Arrangement Drawings (GAD), etc. There
may be some possibilities of augmenting the human resource in certain domain areas of the cliental
road authorities coupled with upgrading the skill of existing manpower.
2
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, May 2013
EDITORIAL
The explicit provision of damages payable to the Contractors on account of non-availability of the
stipulated clearances, etc. clearly reflects towards the transformation of role of the government
moving away from the command and control economy/development of earlier days towards ensuring
good governance and an effective system to incentivize innovation(s) and removal of inefficiency. This
is also reflected in provisions related to payment of bonus for early completion of the project(s).
The EPC mode in highway sector also throws open more opportunities for job creation and
employment in the road sector including entrepreneurship in the domain areas of consultancy services
in project preparation, survey & investigations, road safety, quality control, etc. This is adequately
reflected in the enabling provision of 70% of work which can be outsourced by the EPC Contractor.
Possibly EPC may prove to be a game changer in road sector in the coming years.
Perceptible benefits of the EPC in road sector may be many but of course best practices suiting
different category of projects needs to be evolved, which may get evolved over a time period and
feedback based there on from different implementing agencies. In the process of transition to new
concepts and systems, it is always preferable to remember the wise words of Osho:- Knowledge
makes you learned, but wisdom makes you innocent. Knowledge is ego fulfilling but wisdom kills ego.
Wisdom is simply wisdom. It is truth. Wisdom cannot be true or untrue.
Place: New Delhi

Dated: 22nd April, 2013
Vishnu Shankar Prasad

Secretary General
Highlights
GLIMPSES OF FIRST COLLABORATIVE
ENDEAVOUR OF
IRC WITH EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
As a new initiative of widening the reach of IRC,
a collaborative approach with technical institutions
has been initiated by IRC. In the first of the series,
a National Event Transport Infrastructure Congress
and Expo-2013 (TICE-2013) has been organized as
joint endeavour by the Malaviya National Institute
of Technology (MNIT) Jaipur & IRC from March 7,
2013 to March 9, 2013 as a part of Golden Jubilee
Celebrations of MNIT Jaipur.
The event generated a lot of interest from all the

stakeholders including the private sector and
particularly the student community of the
engineering colleges. It is heartening to
mention that 25 Engineering Colleges/Universities
participated in this event from the States of
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa,
Karnataka & Tamil Nadu. Besides students and
faculties of these colleges, a large number of
professionals/engineers/scientists
from
the
Central Government, State Government,
Public Sector Units, Research Institutions, etc.
participated
in
the
deliberations.
The
engineering students for the first time were given a
unique opportunity of having interaction with the
practising professionals & experts in the field of
road & road transport sector. The students were

exposed to the wisdom of the experts, thereby
preparing them to meet the challenges in future in
better way. The engineering students showcased
their talent and capabilities through the working
models and posters on the real life issues in the
road and road transport sector.
The major features of the event were:1.
Two day National Workshop/ Conference.
2.
Three day Technical Exhibition on

Transportation technologies and materials.
3.
Student
Research
Competition.
4.
Three days Career Counselling Session

over job opportunities in Transport Sector/
Engineering.
Model
Exhibition/
The State Government of Rajasthan extended full

support to the event. Shri Shanti Dhaliwal, Honble
Minister of Urban Development, Government of
Rajasthan inaugurated the event. The inaugural event
was also attended by Shri Gajendra Haldea, Advisor
to DCH (Infrastructure) Planning Commission, Govt.
of India as Guest of Honour besides other dignitaries
from the Central and State Government.
Glimpses of Inaugural Session
Shri Shanti Dahliwal, Honble Minister Urban Development, Govt. of Rajasthan
Highlights
Shri G.S. Sandhu, Additional Chief Secretary,

Government of Rajasthan
Shri Gajendra Haldea, Advisor to DCH (Infrastructure)

Planning Commission
View of Audience
During the event the Experts/Speakers made

presentation on the following topics.
3. Road Drainage A case Study of Panipat City

by S.N. Sachdeva, Professor NIT Kurukshetra
1. Design of Noise Barrier for Elevated Highway

Infrastructure by M. Parida, Professor IIT
Roorkee.
4. Enabling New Policy Initiatives of MoRTH

to Promote Innovation and Road Safety by
S.K. Nirmal, Morth, New Delhi
2. Transit
Oriented
Sustainable
Urban
Development by S.L. Dhingra, Professor IIT
Bombay.
5. New Materials & Technology in Roads by

P.K. Jain, Head Flexible, Pavement Division,
CRRI
Highlights
6. Review of Bituminous Mixes Used in India
by Prof. P.S. Kandhal, Associate Director
Emeritus, National Center for Asphalt
Technology, USA
7. Remote Sensing & GIS application for Route
Alignment by P K Garg, Professor IIT
Roorkee
8. Traffic Infrastructure Projects for Jaipur city
by Shri Kuldeep Ranka, Jaipur Development
Commissioner
A Panel Discussion was also held. The students/

researchers were given an exclusive opportunity
to have first-hand interaction with the experts
of various issues relating to the road transport
sector. The Panelist were Shri Vishnu Shankar
Prasad, Secretary General, IRC, Professor P.S.
Kandhal, M Parida, Prof. IIT Roorkee, S L Dhingra, Prof. IIT Bombay, Dr. I.K. Bhatt, Director
MNIT Jaipur, Prof B L Swami MNIT Jaipur and
Dr. Arun Gaur MNIT Jaipur.
The innovative feature of this event was the exhibition of research models/posters on the theme of
transport infrastructure by the students. The student showcased the solutions to various problems
and current issues & situations in the road sector. Prizes were distributed to encourage students.
The models & posters were evaluated by a group
of experts under categories namely (i) Electronics
(ii) Architecture (iii) Civil & (iv) Posters. The
winners under four categories were as under:1. Electronics Category
(i) Shri Akhil Jain, 3rd Year B.Tech
Electronics
&
Communication
Engineering, MNIT Jaipur on an
embedded system which is used for
tracking and positioning of any vehicle by
using Global Positioning System (GPS) &
GSM.
(ii) Team of S/Shri Utkarsh Verma, Shayam
Sunder, Vipin Kumar Choube & Saurabh
Jain (VII SEM, VIT-EAST, ECT) on
Multi Storeyed Automatic Parking;
(iii) Team of S/Shri Gaurav Upadhyay

& Hitendra Singh Rathore, 3rd Year
B.Tech
(Electrical
Enginnering),
Poornima Institute of Engineering &
Technology, Jaipur (PIET) on sending
timely information to the train drivers
regarding signals, boards and approaching
trains.
2. Architecture Category
(i) Team of Shri Kamal Tahilramani,
Shri Prateek Parashar, Shri Deepak
Kumar, Shri Samarth Patel, Ms Umang
Jain & Shri Tushar Sharma (Ayojan
School of Architecture) on Elevated
Road Over The Tonk Road, Jaipur with
a underpass crossing on B2 Bypass and
Provision of Suspended Monorail.
(ii) Team of S/Shri Saptarshi Kapri, Mitesh
Jatolia, Preet Kanwar Singh, Kartik
Paturkar & Vipul Raj (Ayojan School of
Architecture) on Metro Station Design.
3. Civil Engineering
(i) Team of S/Shri Mukesh A. Patel (Ganpat
University, Meshana, Gujarat) Shri
Gautam Dadhich (PDPU, Gandhinagar,
Gujarat) & Dr. H.S. Patel (LDCE,
Ahmedabad) on Modified Dynamic Cone
Penetrometer (DCPM) and Modified State
Cone Penetrometer (SCPM).
4. Poster
(i) Team of Mukesh A. Patel (Ganpat
University, Meshana, Gujarat), Gautam
Dadhich (PDPU, Gandhinagar, Gujarat &
Dr. Rakesh Kumar (Associate Professor,
SVNIT, Surat.
The list of the educational institutions which

participated in the event organized at MNIT
Jaipur is as under: Arya College of Engg. & Research Center,
Jaipur
Highlights
Aayojan School of Architecture, Jaipur
P. I. E. T. Jaipur
Amity School of Engineering and Technology
Pandit Deendayal Petroleum

Gandhinagar, Gujarat
Baldev Ram Mirdha Institute of Technology,

Jaipur
University,
PEC University of Technology
CBS Group of College
Poornima Group of Institutions, Jaipur
Ganpat University, Meshana, Gujarat
Poornima Institute
Technology, Jaipur
Global Institute of Technology, Jaipur
of
Engineer
and
Sri Balaji College of Engg. & Tech., Jaipur
Government Engineering College, Jhalawar
Sri Shakti Institute of Engineering and

Technology
Gyan Vihar University, Jaipur

IIT Roorkee
Jaipur Institute of Technology, Group of
Institutions, Jaipur
BMS College of Engineering, Bangalore

Orissa College of Engineering, Bhubaneswar
NIT, Surat
JECRC, Jaipur
Kautilya Institute of Technology
Engineering, Sitapura, Jaipur
L. D. College of Engineering, Ahemdabad
NIET (NIMS University), Jaipur
&
The
new
materials/equipment/instruments
accredited by IRC were also displayed in the
Technical Exhibition. It helped the students
to get an exposure of the emerging materials/
technology/techniques in the road sector.
Glimpses of Prize Distribution & Winning Models
Winner Civil Category (Modified Cone Penetrometer (DCPM) and Modified Static Cone Penetrometer (SCPM)
Highlights
Architecture Category (Elevated Road)
Winner (Joint) Electronics Category (Timely information given

to train driver regarding signals, board and approaching trains)
Winner Electronics Category (Tracking and Positioning of any vehicle by using GPS & GSM)
Winner of Poster Category (Microsurfacing: An Innovative

Technology for Pavement Preventive Maintenance)
Prize Distribution by Secretary General,

IRC & Director MNIT, Jaipur
Winner of Architecture Category (Metro Station Design)
Winner (Joint) Electronics Category

(Multi Storeyed Automatic Parking System)
Highlights
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16
TECHNICAL PAPERS
INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
FACTORS ON
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENTIAL IN HIGH PERFORMANCE
CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
K.S. Suresh Kumar*, M.S.Amarnath** and G.B. Avinash***
Abstract
Daily and seasonal variations in temperature and moisture
are important factors influencing the functioning of concrete
pavements. In addition to temperature, other environmental
factors that affect rigid pavement performance include humidity,
precipitation, amount of solar radiation etc. This paper is part of
a comprehensive study on High Performance Cement Concrete
Pavements (HPCCPs) conducted at Bangalore University.
Amongst the HPCs, an approach is made in this paper to
determine the realistic temperature differential in High Volume
Fly Ash Concrete (HVFAC). Durability tests such as abrasion,
water absorption and flexural fatigue were conducted on HVFAC
in addition to compressive and static flexural strength tests. The
test results show that the HVFAC is a high performance concrete.
A HVFAC concrete slab is instrumented with thermocouples, for
monitoring temperature at three regions, interior, edge and corner.
Thermocouples are inserted at top, middle and bottom of the slab.
The variation in pavement temperature is recorded every hour for
seven days. The influence of climatic conditions such as humidity
and number of solar radiation hours on daily and seasonal variations
(summer, winter and monsoon) of temperature differential through
the slab thickness is investigated. The minimum top temperatures
during summer, winter and monsoon seasons were 22.8C, 21.30C
and 21.10C respectively. The maximum top temperatures during
summer, winter and monsoon seasons were 53.9C, 42.30C and
38.60C respectively. The maximum temperature differentials
observed during summer, winter and monsoon season were 13.5C,
13C and 8.80C respectively. Taking into account the local
environmental factors and the material properties, temperature
differential prediction models for HVFAC slabs are suggested
in this paper. The temperature differential at any location in
India can be obtained by developing similar prediction models
and substituting values of the environmental parameters in the
prediction models. The values of these parameters are available
from Indian Meteorological Department. Temperature stresses are
evaluated by using the classic Westergaard equations.
Introduction
Temperature is an important factor influencing

the performance of cement concrete pavements.
The temperature differential is a function of the

heat transfer mechanisms of thermal conduction,
convection and solar radiation. Liu Wei 2005 reports
that environmental factors like humidity, wind,
precipitation, frost etc. also cause variations in
temperature. The cement concrete pavement response
to temperature differences through the slab thickness
is recognized as curling. A positive temperature
difference between the top and bottom surfaces of the
concrete slab during day time causes the slab corners
to curl downwards, while a negative temperature
difference during night time results in upward
curling of slab corners. Since concrete can recover
its original shape after the effects of temperature
variation are removed, the curling due to temperature
variation from daily or seasonal weather condition
can be considered as a transient component of slab
curvature behavior due to environmental loading.
Curling induces stresses in the pavement, since the
pavement is restrained by its weight. The thermally
induced stress caused by such interaction may result
in early pavement cracking. At present, in India
IRC:58 Guidelines for the Design of Plain Jointed
Rigid Pavements for Highways, is used for design
of cement concrete pavements. IRC:58 suggests
temperature differential values for different zones in
India to evaluate temperature stresses.
Mechanistic-empirical design is a method of
designing highway pavements. It combines empirical
relationships obtained from the field data with
theoretical predictions based on the mechanics of
materials. This method relates inputs such as traffic,
loadings, soil strength, climate, etc. to the actual
pavement response. Mechanistic-empirical method
Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, Bangalore University, Bangalore, E-mail: sknitt@gmail.com.
**
Professor in Highway Engineering, Bangalore University, Bangalore, E-mail: amaranth_ms@rediffmail.com.
*** Assistant Engineer, Water Resources Department, KPWD, Belgaum
17
TECHNICAL PAPERS
is more accurate than empirical method because the
empirical method only relies on the field performance,
while the Mechanistic-empirical method combines
both field performance and theoretical prediction
models. A Mechanistic Empirical design approach is
made in this study by considering the environmental
factors, solar radiation and humidity in addition to
air temperature to determine the realistic temperature
differentials in HVFAC.
2 Experimental Investigations
The present study is part of a comprehensive study
on High Performance Cement Concrete Pavements
(HPCCPs) conducted at Bangalore University.
Amongst the HPCs an approach is made in this paper
to determine the realistic temperature differential in
High Volume Fly Ash Concrete (HVFAC) only. An
existing HVFAC pavement slab free from vehicular
movement is identified for conducting temperature
studies. The study area is located in the southern part
of India at Bangalore City, Karnataka, geographically
located at latitude 12 95`N and longitude 7754
E. Dimensions of the HVFAC pavement slab are
4400 mm x 3300 mm and thickness 300 mm. The
shoulders have a minimum CBR value of 10% and
compacted with vibratory roller at OMC to achieve
density of 97% MDD. M40 Grade concrete having
mix proportions 1:1.22:1.78 consisting of Binder
50:50 (53 Grade cement confirming to IS12269:1987
and Fly Ash- Pulverized Fuel Ash confirming to
IS3812:2003), water binder ratio 0.38 is used to
cast the slab. To determine the compressive strength
of HVFAC pavement under study, cylindrical core
samples were taken two years after the pavement
was laid. The cylindrical compressive strength was
44.35MPa. The equivalent cube compressive strength
(calculated as per IS: 516-1999 Clause 5.6.1) was
55.44MPa.
3 Slab Instrumentation
To record the temperature at different depths of the
concrete slab temperature sensors called thermocouples
are used. A thermocouple is a sensor for measuring
temperature. It consists of two dissimilar metals,
joined together at one end, which produces a small
unique voltage at a given temperature. This voltage is
18
measured, converted and displayed by an electronic

digital temperature indicator directly as temperature
in degree Celsius. In this study Ktype thermocouple
and a temperature indicator capable of measuring
0.1C with a range of -10.0C to 100.0C is used.
20 mm diameter holes are drilled at interior, edge and
corner region of the slab. Thermocouples are fixed to
a wooden bead 16 mm square and 300 mm long such
that the tips of the thermocouples are exactly 25 mm,
150 mm and 275 mm from top of the slab as shown in
Plate 1. The wooden beads are inserted into the hole
and the space around it is grouted using cement slurry.
Fig.1 shows a typical schematic representation of slab
instrumentation.
Plate 1 Thermocouples Fixed to Wooden Bead and

Data Recording
A = 275 mm, B = 150 mm, C = 25 mm,

T = Tip of the Thermocouple
Fig.1 Schematic Representation of Slab Instrumentation
Data Acquisition
Each thermocouple has two leads. The leads

are connected to a digital temperature indicator
which directly shows temperature at the tip of the
thermocouple in degree Celsius. Plate 1 shows
TECHNICAL PAPERS
thermocouples fixed to wooden bead at three levels
and digital temperature indicator connected to leads
for recording temperature. Temperatures at top,
middle and bottom of the slab and air temperature at
about 300 mm from slab top are recorded every hour
for seven days during each season. The temperature
data are manually recorded. Environmental data such
as solar radiation hours and humidity are taken from
the Indian Meteorological Department for Bangalore
region.
5 Monitoring
Analysis
Results
and
Data
Pavement top temperatures ranged from 45C to

52C during summer season (last week of April)
and the average air temperature was 34C. During
winter season (last week of December) pavement
top temperatures ranged from 22C to 36C and the
air temperature ranged from 20C to 36C. During
monsoon season (last week of June) pavement top

temperatures ranged from 31C to 39C and the air
temperature ranged from 29C to 34C. The hourly
variation of temperature at top, middle and bottom
in the corner region for monsoon season is shown in
Fig.2.
The temperature of slab is more at the top during day
time and more at the bottom during night time. This is
because the top of the slab is exposed to direct solar
radiation. Variation of temperature at top of slab is
more than that at bottom. This could be due to loss
of heat during transmission. Variation of temperature
is more at edge region than at corner region. This is
due to more loss of heat at edge region as the slab is
in contact with the shoulder. Maximum and minimum
temperatures and day time and night time temperature
differential for summer, winter and monsoon seasons
in HVFAC slab are shown in Table 1.
Fig.2 Hourly Variation of Temperature in HVFAC Slab
Table 1 Temperature and Temperature Differential in HVFAC Pavements

Summer season
Winter season
Monsoon season
Data
Position
Min.
28.90
28.80
28.40
19.50
22.30
19.60
22.80
21.10
24.20
Temp.
30.10
29.90
29.40
18.60
23.60
24.30
20.10
25.60
Max.
53.90
52.00
51.80
42.30
39.20
37.70
33.90
33.00
38.60
Temp.
49.80
44.30
50.40
32.00
31.10
33.80
29.70
34.80
T Diff
Night
-8.00
-6.80
-8.00
-6.10
-6.00
-8.80
-6.10
-8.30
T Diff
Day
11.40
13.50
13.40
13.00
10.30
5.20
5.90
5.00
I is the Interior region, E the edge region and C the corner region. T is top and B is bottom of slab.
19
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Note :
1.
The temperature differentials in the slab refer to the

difference between the top and bottom temperature.
2.
Temperature at bottom of slab in the Interior region is

not recorded due to malfunctioning of thermocouple.
It is observed that the day time temperature differential

in the edge region is more than that at interior and
corner regions where as the night time temperature
differential is more in interior region. There is not
much difference between average air temperature
during winter and monsoon season. From Table 1 it
is seen that the temperature differentials are positive
during day time and negative during night time,
Negative night time temperature differential values
are less significant than positive day time temperature
differentials and negative differentials occur much less
often than positive differentials this can be attributed
to the presence of solar radiation during day time.
The pavement top temperature and the temperature
differential are lower during monsoon than winter.
This could be due to precipitation and the presence
of clouds during monsoon thus causing lesser solar
radiation.
6
Development
of
Prediction
Model
for
Temperature
Differential in HVFAC Slab
A statistical model is attempted to predict the

temperature differential as a function of pavement top
temperature and depth of the slab. As the pavement
temperature depends on environmental factors it is
desirable to first develop a model for pavement top
temperature which is dependant on air temperature,
humidity and accumulated solar radiation. For data
correlation, it is necessary to define the following;
a)
b)
20
Solar Radiation Hours (SRH): This is defined

as the number of hours elapsed from sunrise
to the time peak pavement top temperature is
reached.
Percent Humidity (H): It is the humidity at the
peak period.
c)
Average daily air temperature (AAIRT): The

average of daily air temperature that occurs
between 9 a.m. to 2 p.m.
6.1
Pavement
Model
Top
Temperature
Prediction
The pavement top temperature prediction models are

described by the following equations:
Winter
model
pavement
top
temperature
prediction
TTOP=16.25+0.21*AAIRT+1.91*SRH+0.01*H (1)
(n = 7, R2 = 0.92)
Summer pavement top temperature prediction
model
TTOP=51.51+1.11AAIRT-4.88SRH+0.14*H
(2)
(n = 7, R2 = 0.75)
Monsoon pavement top temperature prediction
model
TTOP=16.69+0.42*AAIRT+1.53*SRH0.41*H (3)
(n = 7, R2 = 0.76)
Combined pavement top temperature prediction
model (summer, winter and monsoon season)
TTOP=32.180.03*AAIRT+1.48*SRH0.15*H (4)
(n = 14, R2 = 0.73)
Where; TTOP is the maximum pavement top
temperature and AAIRT is the average air temperature
in degree Celsius, SRH is the solar radiation period in
hours and H = Humidity in percent.
6.2
Temperature Differential Prediction Model
The prediction models for positive day time

temperature differentials are developed using the
pavement top temperature developed from equations
(1) to (4) and depth of the slab as variables.

T+ = -27.87 + 0.68*TTOP + 0.04*D
(5)
Where; T is the positive day time temperature

differential in degree Celsius, TTOP is the pavement
TECHNICAL PAPERS
top temperature in degree Celsius and D is the
thickness of the concrete slab.
The maximum temperature differentials actually
recorded during each season are shown in Table 2. The
temperature differentials arrived at using temperature
differential prediction models are shown in

Table 3. The comparison between actual and predicted
temperature differentials during winter season at
edge region is shown in Fig.3. Table 4 shows the
comparison between actual and predicted temperature
stresses.
Table 2 Actual Temperature Differentials Recorded During Each Season
Day
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
SUMMER SEASON
I
E
C
4.9
8.8
8.5
4.9
8.8
8.5
1.1
6.6
7.6
4.7
8.6
8.3
1.7
7.1
8
4.7
8.6
8.3
4.7
8.6
8.3
WINTER SEASON
I
E
C
11.4
9
13
8.93
10.4
10.3
10.2
8.8
8.8
9
11.3
8.8
10.6
6.6
MONSOON SEASON
I
E
C
5.2
5.9
4.2
3.2
3.3
2.4
2.5
3.1
2.3
0.8
2.8
1.4
3.2
2.7
1
3.2
5.2
3.5
5.1
3.1
4.7
Table 3 Temperature Differentials Arrived at Using Prediction Models
Day
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
SUMMER SEASON
I
E
C
4.52
7.36
7.44
4.06
7.28
7.56
4.01
7.25
7.57
4.54
7.36
7.47
3.65
7.16
7.69
3.97
7.23
7.57
4.11
7.25
7.56
WINTER SEASON
I
E
C
12.38
12.46
13.82
12.11
12.62
12.83
10.77
11.75
10.98
11.05
12.13
11.68
11.04
10.92
MONSOON SEASON
I
E
C
7.99
9.8
4.71
6.33
9.3
3.74
7.11
8.25
3.52
3.8
7.23
2.05
7.13
6.82
2.54
6.83
8.39
3.18
7.79
8.43
3.34
Fig.3 Comparison Between Actual and Predicted Temperature Differentials
21
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 4 Comparison Between Actual and Predicted Temperature Stresses
Day
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
SUMMER SEASON
I
E
C
0.51
0.82
0.41
0.51
0.82
0.41
0.12
0.61
0.36
0.49
0.80
0.40
0.18
0.66
0.38
0.49
0.80
0.40
0.49
0.80
0.40
0.47
0.68
0.36
0.42
0.68
0.36
0.42
0.67
0.36
0.48
0.68
0.36
0.38
0.67
0.37
0.42
0.67
0.36
0.43
0.67
0.36
WINTER SEASON
I
E
C
1.06
0.43
1.21
0.43
0.97
0.49
0.95
0.42
0.82
0.43
1.05
0.42
0.99
0.32
1.15
0.60
1.29
0.58
1.17
0.61
1.00
0.56
1.02
0.53
1.13
0.56
1.03
0.52
It is observed from Table 2 that the actual temperature

differential on day three and day five during summer
season is very low. This is because on these days the
pavement top temperatures dropped when it became
cloudy and there were sudden heavy rainfalls during
the day. After the rain ceased the sky remained cloudy,
that prevented any possibility of increase in pavement
top temperature. It is observed that the temperature
MONSOON SEASON
I
E
C
0.54
0.55
0.20
0.33
0.31
0.11
0.26
0.29
0.11
0.08
0.26
0.07
0.33
0.25
0.05
0.33
0.48
0.17
0.53
0.29
0.22
0.84
0.91
0.22
0.66
0.86
0.18
0.74
0.77
0.17
0.40
0.67
0.10
0.75
0.63
0.12
0.71
0.78
0.15
0.82
0.78
0.16
ACTUAL
TEMPERATURE
STRESSES
CALCULATED
TEMPERATURE
STRESSES
differential from predicted models is slightly more

than the actual temperature differentials, except for
summer season. This could be due to sudden rainfall
on two days. Similarly the temperature stresses
evaluated from the prediction models are on the
higher side. Fig.4 shows the comparison between
actual temperature stresses and predicted temperature
stresses during winter season at edge region.
Fig.4 Comparison Between Actual and Predicted Temperature Stresses
22
TECHNICAL PAPERS
7
Conclusions
4.
Liu Wei, 2005, Improved Model for Analysis of

Load and Thermal Effects on Concrete Pavements,
Ph.D. Dissertation Report (Unpublished) submitted to
Department of Civil Engineering, National University of
Singapore.
5.
Yang H. Huang, 1993, Pavement Analysis and Design,

Prentice Hall.
6.
Yoder E.J. and Witczak M.W., 1975, Principles of

Pavement Design, John Wiley and Sons Inc.
7.
Wei LIU and Tien Fang FWA, 2003. Effects of Nonlinear

Temperature Distribution on Thermal Stresses in Concrete
Pavements, Journal of the Eastern Asia Society for
Transportation Studies, Vol.5, pp 1023 to 1034.
8.
Puttappa C.G., 2006, Investigations on High Performance

Cement Concrete for Pavements. Ph.D. Dissertation
Report (Unpublished) submitted to Bangalore University.
9.
Jose T. Balbo, Andrea A. Severi, 2002, Thermal Gradients

in Concrete Pavements in Tropical Environment: An
Experimental Appraisal, Laboratory of Pavement
Mechanics, Sao Paulo, Brazil. TRB paper No. 02-2560.
Analysis of the instrumented concrete slab temperature

data recorded for the three seasons summer, winter
and monsoon yielded the following main findings:

The air temperature, solar radiation and

humidity are factors influencing temperature
differential in concrete slabs.
Negative night time temperature differential
values are less significant than positive day time
temperature differentials. Moreover, negative
differentials occur much less often than positive
differentials.
There is not much difference between average
air temperature during winter and monsoon
season.
It is observed that the minimum top temperature

during summer, winter and monsoon season is
22.8C, 21.30C, and 21.10C respectively.
It is observed that the maximum top temperatures

during summer, winter and monsoon season are
53.9 C, 42.30 C and 38.60 C respectively.
The maximum pavement top temperature during

summer is 21.5% higher than that during winter
and 28.4% higher than that during monsoon
respectively.
The pavement top temperature and the

temperature differential are lower during
monsoon than winter; this can be accredited
due to the presence of clouds thus causing
lesser solar radiation.
REFERENCES
1.
Choubane and Tia, 1995 Analysis and Verification of

Thermal Gradient Effects on Concrete Pavements,
Journal of Transportation Engg., Vol. 121, No. 1.
pp.75-81.
2.
IRC:58 Guidelines for the Design of Plain Jointed Rigid

Pavements for Highways The Indian Road Congress,
New Delhi.
3.
Khanna S.K. and Justo C.E.G. 1996, Highway

Engineering, Nem Chand & Bros Roorkie.
23
24
QUALITY AUDIT FOR CONCRETE CONSTRUCTIONS

Dr. C V KAND*
Audit involves official inspection of an organization

account typically by an inspecting body. In respect of
concrete structures it will mean a critical inspection of
concrete structures, ascertain damages, distresses and
defects appeared during construction or in service life.
The author had an occasion to inspect more than 100
concrete structures which developed either problem
during construction or during in service life, if these
are summarized subject wise, the main issues are as
below:A concrete structure is subjected to the effect of water,
disturbances in the earth such as settlements and
earthquakes, the effect of wind and environmental
effects. In ancient Vastushastra there used to be a
prayer at the foundation ceremony and even at the
completion of the work stating that Let the god of
Rains (Varuna) protect this Vastu, let the earth on
which Vastu is laid protect it from destruction, let the
effect of wind and let the god of Environment protect
this structure.
In the concrete structures which developed some
defects following main issues cropped up:1.
Erosion and cavitations of Bridge piers and

foundations due to high velocity.
2.
Damage of concrete in buildings and bridges

due to Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR) or Delayed
Ettrigingite Formation (DEF).
3.
Plastic Shrinkages in the newly laid concrete

due to lack of appropriate curing.
4.
Inappropriate construction methods.
5.
In respect of Aqueducts damages caused due

to failure of joints and rubbing of canal water
containing sand and pebbles on the bottom
surface of the ducts are seen.
6.
Wrong procedure of well sinking and instances

of well sinking in rock.
1 EROSION AND CAVITATIONS

(Fig. 1.1, Fig. 1.2, Fig.1.3)
1.1
Hydro Dynamic Effects
According to current practice and codal requirements,

bridge piers are designed for the static effects caused
due to velocity head, differential head etc. Recent
observations have shown that the bridge piers are
subjected to hydro-dynamic effects such as erosion
and cavitation caused at high stream velocities. The
hydro-dynamic effects are smaller and insignificant
at lower stream velocities and may be ignored but at
higher velocities these effects can cause damage and
failure of structure.
In high level bridges hydro-dynamic effects are
predominantly on piers. Effects on abutments are
not significant. In submersible bridges the decking,
is subjected to hydro-dynamic effects which are
ultimately transferred to piers. The theoretical
background and method of assessment of the effect
is well known. The same is, however, critically
examined, in the light of bridges.
Retd. Chief Engineer, PWD, Bhopal (MP), E-mail: cvkand@yahoo.co.in
25
TECHNICAL PAPERS
particle can be transported) and the size of particle
dragged by the stream. This is given by d = 36.15 Vb2
where d is in mm and Vb is in m/sec.
The diameter of particles flown by current for various
velocities will be
Fig.1.1 Shape of Piers and Current Directions at Pier.
1.2 Erosion Due to Suspended Particles in

Streams
Rivers which carry coarse sand or gravel of large
pebbles wears away the masonry or concrete of piers
through abrasion. The deterioration of the submerged
surfaces of masonry or concrete brought about by the
abrasive action of solids in motion in fluids is called
erosion. The rate of erosion is dependent upon the
following factors.
i.
Quantity of sand and gravel in water.
ii.
Shape, size and hardness of particles.
iii.
Velocity of the current.
There is a relationship between the competent bottom

velocity (the velocity at or above which a certain
26
Velocity m/sec
Diameter mm
1.5
80
3.0
330
4.5
730
6.0
1300
7.5
2030
9.0
2930
Model studies, to establish quantum of erosion of

surface of structure in a given period at different
velocities of current in sandy bed, are not available.
According to ACI, if the quantity and size of solids
are small; for example silt in irrigation canal, no
appreciable erosion takes place on good concrete
surface at bottom for velocity up to stream velocities
of 3m/sec. Significant erosion effect has been observed
in structure in sandy river beds where the velocity of
current is more than 4.5m/sec. Hard stone masonry
structures can stand higher velocities without abrasive
action.
Erosion of surface of submerged concrete structure
will take place at velocities higher than 3m/sec. even
if the flow is undisturbed and the shape of the surface
is smooth and streamlined. If the shape of structure is
not streamlined and the surface has depressions and
there are projected corners, the flow will be disturbed.
Separation of flow and formation of eddies will take
place at such even spots. The velocity at the disturbed
zone will increase and the stream would scoop out
more quantity of sand from the bed. Increase in
quantity of sand and increase in the velocity will
thus aggravate abrasive action at uneven and unstreamlined spots in the structure. Movement of sand
is vertical due to pushing up from bed by whirlpool
action and horizontal due to current.
TECHNICAL PAPERS
1.3
Damage Due to Cavitation
Cavitation was encountered in hydraulic machinery

as speeds of turbines and pumps were increased. The
discovery, in 1935, of severe pitting of concrete in the
conduit entrance of Madden Dam on the Chagres River
in the Isthmus of Panama prompted civil engineers
dealing with hydraulic structures to look into it. There
are several reported examples of cavitation damage
of concrete structures thereafter. The most notable
among them being:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Bonneville Dam (USA)

Parker Dam gate pier below gate slot.
Libby Dam on Kootenai river Montana USA
Lower Monumental Lock and Dam Snake
River, Washington
e)
Arizona Spillway at Boulder Dam
According to Bernoullis theorem, for any mass

flowing water, in which there is continuous connection
between all particles, the total head of each particle is
the same. Let this total energy head be H.

v2
H = Z + W + 2g
It is normally believed that the effect of cavitation is

to be reckoned only in irrigation structures such as
waste weir, concrete lined tunnels for carrying water,
concrete or steel pipes etc., where the velocity is more
than 12m/sec. The flow of water through irrigation
structures is regulated. Such regulation in river is not
possible. Velocities more than 6m/sec. are termed as
high stream velocities. The bridge engineers dealing
with high stream rivers must be concerned about
cavitation.
1.4 Erosion Resistance of Concrete and Shape of
Piers
The erosion of concrete pier can be minimized by
adopting stronger concrete. Erosion resistance of
concrete depends of its strength. Epoxy mortar with
one part of epoxy and three parts of calcenite sand has
much higher erosion resistance and experiments shows
that this material can stand the effect of cavitation. If
erosion resistance of M20 concrete is 100, the same
of richer concrete will be higher. Fiber concrete and
epoxy mortar will have higher resistance but the cost
will be more. Following table will give idea about
relative costs of various materials. Epoxy mortar gives
higher resistance per rupees.
Material
M 20 Concrete
Fig.1.2 Three Circular Column Pier with Diaphragm. Erosion of

Concrete Seen at the Junction of Column and Diaphragm
Erosion
Erosion
Resistance Resistance per
Rupee.
100
25
Fibre lining concrete 400
27
M 35 concrete
300
43
Stone block lining
400
40
Epoxy mortar 10-12 1200

mm thick
48
27
TECHNICAL PAPERS
by high stream velocity and further that the concrete
was not suitable to withstand the fury of water currents.
The plain concrete piers of Railway Bridge on d/s of
this road bridge also showed surface erosion. The
old railway bridge was provided with stone masonry
piers. The bridge was deserted. However, one pier
is standing. The stones of the masonry have large
bushes. The bushes show seriations along bedding
plane of the stone due to erosion. The case shows that
circular columns with diaphragms are not suitable for
high stream velocity. Detailed investigation of this
case brought out that specifications of concrete piers
must be compatible with stream velocity. Colcrete is
not suitable for well steining. It is not being used now
a day.
1.6
Fig. 1.3
1.5
Hasdeo Bridge at Champa
In 1956, a submersible bridge was undertaken across

Hasdeo River velocity of current is 9m/sec. During
construction some foundation and decks got washed
away in floods, due to high velocity. The bridge was
then converted into a high level bridge. The high
level bridge is provided with some wall type piers
and some piers with 3 circular columns connected by
diaphragms. Within 3 to 4 years of completion, it was
observed that surfaces of concrete are eroded exposing
the metal in concrete matrix. Colcrete steining of one
of the well foundation was damaged in nearly 75%
circumference of upstream dredge hole of an eight
shaped well. Depth of damaged portion was 1.8m. In
another well, after damage of colcrete steining, RCC
columns inside were also damaged due to erosion.
These damages were obviously due to erosion caused
28
Deolon Bridge (Sone River) Near Shahhol

(M.P.)
This submersible bridge was completed in 1950.

In the floods of 1975 the bridge was submerged for
nearly 36 hours with 5.8m, water above the bridge. On
receding of the floods it was noticed that the bridge
had almost completely washed away. Maximum mean
velocity of the stream was 6.1 m/sec. At 300m on the
downstream, rocky hillocks project in the river on both
banks. The channel is constricted and the river takes
a sharp turn. All these caused disturbance of the flow
and increase in velocity. The structure was designed
for a velocity of 3m/sec only. It was noticed that piers
fell in different directions. Foundations of the bridge
were laid on bouldery strata. Some piers got uprooted
even from foundation level. Investigations showed
that at the location where river width is constricted
there is a fault zone, a deep hole in rocky bed having
depth of 15m. This has occurred due to high velocity
of water at construction site.
A tower of a high power line on the bank of river
consisted of 4 steel rail sections. The rails sheared off
at the top of footing of the concrete block as if cut by
a hacksaw. A large vortex was formed at the bridge
site on account of physical features and it appears
the tower was in worst zone of the vortex. This was
a typical effect of cavitation, caused due to vortices
TECHNICAL PAPERS
at high velocity as explained in previous paragraph.
Fall of piers was not along the direction of river. Piers
fell in various directions and this shows turbulent flow
having deviations angles larger than 200. Inadequate
assessment of velocity, bad seating and foundations
on Bouldary strata are the causes of failure of the

bridge.
Photo 1.1, Photo 1.2, Photo 1.3, Photo 1.4 and
Photo 1.5
Cavitations and Erosion Damages

Photo.1.1
Photo.1.2
Photo 1.3 Erosion of the Stone Masonry at High Velocity
29
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Photo 1.4 Cavitation Damage
Photo 1.5 Cavitation Damage
2 ALKALI SILICA REACTION (ASR) or

DELAYED ETTRIGINGITE FORMATION
(DEF)
2.1 Alkali silica (aggregate) reaction is a recent
phenomenon and is known as cancer of concrete. It
attacks when moisture for one reason or another gets
into the concrete structure and reacts with the alkali
produced by certain types of cements. The resulting
alkaline solution then reacts with silica found in
some types of aggregate and sand and make the gel
a powerfully moisture attracting element. The gel
expands as it gathers more moisture and causes the
concrete to crack. These cracks allow more moisture
into the concrete and the problem gets worse. Several
30
concrete structures in U.K. have suffered premature

damage due to ASR. In India recently, we have come
across this phenomenon in Hirakud dam spillway and
Rihind dam power house structure and repairs are
done. High alkali content in cement also causes ASR.
Cements in India contain 0.4 to 1 percent alkali. It
is advisable to restrict it to 0.6 percent. The reaction
takes place in presence of moisture. Alkali silica
reaction can be controlled by selection of nonreactive aggregate, use of low alkali cement, by
adding pozollana in cement, by controlling moist
condition. Alkali silica reaction will be at surface
due to presence of rain water. Surfaces can be given
waterproofing paint treatment to minimize the effect.
ASR occurs only when aggregate contains such
element which can react with alkalis in cement. It
does not occur in all concretes. ASR cause pot holes
in deck slab of bridges. Such holes were observed in
several bridges in western Madhya Pradesh where
local sand was used. This local sand contains 30%
Ferruginous compounds. The tests were carried out at
National soil and material laboratory at CWPC, Delhi.
IS 383 (Table 1) says that deleterious material should
not be more than 5% in river sands. Chemical tests of
sand should be obligatory.
2.2 Delayed Ettringite Formation (DEF) in steam
cured precast concrete slabs of M40 strength, the slabs
were staked and these were to be placed on precast
girders and provide composite deck slab. Several cracks
were noticed in the precast slabs. This can happen due
to: a.) presence of sulphate in aggregates which cause
delay in gaining strength, this phenomenon is caused
due to delay in Ettringite formation. However, there
are no precedence of DEF in India. b.) If water cement
ratio in precast steam cured slab is less than 0.4 the
slabs have to be cured for two days after removal from
the steam curing. According to Neveele if this is not
done cracks appear in the slab.
Photo 2.1, Photo 2.2 and Photo 2.3
TECHNICAL PAPERS
3.2
Photo 2.1 RCC Box Type Deck in an Area Which Contains Sand
with Ferruginous Compounds
Photo 2.2 Beginning of Pot Holes in Deck
Nature of Crack:-
In Bridge No.1 the cracks are in the longitudinal and

lateral directions over the location of steel. Width
of crack at top of slab was found to be 25,15,10,10
and 5mm at five locations, there are 36 cracks in the
width of 11.2m. In Bridge No.2 & 3 similar cracks
were observed. Cracks in Bridge No.1 & 2 are
wider, in Bridge No.3 Cracks are not wide but these
are throughout the span. At bottom of slab, precast
concrete sacrificial slab was used as a formwork
and hence it was not possible to see if cracks have
occurred. However, the core data showed that cracks
are not extended generally below top of steel in top
slab.
3.3
The Likely Reasons of Cracks are Generally

as below:-
1.
When steel inside the concrete is corroded, its

volume is increased and the concrete cracks,
such cracks are found along the vertical steel in
columns and at the bottom of deck slab.
2.
Cracks can also occur due to defective that is

weak concrete.
3.
If the Structure is in hot areas and where hot

winds are present and where curing of concrete
is not started as per the requirements of the type
of cement used, plastic shrinkage cracks occur.
3.4 Material Used & Method of Construction
Photo 2.3 Pot Holes in Deck due to ASR
CRACKS IN DECK SLAB OF THREE

BRIDGES
3.1 Background
Cracks in the deck slabs of bridges were observed in the
longitudinal and lateral direction of three Bridges.
The materials used in all the bridges is crushed granite

aggregate of black colour, the river sand, Grade 53
cement of Ultratech (as per clause 302.1 of IRC:21
& IS 12269), construction chemicals (IS-9103), water
for concreting. All these materials have been tested
according to codal requirements and no defect was
found in the materials of concreting. Aggregate &
sand are as per IS 383. Testing of these is as per IS
2386. Concreting was done by using concrete pumps
and the slump was 80 to 100mm. This is also alright.
Cement and Fly Ash: Ultratech cement of 53 Grade is
used for the RCC work. But this also causes shrinkage
effects as observed in many Bridges and Buildings.
31
TECHNICAL PAPERS
For RCC bridges & buildings grade 33 or grade 43 are
preferable. However there is no codal ban on using
53 Grade cement for RCC work. 20% Fly ash if added
in the cement, this should in fact reduce shrinkage.
The above information reveals that there is no fault
in the material used or in the procedure of concreting.
It is therefore necessary to examine the procedure
adopted for curing of concrete.
3.5
Testing of Concrete Laid at Site by Non

Destructive Tests
Following Non-Destructive test were carried out:

1.
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test and 2. Core Test
UTPV test show that there are no doubtful or medium

results. The depth of crack was also measured and it
was found to be from 20mm to 40mm that is up to the
top of Steel bars only in one case the depth is more.
3.6
Reasons for Cracks
Since the materials used for concreting and the method

of concreting did not display any defect, cracks might
have occurred due to method adopted for curing of
concrete in the hot weather with low humidity which
is prevalent in this region. The record of temperature
during concreting and the ambient temperature
shows that the bridges are located in hot region and
the temperature during concreting has been more
than 30C. It is a hot area where besides temperature
hot winds also exist. It appears, on completing the
concrete curing or watering of concrete was started
late. Normally when Grade 53 cement is used the
practice is to cover the concrete by Tarpaulin placed
on test cubes on fresh concrete so that Tarpaulin does
not touch the concrete. After 2 hours ponds are made
with earth and these are gradually filled with water. If
curing is delayed and if the concrete is in hot weather,
it suffers from plastic shrinkage. Since the steel
reinforcement is approximately has 40mm cover, the
shrinkage will go up to the top of the steel bar without
interruption. It cannot go deeper due to presence of
bar and the cracks will be developed on steel along
the direction of steel. This is what appears to have
happened at site as can be seen from photographs of
cracks.
32
3.7
Plastic Shrinkage Cracks
The American concrete Institute in ACI 116 defines

Plastic Shrinkage Cracking as cracking that occurs in
the surface of fresh concrete soon after it is placed and
while it is still plastic. These cracks forms because
of loss of bleed water from the surface of the fresh
concrete by evaporation. The tensile strength of fresh
concrete is very low since the concrete has not had time
to set, the volume changes caused by this evaporation
of the bleed water results in the formation of plastic
shrinkage cracks. The critical condition exists when
the rate of evaporation of surface moisture exceeds
the rate at which the rising bleed water can replace
it. Water reaching below the surface forms menisci
between fine particle of cement and aggregate causing
a tensile force to develop in the surface layer. If the
concrete layers have started to set and has developed
sufficient tensile strength to resist the tensile forces,
cracks do not form. If the surface dries very rapidly,
the concrete may still be plastic, and the cracks do not
develop at that time; but the plastic cracks will surely
form as soon as the concrete stiffens a little more.
3.8
Rehabilitations Measures
The test results show that the strength of concrete

is not reduced. There is no need of providing epoxy
concrete. However, cement mortar 1:1.5 with fine sand
and 15% polymer should be grouted. The procedure
for grouting will be to make small holes in the concrete
going up to 30mm at 300mm c/c. An area of about
1m x 1m be selected and perplex pipe of 10mm
diameter be fixed in the holes, all except one hole be
closed at top and grouting should be done at pressure
from the open hole till the grout comes in the other
holes. A specialized agency be engaged to do this work.
In this manner grouting should be done and the wider
cracks be finished by the same mortar if not filled by
grouting. In future the freshly laid concrete be covered
by Tarpaulin and placed above test cubes as mentioned
above, after about 2 hours. Earthen pond be made and
water should be filled in the ponds gradually, 7 days
after grouting the wearing coat can be laid. IS: 456
of 2000 Para 13.5 contained instructions for curing.
These should be followed.
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Photo 3.1, Photo 3.2, Photo 3.3 and Photo 3.4
Photo 3.4 Core Test
4
Photo 3.1 Plastic Shrinkage
Photo 3.2 Plastic Shrinkage on Location of Steel Bars
INAPPROPRIATE
METHODS
CONSTRUCTION
Geotechnical investigations was carried out for two

separate bridges. Each bridge has two separate 2-lane
bridges. Thus there are total 4 bridges which contain
18 well foundations. Geotechnical investigations was
carried out by three different organizations namely
by DPR consultants, by proof consultants and also by
the contractor. All these three separate geotechnical
consultants concluded that the soft rock is available
at different depths in the well foundations, and
recommended Safe Bearing Capacity of not more than
80 T/m2. The design consultants proposed sinking of
wells 5 to 7m in the soft rock and considered passive
resistance in the design of wells, when the work was
in progress sinking of wells in rock could be done
only by blasting. In that process the wells are

badly tilted and shifted,
the well steining is cracked
The investigation of these tilted and shifted well

was carried out and following glaring facts came to
notice.
i.
Photo 3.3 Core Test
In about less then 300m from the site of these

bridges there are existing bridges constructed
before Independence during British regime.
These are submersible bridges. The bridge
register shows that the foundations are taken
only 4m below the bed level and laid on hard
33
TECHNICAL PAPERS
rock. However, this data was not collected
during geotechnical investigation.
ii.
During sinking of the well large pieces of rock

extracted by blasting could be seen at the site
near the wells. Cubes of 100 mm x 100 mm x
100 mm were chiseled out from these pieces
and tested in the laboratory. In one case the
safe bearing capacity was 300 T/m2, in another
case it was 400 T/m2 (by adopting factor of
safety 8) against the recommended capacity by
the geotechnical experts of 80 T/m2.
iii.
The rectification of tilted and shifted pier wells

which is causing more than 33% base area in
tension is being done by providing Anchor
rods in the tension zones and also all around
the periphery. 32 mm Anchor rods are anchored
2.5 m in rock and grouted by 1:1.5 cement
mortar with 15% polymer. 2 bars of 32 mm are
proposed to be anchored in 110 mm diameter
bore. The bars are raised and anchored in the
well cap with transverse circular stirrups. These
anchor rods will take entire tension coming
on the foundations and the direct load will be
taken by the rock below. The cracks in the well
steining have occurred because of blasting.
These will be grouted by 1:3 Epoxy mortar. The
entire well is filled up by concrete of the same
strength of well steining.
iv.
In respect of abutment well there are 2

alternatives:
a.
To provide pre-stressed concrete active

anchorages and fix them in the rock
below and in the well cap above.
b.
To provide RCC block wall near the well

and lay the well cap on the well and this
block with a view to relive the well from
lot of tension and provide also some
anchor rods, similar to pier wells.
v.
IRC:78 clause 705.3.2 recommends that in

case of hard rock the seating of the well shall
34
be such that the 75% perimeter is seated on

rock and a sump (shear key) of 300mm is
cut in hard rock and 6 dowel bars of 25 mm
diameter are anchored in rock. The same code
also recommends that the boring chart shall be
referred to constantly during sinking for taking
adequate care while piercing different type of
strata by keeping boring chart at the site and
plotting the soil as obtained for the well sinking
and comparing it with earlier bore data to take
prompt decision. Ignoring these precautions can
cause distresses of the type as explained above.
There is no fault of concrete; the fault lies in the
construction methodology.
Photo 4.1, Photo 4.2, Photo 4.3 and Photo 4.4
Photo 4.1 Tilted Well
Photo 4.2 Tilted Well
TECHNICAL PAPERS
5.2 Observations
5.2.1 The conventional copper expansion joint are
provided on the inner side of the duct. There is a gap
of 50mm on the inner side of the aqueduct wall. This
is filled up by Shalitex board to make it water tight.
While finalizing the estimate there was a proposal to
provide 25mm water proof coat on the inside of the
duct. It was however proposed to do after observing
the performance of the aqueduct during its operation.
Photo 4.3 Tilt & Shift
5.2.2 Canal water coming from Dam carries sand

and pebbles and these rub on the top surface of the
bottom slab of the duct. Concrete is badly eroded and
aggregate get exposed.
5.2.3 Besides Sand and the pebbles as mentioned
above some larger stones of the size of masonry
stones were found inside the duct. Nobody could
explain how these stones have come because such
stones cannot flow with a small velocity of 3.9 m/s.
These appears to have been brought later and may be
for some maintenance operation but not removed.
Photo 4.4 Tilt Being Reduced by Eccentric Loading
CONDITION SURVEY OF AQUEDUCT

CUM BRIDGE
5.1 Background and Details of Aqueduct

This Aqueduct cum Road Bridge was completed in
March 1991 on lump sum contracts with contractors
design. It is now about 20 years old. Certain problems
are being faced in the Aqueduct.
The structural details of the Aqueduct are as below
Total Length
966 meters
Span arrangement

19 spans of 38.5 metres

main spans
10 spans of 9.97 metres
Height from Lowest

bed to Soffit
33 m
Duct size
Twin duct 3.425 x 2.60
5.2.4 Five Expansion joints of the aqueduct are

damaged by miscreants who have broken the concrete
outside the copper plate in the joint and removed
the copper plate. There is a leakage through joints
when the canal water is let in the vertical steels in the
concrete which was broken is exposed at some place.
5.2.5 The Shalitex board at joints which are not
broken is also damaged at places. The depth of water
at highest water level inside the canal is only 2.5 m.
5.2.6 The expansion joints at road level are only in
the road way width. These are not extended in the
footpath portion; therefore the rain water is leaking
through the joints and caused dirty water marks on
the soffit of cantilever slab, on the vertical sides of the
ducts. Then due to water flowing from the top of pier
cap down to the pier such dirty water marks are also
seen on the pier.
5.2.7 The aqueduct was inspected after severe
Earthquake of 1997. It was brought out that plants have
35
TECHNICAL PAPERS
sprouted on the pier cap and at the expansion joints
outside. It was suggested that this should be removed
and the roots filled with lime powder and Asafoetida.
Generally these are Pipal trees. It appears that this has
not been done; more such plants are supported on pier
cap.
with three parts of calcenite sand and one part of

epoxy has erosion resistance nearly three times than
that of M35 concrete. Therefore 15mm thick epoxy
mortar should be laid over the bottom slab and also
on the sides of this aqueduct to improve the erosion
resistance.
5.3
5.3.5 The accumulation of sand, silt & pebbles shows

that duct has not been cleaned for years. It is felt that
every year this must be cleaned at least twice once
before the flood season and second after the flood
season.
Causes of Distresses and Rectifications
5.3.1 The canal water in the aqueducts bring with

it silt, sand and pebbles. These flow along with the
water slowly but when the discharge is stopped these
get accumulated and the flow characteristics expected
in the aqueduct is affected. That is why water gets
stagnant inside the aqueduct even when the canal
discharge is stopped. Inquiry reveled that there is no
maintenance manual for the aqueduct. Criterion for
the maintenance for the bridges is adopted for the
aqueduct. But the IRC criterion does not have any
guidelines for the flow of water inside of the duct and
the expansion joints in the duct. It has now become
necessary to have such a maintenance manual for the
aqueduct which will take into account the effect of
flow inside the duct.
5.3.2 These types of expansion joints are giving
trouble in many aqueducts. Incidences of braking of
joints with a view to remove costly metal like copper
plates are observed. This is an age old joint and
its replacement is not easy. In case of bridges strip
seal expansion joints are provided replacement of
these joints is simple. Polymer expansion joints are
available It is better to change these expansion joints
by elastomeric expansion joints.
5.3.6 The canal alignment on both sides also needs to

be cleaned of the debris and branches of trees, which
get accumulated around the columns in the transition
structures. It is better to avoid columns in transition
structure as has been done in recent aqueducts.
5.3.7 The erosion of concrete in the piers and wells is
not significant at this stage but this should be observed
every year.
5.3.8 Wherever stalactite phenomenon is observed it
is due to minor leakages. It is advisable to grout these
spots by cement grout and stop these leakages. Since
this is bridge cum aqueduct, the bridge engineers
cannot ignore such defects in the duct.
Photo 5.1, Photo 5.2, Photo 5.3, Photo 5.4, Photo 5.5
and Photo 5.6
5.3.3 It is advised that details of the expansion joint

and the procedure of its fixing should be obtained from
the manufacturers. Normally the expansion joints are
fixed by the manufacturer and they take the guarantee
of its functioning.
5.3.4 It has been brought out that the top surface of the
bottom slab has eroded. Erosion resistance capacity of
M35 concrete is rather low. However, epoxy mortar
36
Photo 5.1 Erosion at Base of Aqueduct
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Photo 5.2 Damage of Expansion Joint.
Photo 5.5 Damage at Junction of Well Cap and Well Steining
Photo 5.3 Obstruction at Canal Transition
Photo 5.6 Expansion Joints in Aqueduct
6 AUTOGENEOUS
HEALING
CONCRETE (Figs. 6.1 and 6.2)
OF
6.1 Human body has a property to heal up wounds

and restore it to its original texture. Similarly, it is
observed that observed that cracks in concrete also
heal up. Three examples are cited.
Photo 5.4 Stalactite Phenomenon
6.2 In one bridge 15 m precast pre-tensioned

girders closely spaced (18 girders in a width of
8m) are provided. The pre-tensioned girders were
brought on the river bank and stacked on the river bed
37
TECHNICAL PAPERS
before lifting. 4 girders showed cracks at mid span.
Investigation showed that only half length of the
girder was supported on bed and the remaining half
was overhanging. These girders were not designed
for such a cantilever profile. Vertical cracks occurred
at the mid span. When the girders were placed on
level supports on both ends cracks closed. Water was
sprayed for 24 hours on the girders. Cracks healed up.
This is called autogenous healing of cracks. One girder
was then tested for full design load and it behaved as
expected like an un-cracked girder. Four such girders
are used in the bridge two girders at each end and
bridge is serving the traffic since 1964 without any
trouble.
6.3
It was decided to erect a small full scale model
38
6.4 An RCC bracket was constructed at site and it

was desired to ascertain destruction load and behavior
of joints. Two and half time design load was placed
and retained for 48 hours. Bracket cracked profusely.
This was in 1980. The bracket was retained. In flood
of 1996 it fell down. All cracks have healed up.
Load Test for Destruction, Cracks Totally Closed on Removal of Loads.

Model Preserved at Sher Bridge Near Narsinghpur in Madhya Pradesh.
Fig. 6.1
Fig. 6.2
CONCLUSIONS
The Audit for quality control Constructions of 6 case

studies deliberated in this paper has brought out that
some distresses in the concrete bridge structures have
occurred not on account of any defect in the concrete.
These have occurred due to inadequate appreciation
of forces of nature like water current and environment
or due to wrong methods of construction. Following
lessons should be kept in mind:1.
with five girders on the bank and test it for destruction

with a view to ascertain share of load among girders
and maximum destruction load. Two and half times
design live load was placed. More than 100 cracks
developed but the structure did not collapse. Load
was retained for 48 hours and then removed. This was
in 1969. The model is preserved at site. Not a single
crack was visible when observed on 19/6/97. Cracks
closed.
The shape of bridge piers and specification of
2.
3.
concrete should be compatible with the velocity

of the stream.
Velocity of the stream more than 6m/sec can
cause not merely hydro-static effects but also
hydro-dynamic effects such as erosion and
cavitation of piers and this should be considered
in the design and specifications.
If the chemical impurities in the aggregates and
sands are more than 5% (IS 383) it can cause
Alkali-Silica reaction, which is the cancer of
the concrete. Therefore, aggregate and sands
TECHNICAL PAPERS
4.
5.
6.
7.
should be tested for chemical impurities.

Cracks caused in concrete structures can be
autogenously healed by removing the causes of
the cracks and constantly watering the cracked
concrete for 24 hours. Such cracked beams
which are healed up are provided in bridges and
are surviving for more than 25 years.
The green concrete done in hot weather (more
than 30C) should be covered by Tarpaulin
and providing water ponds for curing after 2
hours. It is extremely necessary to follow the
precautions of curing contained in clause 13.5
of IS 456 of 2000. This is more obligatory for
structures where Grade 53 concrete is used. If
the precautions are not taken, Plastic Shrinkage
cracks occur on the surface of concrete slabs.
The bed level inside aqueducts gets badly
eroded on account of sand and pebbles flowing
in canal water. It is therefore, necessary to
provide epoxy mortar 1:3 on the inner surfaces
of aqueducts below water level.
The conventional expansion joints of aqueducts
are not easy to replace. The copper plate is
8.
9.
broken and stolen. It is advisable to provide

polymer type of expansion joints. The surfaces
of concrete where steel is exposed & corroded
should be repaired by polymer modified mortar
on removing the rust on steel bars by sand
blasting or by chemicals.
While carrying out geotechnical investigations
the foundation levels and the type of strata in
the existing bridges must be investigated and
the actual strata obtained during sinking be
compared with the data given in the bore log
and modifications may be carried out in the
designs if necessary.
Expected life of concrete structures is 100
years. This life can be ensured by keeping in
mind some of the issues during construction
as mentioned above and also by frequent
inspection i.e. Audit for quality concrete.
References
1.
Hydraulic investigations and problems of Bridges by

C.V.Kand & A.K.Saxena, IRC 1989.
2.
Environment and materials investigations and problems

of Bridges by C.V.Kand, IRC 1997.
39
40
SUSTAINABILITY, CHALLENGES & OPPRTUNITIES

IN BRIDGE BUILDING
V. N. Heggade*
ABSTRACT
The last decade witnessed unprecedented raise in output to the

tune of 7% of worlds GDP. The BRIC countries contributed
largely to this unprecedented growth. Paradoxically, the gathered
momentum of growth rate of Asia Pacific region had made the
developing countries to subtly suggest the growth as a profligacy
towards un sustainability demanding in the controlled growth rate
who were ironically talking about red tapism and bureaucracy not
in very far past.
By virtue of enormous performance of China, India

and Russia in 2007, the world output was raised by 7%
in GDP (with out adjusting for inflation), catapulting
the world economy. The Chinese and Indian economy
with its unprecedented economic growth of more than
5% might have potentially elevated the Asia and pacific
region on par with economies of European Union and
United States with in a decade. The alarming growth
rate of the developing countries caused concerns to
the globe as a whole as there were sufficient evidence
to establish the relationship between depletion in non
renewable energy resources (fossilised) with Climate
change and the Growth rate.
Ironically, by the turn of 2008 and the beginning of 2009, the

global recession led by United States had put India and China
on centre stage, where they were expected to play major roles
in reviving the worlds economy by growth rates enabled by
mammoth infrastructure development plans. As this paper being
written during August 15, 2012, once again the European and
Western economies which were showing the signs of recovery till
then, seem to be plummeting.
With the emphasis on fast growing economy, the developing
countries will aim at achieving the above by creation of
facilities to provide housing, sanitation and water supply, public
transportation facilities, reach-ability to education and adequate
employment opportunities which demands mammoth materials
and energy consumption.
Apart from this, the governmental efforts to bring in vast foreign
investment to cater for thickly populated big markets, will warrant
major chunk of the allocation in the plans for infrastructure
development, where the civil engineering fraternity can contribute
in optimizing and reducing the costs of the projects, which can be
used for further sustainable development.
Whenever, the sustainability in construction is addressed and
discussed in any kind of forums, it is always confined to that part of
concrete technology where Ordinary Portland Cement is partially
replaced by mineral admixtures to reduce energy consumption
from fossilised sources and also CO2 emissions to environment.
The author has been advocating sustainable construction beyond
this confinement by extending the same to Value engineering,
Rationalization of codes, Hazard mitigation, New technologies
and materials, Sustainable structural systems since 2002 in
National and International forums.
INTRODUCTION
The Fig.111 projects the accelerated consumption in

non-renewable energy sources while the GHG (Green
House Gas) emissions leading to climate change as
presented in Fig.211 depicts that the emissions in
developing countries would cross over developed
countries by around 2015.
Fig.1 Projected Energy Consumption Sources
Member-Board of Management, Gammon India Ltd., Mumbai, E-mail: venkat.heggade@gammonindia.com
41
TECHNICAL PAPERS
paradoxically, the developed Western and European
world are in the phase of their infra structure
maintenance as such have to find market in developing
countries for their growth.
Fig.2 Green House Gas Emission by Region
While the energy consumption

per capita of developed countries
whose GDP is high, is glaring
from the Fig.3 that warrants the
austerity measures for reducing
the consumption, the developing
countries like China and India
whose growth rates are high
have also very high population
(Table 1) which can make the
consumption leapfrog for a small
increment in growth rate.
Table 1
Obviously, the statistics above indicate that the

countries living standards improve with the increase
in the GDP and decreases with enhanced population.
The increased consumption of energy and materials
culminate in the growing accumulation of construction
waste, hazards and emissions, necessitating the
sustainability options to reduce the depletion in non
renewable energy resources and potential climate
change and their consequences.
2 SUSTAINABLE CONSTRUCTION
Whenever, we are talking about sustainability in
transportation sector, we are inadvertently pushed in
to ancient realm of bridges, materials and practices
that are testimony of endurance. It is not surprising
that the English word sustainability itself has its origin
in ancient Latin word sustenere, meaning long term
compatibility. Hither to, though the methodology to
quantify the sustainability measure is not evolved, there
are universal indicators viz Ecological, Economical
and Social8. (Fig.4)
Fig.3 Energy Consumption Country Wise
Fig.4 Sustainable Construction Model
The strongest enabler of GDP growth is the large

investment in infrastructure. The majority of the
developing countries need the infra structure
development as such is ripe for GDP growth while
The ecological indicators are governed by the balance

in the eco system and energy conservation for posterity
especially in non-renewable resources. The extent of
sustainable construction of a facility is measured by
42
TECHNICAL PAPERS
the minimum cost and maximum endurance from the
conception to destruction, consuming least energy,
emitting least GHG, including during construction
encompassing the energy of in gradients and their
emissions through out its life time, there by conserving
energy ecologically, economically and socially. As
a connotation to this Sustainability is a condition of
existence which enables the present generation of
humans and other species to enjoy social well being,
a vibrant economy, and a healthy environment, and
to experience fulfillment, beauty and joy, without
compromising the ability of future generations of
humans and other species to enjoy the same. Way
back in 1864, the great Abraham Lincoln fore saw
the challenge and averred that Achieving sustainable
development is perhaps one of the most difficult and
one of the most pressing goals we face. It requires on
the part of all of us commitment, action, partnerships
and, sometimes, sacrifices of our traditional life
pattern and personal interests.
3 SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY
Despite the remarkable growth nearly half the
worlds six billion people live on less than $2 per
day. Peculiarly, for the fast developing country like
India where 25% of its population is falling below the
poverty line, there is a lurking jeopardy of widening
the rift between haves and have nots.These poverty
figures are not mere indicators of wealth, but a strong
pointer towards the abjuration of freedom, dignity,
knowledge, respect and healthy long life, burgeoning
out of inaccessibility to safe water, sanitation, health
care, education, nutrition, transportation, power
supply and employment.
With the fast growing economy, the developing
countries will aim at alleviating the above by creation
of facilities to provide housing, sanitation and water
supply, public transportation facilities, reach-ability
to education and adequate employment opportunities
which demands mammoth materials and energy
consumption.
The government efforts to bring in vast foreign

investment to cater for thickly populated big markets,
has necessitated the major chunk of the allocation
in the plans for infrastructure development incluing
transportation sector, where transportation engineers
can contribute in optimizing and reducing the costs of
the projects, which can be used for further sustainable
development. While the thrust on the infrastructure
development augments the employment opportunities
in construction sector, it is very imperative for civil
engineering fraternity to focus on evolutionary
strategies for Ecological and Economical sustainable
development.
4 ECOLOGICAL
&
SUSTAINABILITY
ECONOMICAL
The ecological indicators are governed by the balance

in the eco system and energy conservation for posterity
especially in non-renewable resources. Though the
construction activities over the world account for at
the most 10% in depletion of non renewable resources
and GHG emissions, there is a large scope to reduce
the same to safe guard the eco system for posterity11.
(Fig.5).
Fig.5 Green House Gas Emission by Sectors
The energy consumption per capita of United States

is around 11.4 Kw while for Germany and Japan it
is around 6.0Kw.The China with its population of
1.3 billion has a per capita consumption of 2 Kw
which is alarmingly growing at the rate of 5.5%.
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TECHNICAL PAPERS
The India has recorded around 0.5 Kw consumption
which is likely to increase with the growth potential.
(Fig.3). The United States accounts for highest
energy consumption and 20% of energy related
CO2 emissions followed closely by other developed
countries. Though energy consumption per capita in

country like India and China are quite low, because of
the high population, faster growth rate will augment
drastically the energy related CO2 emissions as can be
seen from the Fig.6.
Fig.6 Projected Rate Per Year up to 2030
GHG emissions has direct relationship with the energy

consumptions which are demonstrated once again by
very high CO2 emissions in the countries like USA,
China and Russia which together account for almost
50% of emissions in the world as depicted in the
Fig.7.
Hazard Identification & Risk Analysis ( HIRA)
New Technologies and Materials
Sustainable Structural Systems.
These expedients of Ecological Sustainability in

Construction giving rise to business, employment and
economy can be termed as Economical Sustainability.
At least in Construction, these indicators supplement
and compliment each other completing the circle.
(Fig.8).
Fig.7 Green House Gas Emission by Countries
As enumerated above the Ecological sustainability can

be defined as The measures of Energy Conservation
and Green House Gas emission Reduction6, which
are achieved in Construction by:

Sustainable Construction Practices
Value Engineering
Rationalization of Codes
44
Fig.8 Sustainability Components Interlinked
TECHNICAL PAPERS
4.1 Sustainable Construction Practices
The least consumption of energy during construction
as well as the energy for the production of construction
ingradients such as cement, steel and aggregates
ecologically protects eco system, health and natural
resources; on the other hand the erosion of the same
accentuates poverty.
worth of assets besides saving the environment from

CO2 emission of 15 million tons annually.
In addition to the above, the process of concrete
production itself consumes energy as has been
depicted in Fig.9.
The construction ingredients and construction itself,

which consumes more energy in the process of
its formation, are not only uneconomical but also
unhealthy by way of waste production, pollution and
undesirable emissions.
In a country like India where the construction sector
provides the largest employment, generating highest
growth rate of jobs in the last two decades, especially
absorbing rural and unskilled workers, which
supplements workers income from farming including
women workers, it is essential that ways and means
are strategised to implement sustainable development
and cost reduction which are mutually inclusive in
construction sector.
Since 1950, many developing countries embarked
on extensive infrastructure developments on
unprecedented scale. Invariably, the concrete is the
prime building material and worldwide more than 10
billion tons of concrete is being produced annually.
Concrete construction in India is more than 100 years
old. The RCC and PSC structures, which date back to
90 years and 70 years respectively, have performed
well.
All ingredients of concrete such as cement, steel
aggregates and water are from non-renewable sources
and substantial power is consumed in production of
these ingredients, and lead to environmental issues like
pollution, undesirable emissions, waste production,
etc. Though the unit power consumption in modern
cement plants are brought down to 100 KW/ton and
CO2 emission is one ton/ton of cement production,
the annual production of 150 million tons of cement
in India creates the assets worth of 120 billion US$.
Even the meager 10% conservation in energy has
the potential of generating additional 12 billion US$
Fig.9 Construction Process Energy Consumption &

GHG Emission
It is a blessing in disguise that the cost reduction

aspects of concrete construction also happen to be the
aspects of sustainable development in the developing
countries. While it is a blessing that the concrete itself
is an environmental friendly product whose increased
production generates more employment, its ingredient
like OPC is harmful to ecology, which warrants lesser
consumption for sustainable development. As it
stands, the OPC is unavoidable in concrete with the
current state of concrete technology as such reduction
in harmful emissions during the production of cement
and reduction in use of cement in concrete itself is
warranted.
On the basis of the construction process itself as
depicted in Fig.910, due to the stages of raw materials
production and transportation, concrete production
where plant transportation, concrete mixing and
delivery is involved and further placement of concrete
though booms, pumping etc result in emissions and
energy consumptions. The study conducted in sites
some of the bridge sites indicate that for a cubic meter
of concrete delivered at site, there will be 448 kg eq
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TECHNICAL PAPERS
CO2 emissions to environment out of the same 88%
is due to cement alone (Table 2)8. In RCC generally,
59% emissions are due to cement and 22% due to
reinforcement steel.
Fig.10 GHG Distribution in RCC
Table 2 GHG Emissions Synthesis in Concrete

(Kg eq CO2/m3)
391
87%
Other in put materials
2%
Input materials transport
27
6%
Concrete production
2%
Concrete transportation
1%
Concrete losses
10
2%
Total Concrete delivered
448
100%
Cement
Though the cement industry accounts for less than

2% CO2 emission compared to the other sources such
as electric generation plants for heating and cooling
(33%), transportation (27%) and industrial operations
(19%), it is possible to reduce emissions by adopting
strategies like.

Improving energy efficiency by upgrading

plants with state of the art equipment.
Improve product formulation to reduce energy

of production and minimize the use of natural
resources.
46
Conduct research and develop new applications

for cement and concrete for improving energy
efficiency and durability.
As is obvious from the enumerations above, energy

consumption as well as GHG emissions can be
reduced drastically by reducing the quantity of cement
in concrete production2. The reduction in the use of
Portland cement is achieved by partially replacing
the same with other industrial by-products (otherwise
waste) like fly ash; slag (GGBFS) and silica fume
(CSF).
The residual of coal combustion, which is a good
cementation material, are produced in abundance
in India (Table 3)7. However, it is disheartening to
note that the utilization of the same is lowest in India
(38%), though the fly ash has the potential of replacing
cement by 70% and the production is maximum
to the tune of 112 million tonnes. GGBFS, the byproduct of steel industry has once again potential to
replace cement by 70 to 80% (Fig.11). Though the
availability of slag is not to the same degree of fly
ash, the utilization of the same has picked up in India
that can be manifested by the recent projects Worli/
Bandra Sewage outfall, Ennore Port Works and Vizag
EQ8 & EQ9 multipurpose berths and even clients like
NTPC (National Thermal Power Corporation) have
started specifying 50% replacement of cement by slag
in some of their contracts.
Table 3 Ash Production & Utilisation as on 2005
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Fig.11 Permissible Limits as per Codes
As the acceptance is gaining momentum to replace

OPC (Ordinary Portland Cement) with slag and fly
ash, ironically the availability of OPC in the market
is becoming difficult and PPC (Ash cement) and
slag cement manufactured at factory are released to
market in abundance, parelally there is resistance to
site blending. It is of relevance particularly in the
above context to note that though the Slag and Ash are
cheaply available to cement manufacturers, blended
cements are equally costly to that of OPC. These
issues need to be addressed to pass on the benefit of
sustainable construction to society.
The use of Condensed Silica Flume (CSF) which is a
by-product of smelting to produce silicon and Ferrosilicon alloys has been indirectly encouraged to a
large extent by Indian standards revision by virtue of
enhancing the range of concrete grade up to 90 Mpa.
The use of high performance, high strength concrete
improves the durability, doubling the service life,
while reducing the quantities to almost half in special
structures.
There is resistance to the use of river shingle as coarse
aggregates, from some quarters while the shingles
and gravel are available in abundance in Indian rivers
which can be used easiy for bridge building. The
environmental protection to a degree is possible by
decreasing quarrying and crushing of aggregates and
encouraging the use of natural aggregates as long as
the ecological aspect of the river is not harmed.
More than 90% of fine aggregates are extracted

from riverbeds and banks. Unlicensed extraction or
extraction in excess of authorized quantities have
caused severe erosion of river beds and consequently
damages to bridges, dikes and power transmission
towers. Controlling extraction along rivers has
caused the illegal activities to spread into hillside and
farmlands, creating public hazards such as landslide,
deep ponds, and hanging cliffs. The current method
of aggregate development is indeed unsustainable.
Many state governments have started imposing ban/
restrictions on mining river sand. This has created
scarcity as well as steep rise in price of river sand,
where available.
Main alternative to natural sand is the Manufactured
Sand. For want of availability, most of the major projects
in Mumbai have started using manufactures sand for
making concrete. There need not be apprehensions
about its usage in concrete as several studies conducted
by various institutions and experience gained by RMC
manufacturers are available for scrutiny. The virtual
absence of impurities, oversized particles, marine
products etc., is an added advantage. It is ideal for
use in projects where mix proportioning is done
and analysis of the manufactured sand gradations is
possible.
Use of Marine Sand needs to be seriously explored.
Recent studies carried out by the Marine and Coastal
Surveys Division of Geological Survey of India
have found that the marine sediments present off the
Kerala coast show the presence of huge reserves of
construction grade sand in different sectors. The most
frequently raised concerns are beach erosion, effect
on marine habitat, turbidity plume, and structural
integrity of concrete with marine sand. These concerns
and issues can be easily addressed when compared to
the challenges of sustainability.
Coarser and unused flyash in the thermal plants are
mixed with bottom ash, made into a slurry and are
driven to ponds. These Ash Ponds are making vast
areas of land non-usable and create pollution as well.
Pond Ash is not used in concrete due to very low limereactivity. But it has a great potential to be used as
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TECHNICAL PAPERS
an alternative to sand. Although the coarser particles
above 600 are absent, it is possible to overcome this
problem by re-proportioning of coarse and fine.
4.2
Value Engineering for Sustainability
Value Engineering is a methodology used to analyze

the function of the goods and services and to obtain
the required functions of the user at the lowest total
cost without reducing the necessary Quality of
Performance. Many a time Value Engineering (VE)
is confused with cost cutting exercises in construction
industry. The essential difference between the
conventional cost cutting and the VE is that it involves
reducing the cost by improving the functionality
through lesser consumption of energy in terms of
men, materials and machines there by also reducing
energy related emissions.
In the initial stages VE was used by production
engineers for reducing the cost of manufacture.
However, it was found that the benefit of VE is much
greater if the multi-disciplinary teams of engineers
were involved which would also influence design
team, as normally the case in construction. When the
Value Engineering is carried out for transportation
projects, the sustainability aspects could also be one
of the objective functions.
Since the objective function of the VE3 is the
reduction in the cost, it is imperative to examine the
cost generation pattern in the construction industry.
As is depicted diagrammatically in the above
Fig.123, in a typical transportation project, 10% of
the project cost is created by agencys Standards and
Specifications, 70% of the project cost is created
by Designing & Engineering, 20% is generated by
procurement of construction and perhaps rest is ideally
due to maintenance. Ironically, though the 70% of
the project cost is due to designing & engineering,
the expenditure allocated for the design effort is the
smallest. It is of significance to note that there is a
certain relationship between Value engineering and
48
sustainability of bridge project and during engineering

and design stage, the sustainability aspects can be
enhanced to a large extent.
Fig.12 Cost Creation & Sustainability During Project Life
It is of importance to recognize that by proper VE, the

saving could be to the tune of 20% of the 70% project
cost at engineering stage and 10% of the 20% project
cost at construction and procurement stage.
However, for the VE to be effective, the packaging of
the contract shall be such that the constant interaction
between engineering, construction and procurement
process is enabled and the approach should be
Project Based Design Approach (PBDA) (Fig.13)3.
As a consequence of mechanization, the design of
permanent structure is to a large extent dictated by
construction system and enabling structure design
which has to be a specialized function in itself as the
same calls for the knowledge of plants and machinery.
Thus, the Design and Build Organization structure
is most suited for VE in construction projects. In the
contracting firms where the engineering departments
are not fully developed and have to depend upon
outside consultants, the VE is not practicable as the
strength of different sections are not complemented
with each other and there is a tendency for the
contractor and consultant to position themselves on
different side of the divide. Similarly in the contracts
where the design is done by owners consultant and
the contractor has to merely execute the projects,
TECHNICAL PAPERS
the option of value engineering to reduce the cost is
lost and the Nation loses. Therefore, for sustenance
of sustainable construction the organization structure
to facilitate Value Engineering gains paramount
importance. By the same account, the sustainability by
Value Engineering is enabled by design build contracts
alone. It is imperative to mention here that one of the

most complicated bridge project by CLC method on
river Brahmaputra under construction has greatly
suffered as the original designer is not available for
clarifications and for modification in designs based on
ground realities during construction.
Fig.13 Process of Value Engineering
4.3
Rationalisation of Codes and Standards
The specifications are the description of the properties

of the object being designed. They are most likely
expressible as numbers or measures. The design
specifications articulate in numerical or measurable
way of design requirements, which provide the basis
for evaluating the targets in the design process.
code-makers is that they have to cater for a petty

unqualified contractor to sophisticated contractors
in a generalized manner. In such cases, it is always
prudent to change certain clauses of Codes under the
sections Special Conditions of the Contract keeping
in view the profile of contractors participating in the
construction project.
The specifications formulated by the owners or

consulting agencies, most of the time refer to the
Standards and Codes. However, many times, it is
observed that Indian Standards and Codes are highly
on conservative side with very high factors of safeties
and result in national wastes. The dilemma of the
It is seldom perceived that the state of the construction

technology is far behind than desired levels and large
factor of safeties and other safeguards to overcome
the potential deficiencies during construction shall
be provided. On the contrary the achievement in
construction technology and building materials ahead
49
TECHNICAL PAPERS
of design and codemaking is illustrated by some of the
following pioneer works in India indicate otherwise4.

Development of pre cast segmental cantilever

construction practiced in seventies which is
much more complicated than the presently
practiced span by span segmental construction.
Infact, the segmental construction in India had
started earlier than United States, following
European examples.The examples are Narmada
Bridge at Zadeswar and Ganga bridge at
Buxer.
The design and construction of first cablestayed bridge in India in eighties, where cables
were manufactured at Site itself. (Fig.14).
the potential constructional deficiencies have to be

overcome by enforcing safeguards and higher factor
of safeties during specification formulation in some
countries has not only resulted in unsustainable
constructions, but also has cost the country in several
millions to the exchequer.
Fig.15 M75 Concrete for First Time in Flyover in India (2002)
Though there are progress in terms of standards and

codes towards sustainable development in India, still
some of the notions (in fact myths) of the consultants
and practitioners that are barriers for the progression
of sustainable development as below needs to be
addressed :

Higher the cement content, more durable the

concrete;
Mandatory use of Ordinary Portland Cement;
Use of admixtures not good for durability;
Use of minimum percentage of cement

substitutes;
Preference to crushed aggregates to natural

coarse aggregates gravel and shingle;
Preference to lesser size aggregates (20mm

down) which demands higher cement content;
Preference to river sand and not permitting

manufactured sand.
Not permitting Site blending of mineral

admixtures such as Fly ash and GGBFS with
OPC despite having batching plant.
Fig.14 First Cable Stay Bridge in India, Akkar Bridge (1985)
The externally prestressed cast In-situ Bridge in

Sringeri in late eighties and precast segmental
construction in late ninties for Noida Bridge.
The use of HPC up to M75 in JJ hospital flyover
in 2002. (Fig.15)
Indigenously designed and constructed
extradosed bridge at Siddapura, Coorg
Karnataka.
The Indian Standards and Codal provisions were not

available for the particular kind of construction when
the above jobs were designed and executed.
The idiosyncrasy that the design leniency is overcome
by superior mechanized construction abroad, and
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TECHNICAL PAPERS

Inisisitance for the mix design to be carried

out at technical institutions rather than at site
laboratories.
The minimum cement content specified in Indian codes

are already on higher side by around 7% compared
to that of EURO codes. Despite this, higher cement
content is specified than the codal requirements out of
ignorance, which can not be changed latter due to the
contractual obligations.
The tradition is not to permit the larger size aggregate
more than 20mm and down for concrete. The
international practice is to use binary system for
the aggregate size meaning use of coarse aggregate
from 4mm, 8mm, 16mm and 32mm and so on. If the
larger aggregate say 40mm and down is permitted for
concrete, by virtue of larger surface area the savings up
to 10% is possible in cement consumption. This can be
very easily permitted in foundations and substructures
where cover to reinforcements is invariably more
than 75 mm as such ease of flow of concrete is not an
issue.
As per the codes, practically all the concrete for
structures is required to be design mix concrete. The
code also specifies that the constructor is responsible
for the design of the mix and that he can use any
method of mix proportioning. Unfortunately this is not
being practiced in most of the projects and instead a
specified method of mix designs is being insisted upon
and the mix design is insisted upon to be carried out
at approved institutions. This factor alone increases
the cement consumption by about 20% approximate.
In other words about 15 million tonnes of cement is
wasted every year on account of obsolete method of
mix design alone.
The relevant Indian standard specifies 4 zones of
grading for fine aggregates as long as combined
aggregate grading is satisfied. Some times this is mis
used by those who insist on using fine aggregates
conforming to zones 1 or 2 only. This is an obsolete
concept. Quality concrete can be produced by any
grading of aggregates within the wide spectrum limits
of zones 1 to 4. This was the original intention of the
code. It is pertinent to mention here that the orange

book (Specifications for Road and Bridge Works by
MORTH) which carries specifications that are contrary
to clauses of many of the updated IRC codes was
responsible for majority of the unsustainable practices
in transportation sector. It is heartening to note that
various IRC committees and MORT&H working
towards reconciling the differences which needs to be
expedited at the earliest in the interest of sustainable
construction practices.
In many countries and most parts of the Middle East,
the only zone 4 sand is available. Projects in those
countries even with High Strength Concrete are
being realized using locally available sand. There are
instances where Indian authorities insist on coarse
sand only, again resulting in sourcing the material
from very long leads involving road transport and
attached pollution effects. This must change. Concrete
mix specification is performance based with strength
and durability as the requirements. Presently two of
the major bridge projects on river Godavari in Andra
Pradesh is suffering because of this.
Similarly, there are many areas where rationalsation of
codal specifications are called for where resources are
being wasted and hampering sustainability aspects,
such as Factor of safeties in pile capacity calculations
in rocks as per Indian Roads Congress (Earlier it was
5 & 10 for end bearing and friction respectively and
now the same is 3 & 6), scour depth calculations
for bouldery and clayey strata and use of mineral
admixtures as partial replacement to cement for pre
stressed concrete structures etc.
The Indian Standards, specify the scour depth
calculations to be based on Laceys formula even for
boulder and conglomerate strata. The Laceys empirical
formula is based on studies in alluvial channels and as
such the abuse of the same may be making him turn in
his grave. In one of the projects, the silt size used for
calculating the silt factor to be used in Laceys formula
was of the size of a fully grown man as could be seen
from the Fig.16. As the scour depth and founding
levels were based on this formula the well foundations
could not be sunk up to founding levels for almost
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TECHNICAL PAPERS
18 years with the continuous efforts culminating in
enormous emissions and energy consumptions apart
from scouring of valuable resources in terms of Men,
Materials, Machines, Money and Methods. Finally
the founding levels had to be raised by around 22 m
(Fig.17)12 to enable the completion of the project.
Fig.18 Well Cap Below 14 m Bed Level
Fig.16 Silt Considered in Laceys Formula
Fig.17 Scour Depths by Laceys Formula
There is still an old school of practice in India to

specify the pile caps or well caps below Low Water
Level (LWL) or the minimum bed level which ever is
lower. In some cases, these caps are even 10 m below
LWL. As can be seen from the Fig.18, for constructing
the cap a cofferdam of 10 m is required to control
seepage of water and also as the weight of the steining
is not available, the sinking of the well is cumbersome
and the quality of construction suffers. Such practice
of adopting wells (not piles) and taking well caps
below the ground by more than 7 m is being insisted
even for a flyover to be constructed in a busy area of
Indian capital causing enormous constructability and
safety problems.
52
There are instances where welded connections are

insisted upon for fatigue sensitive steel structures,
which increase the mass of the steel structure while
satisfying the detailing class for welding, in addition
to posing problems to qualitative construction at
site as always ensuring high quality in situ welding
at site is cumbersome and time consuming. The
welded connections also do not help the cause of
future part replacement like bolted connections from
sustainability point of view.
These illustrations above, accentuates the urgent
need to orient the standards and codes towards
sustainable constructions.Also, there is an urgent
need of giving prioity to updated IRC codes over
ministry specifications as IRC standards and codes
being updated quite frequently address the currently
in vogue sustainability aspects.
4.4
HIRA (Hazard Identification and Risk

Analysis) for Sustainability
From the structural engineering point of view, the

life of the structure incepts from initial construction
stages to the point till the structure is destroyed and
planned again by the planner or designer. During the
intervening period structure experiences various stages
such as construction state, service state, rehabilitation
state, etc. and also exposed to different hazards which
can be categorized into Man made hazards and
Natural hazards.
TECHNICAL PAPERS
Manmade hazards consists of mistakes like improper
estimation of loading, improper geotechnical
assessment, improper planning, accidents fire,
collision and fatigues, choice of the contractor,
extended duration of construction, new methods of
construction/erection, removal of support and collapse,
defective workmanship and material, mechanical and
electrical breakdown, inadequate site management
and defective temporary works and design.
The manmade hazards can be classified into (a) those
during the implementation of already experienced
or known tasks such as design and construction (b)
and those that are not experienced previously. It is
interesting to note that the former occurs much more
frequently than latter and also the latter is not totally
unforeseeable and could be attributed to carelessness or
deliberate oversight. Under both these classifications,
the application of HIRA can lead to durable and mishaps free sustainable construction.
In Europe many long span bridges like Cantilever
bridges, Cable supported bridges etc were built by
cantilever construction methods emphasising on fast
track construction concept during 1950s to 1990s.
During the construction, many mishaps took place
like failure of prestressing, toppling of cranes during
construction, failure of form travellers leading to
accidents causing fatalities, huge financial losses and
delays. The creep and shrinkage models adopted in
prestressed concrete bridges have led to excessive
deflections at mid point of the long spans of hundreds
of bridges. In fact, the KB bridge at Palau 241.0 m
span bridge constructed in 1977 collapsed in 1996
due to excessive deflection of 1.61m and excessive
prestressing loss of 49%. It is interesting that during
this period in Europe, the measures taken in Design
& Construction for economisation and also enabling
fast track construction from political onsiderations
had given rise to many mishaps during construction
and presently affecting seriviceability of bridges.
The developing countries like India are following
the same in the recent past and witnessing number
of mishaps during bridges and flyover constructions
(Fig.19) and also distress in bridges built in the past by
excessive deflections and presstrssing losses similar

to that of European experience. There is an imminent
need for India to learn from European experience by
constant application of HIRA during conception to
commissioning of bridges for sustainability.
Fig.19 Recent Mishaps During Fast Track Flyover Construction
Improper soil investigation, scour estimation and

consequent conception of foundation may cause
hazardous ramification in terms of economy and
time. Inappropriate choice of foundations that are not
construction friendly like adopting open foundations
in river or creek which warrants cofferdam, or well
foundations on sloping rocky strata will cost the
nations exchequer directly or indirectly1.
In the hilly terrain, the location of the bridge selection
shall be devoid of the protruding unstable rock mass,
which may be hazardous to human life and bridge itself.
The unstable rock mass itself may cause landslide.
Many a times, the choice of the agencies/contractors
without proper pre-qualification criteria had led to the
abandonment of contracts in midway of the project,
before some other competent contractor completes
the project. There are many classical examples in
India bridge building context in this regard such as
Bassein Creek Bridge, Pamban Bridge and finally a
bridge in Goa, which took 20 years from conception
to completion stage, changing 3 contractors during
the intervening period and finally third competent
contractor completed the project in just two years.
Construction is full of high-risk activities1 such as
prestressing, erection of heavy components, and
floating of equipment that warrants meticulous
planning and system design to avoid accidents. The
incidents like sinking of barge mounted batching plant,
concrete pump and placer beam, the collapse of PSC
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TECHNICAL PAPERS
beams at casting yards, accident during launching,
tower crane collapse during erection, damage due to
staging failure, etc. aid only in accentuating poverty
by pushing the project back by years and causing
additional expenditure.
All the above hazards are manmade and can be
mitigated by deciding location and layout based on
expert advice, evolving design criteria and loading to
suit specific case, opting for design build contracts,
designing and detailing to suit constructability,
prequalifying bidders with apt background and
carrying soil investigation in advance.
Most of the mishaps during construction either in the
past in Europe or presently in India is the consequence
of thrust on economisation in design and construction
or emphasise on fast track construction driven by
political considerations. In the present environment,
there is a strong need of HIRA to be adopted at every
stage of design and construction not only for safety
during construction but also for enhncing serviceability
of bridges.
4.5
New Technologies
Sustainability
&
Materials
for
In the fast developing country like India, the

development gyrates around optimum resource
utilization through indigenous technology, rural
development, manpower planning and sufficient formal
and informal education. Endogenous progression and
self-reliance are key factors for the development. This
advocates against the blind importation of life styles
and social models but encourages to the self-sustained
ability to choose type of development, technology,
science, education, institution, etc. out of modernity.
The manpower resource, which is abundant in a
country like India, provides initiative, motivation
and action for development. However, this resource
needs to be motivated by training and education, as
they are mainly available on unskilled labor and there
is a shortage of skilled manpower qualitatively and
quantitatively. Thus wherever a technology transfers
takes place, it is essential that the training and
54
education that goes along the technology too needs to

be transferred.
Though the technology is an applied knowledge
and science, there is a subtle difference between the
two. Science is unprotected and easily accessible
by means. The technology could either be protected
or unprotected. While there is technology transfer
from developed countries to developing countries,
normally the unprotected and obsolete technologies
are transferred, as such the technology transfers has
not been successful, though has been discussed and
talked about quite often.
Selection of appropriate technology, socially,
economically, politically and culturally is very
imperative for the same to be useful to the population
in general. The above has to be applied scientifically
with different disciplines by utilizing available local
resources. The technologies should aim at introducing
such processes that are not highly capital intensive but
are able to generate employment and could be managed
through local skills and raw materials. However, the
same should capitalize in due course and the labor
employed during the construction should become the
part of the capitalization.
When we talk about new materials, we conjure up
imagining exotic materials developed in western
and European countries produced entirely by local
resources having localized constraints which may not
be applicable to developing countries.
The accent on the new materials and technologies
should suit local socio-economic conditions
enhancing local labor forces capability culminating
in sustainable livelihood. The classic example of the
same is the design and construction of Akkar Bridge,
the first cable stay bridge in India where even the
cables were manufactured at site.
Notwithstanding the above, in a developing country
like India there has to be more thrust on material
related issues for sustainable construction9 such as :

Stimulating the use of recycled materials from

demolishing and construction wastes.
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Recycling glass residue as lightweight aggregate

for road foundation and house building
material.
Reviewing the final strength criteria based on

28 days to encourage SCMs.
Abandoning outdated criteria of minimum

cement content instead use sustainable criteria
like permeability etc
Abandoning the obsolete Water cement

ratioconcept. With the modern technologies
having so many options of mineral admixtures
W/C ratio is a pseudo technology.
Encouraging HPC, HSC and High grade steel

for enhanced sustainability. Etc.
Self Compacting Concrete is a future concrete

with so many of its sustainability characteristics
(Table 4). There is an urgent need to finalize the testing
and acceptance criteria for SCC which is presently at
evolving stage across the world.
As depicted in Table 55, the embodied energy for
various structural forms were studied for steel,
concrete and composite bridges up to the span 120 m.
It is quite obvious from the comparisons that concrete
bridges are much more efficient energy consumption
wise and also it is reported 9 & 8 that for the similar
facility GHG emissions wise concrete structures are
efficient by 85 % to that of its counter part steel.
Table 5 Embodied Energy During Construction

(GJ/m2) for Various Structural Forms and Materials
4.6 Structural Systems for Sustainability

The choice of the structural system for any construction
plays an important role in reducing maintenance,
transportation, material, energy usage, weight and
improving fire resistance, noise reductions, indoor
air quality and durability. Some of the structural
configurations like long standing arches (Fig.20)
have an inherent attribute of its structural components
being subjected to minimum flexure maximum
axial forces thereby reducing the vulnerability of
structural cracking to a large extent. Also by virtue
of its configuration does not warrant expansion joints
and bearings making the structures maintenance free.
In fact these bearings and joints are the sources of
weakness in many ways.
Table 4 Environment Friendly Characteristics of SCC
Fig.20 Arch Forms for Sustainable Construction
The arch ribs can be further materially optimized by

resorting to composite sections (Concrete filled hollow
sections) as is being presently conceived for 265.0 m
span Anjikhad Railway Bridge.
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TECHNICAL PAPERS
Pre stressing is another highly efficient structural
system that offers many sustainable benefits which
enhance basic concrete construction.
The PSC improves serviceability and durability by
minimizing cracking and deflections. By adopting
suitably designed monolithic connections of castin-situ construction, the maintenance intense joints
between the elements and also structure supporting
bearings can be eliminated as in case of integral
bridges.
The use of pre stressing enables the cycle time of 2
to 3 days a floor in building construction and also
facilitates early removal of forms which can be
re shored for further construction. The segmental
construction in bridges has minimum impact on
site and traffic disruptions (Fig.21), particularly for
long spans improve lighting and visibility leading to
enhanced security and public safety.
Sustainable development is about achieving economic

growth while protecting the environment and making
sure that economic and environmental benefits are
available to all of society, now and in the future.
As on day, the sustainability is measured by social
indicators, however, there is an urgent need to develop
appraising tools for sustainability and codify the same
for uniform applications and this responsibility for
bridge building should be taken up immediately by
Indian Roads Congress.
REFERENCES
1.
S.A.Reddi, Risks in Civil Engineering Projects, Pune,

29/08/2000.
2.
Malhotra V.M, Role of Supplementary Cementing

Materials in Reducing Green House Gas Emissions,
Concrete Technology for Sustainable Development in the
21st Century, E&FN Spon, London, 2000.
3.
V.N. Heggade, IT for Value Engineering in Built

Environment, Journal of Indian Building Congress,
Volume X, No 3, 2003, pp 71-81.
4.
V.N. Heggade, Sustainable Construction for Concrete

Endurance, ACECON 2005, ICI Asian Conference,
Mumbai, India, 22-25 September, 2005.
5.
Collings, D., An Environmental Comparison of Bridge

forms, Proc. ICE, Bridge Engineering, Vol 159, Issue
BE4, Dec 2006, pp 163-168
6.
V.N. Heggade, Poverty Alleviation by Sustainable

Concrete Construction, International Conference on
Sustainable Concrete Constructions by ACI, Feb 8-10,
2008, Ratnagiri.
7.
V.N. Heggade, Concrete Construction Practices for Better

Environment, National Seminar on Environment Benefits
of Concrete by ICI, July 11, 2009, Goa.
8.
V.N. Heggade, Concrete Contribution to Climate Change,

FIB days 2009 an International Conference, Jan 29-30,
2009, Kolkotta.
9.
Boudewijn M. Piscaer, Assuring Sustainability of

Concrete, 21st Century Concrete Super Hero, 2009 fib
Symposium, London.
10.
Linger, L. Bout & G. Thoma Concrete Impact, the Corbon

Footprint of Concrete, 21st Century Concrete Super Hero,
2009 fib Symposium, London.
11.
Energy Information Administration ( EIA), International

Energy Annual (June-December 2008), Web site www.eia.
doe.gov/iea, Projections : EIA, World Energy Projections
plus (2009).
12.
Heggade V.N, Virtues of Sustainable Concrete Construction

Practices, The 3rd International FIB Congress, Washington
DC. May 29th to June 2nd 2010.
Fig.21 First Indian Extra-dose for No Traffic Disruption
5
CONCLUSIONS
Sustainability in Bridge building can not be confined
to partial replacement of Ordinary Portland Cement
with GGBFS, flyash and other mineral admixtures.
While the same is one of the means of sustainability,
other measures like Value Engineering, Rationalisation
of codes, hazard identification and Risk Analysis,
appropriate adoption of structural systems and forms
and construction methodologies, materials,etc, play
very important roles in achieving preservation of
fossilised energy and reduction in CO2 emissions.
Thus in the paper sustainability has been looked in
to in a wider perspective than normally discussed in
various forums.
56
INFLUENCE OF SKEW ANGLE IN THE DESIGN OF GRIDS

Madhavi N*, Baskar K**, Natarajan C*** and Rajaraman A. R****
ABSTRACT
In highway bridges the major challenge is to maintain the
geometry, in order to supply a greater speed and safety, which
indeed increases the demand of skewed bridge. The presence of
skew angle makes the design very complicated and vague. In this
paper the response of skew angle on the bending moments, torsion
moments, stiffness and aspect ratio of bridge is being highlighted.
And the design aspects are also discussed. Finite Element (FE)
analysis was carried out based on beams grillage model under
IRC-Class AA loading. This provides additional information about
the response of the parameters for skew angles between 0 and
45. The responses of the parameters with reference to skew angle
are discussed elaborately for the four different loading position
considered in the analysis, such as Bending-Bending, TorsionTorsion, Bending-Torsion, and Torsion-Bending.
INTRODUCTION
Skewed bridges are often encountered in highway

design when the geometry cannot accommodate
straight bridges. The presence of skew in a bridge makes
the analysis and design of bridge decks complicated.
The effect of the skew is primarily geometric but it
influences on the other design parameter also.
Menassa et al (2007) reported the finite-element
analysis (FE) results for skewed bridges with reference
to straight bridges as well as the AASHTO Standard
Specifications and LRFD procedures. Overestimated
maximum longitudinal bending moments were
arrived.
Trilok Gupta and Anurag Misra (2007) reported the
results of parametric investigation on specific T-beam
skew bridges under standard IRC-Class AA wheeled
loading and discussed the variation in maximum
and minimum support reaction with respect to skew
angle.
*
PG Student
**
Associate Professor
*** Professor
Helba and Kennedy (1994) arrived relation for the

main design parameters and the geometries of the
failure patterns for the minimum collapse load. And
for the assumed failure pattern the critical crack length
for various critical loading conditions was arrived.
Khaleel and Itani (1990) determined the moments in
continuous normal and skew slab-and-girder bridges
due to live loads and the results were presented. Very
little literatures have been found on the study on
skewed bridges.
In the present study the response on the parameters for
various skew angles between 0 and 45, under class
AA loading are considered. The study is based on the
analytical modelling of bridges by Finite Element
(FE) method. Effects of bending moment, torsional
moment, aspect ratio of the bridge considered, are
studied for different skew angles under four different
loading positions. This study is done for the future
perspective inclusive of the physical damages.
2 LOADING SCENARIO
IRC- Class AA tracked vehicle loading was considered
for the analysis. Different sets of aspect ratio of the
bridge were considered and analyzed. In bridges, two
possible transverse loading positions of the design
vehicles were considered, (a) Bending, where each
design vehicle is centred in its own lane, (b) Torsion,
where the design vehicle are placed close to one edge
(right side) of the slab, such that the right wheel of
the design vehicle is placed with a minimum kerb
distance from the free edge of the slab and (c) Their
Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli-620 015

E-mail: nataraj@nitt.edu
**** Visiting Professor, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai-600 036
57
TECHNICAL PAPERS
combinations were also considered for analysis.
Wheel loads is placed such that one design vehicle
on each lane. Then these wheel loads are transformed
into equivalent joint load as shown in Fig.1. In
Bending-Bending loading case the vehicles are placed

such that bending moments are made dominating and
in Torsion-Torsion loading case the torsion is made
dominant than other forces.
Fig.1 Schematic Diagram Showing the Load Positions Considered in the Analysis
FORMULATION DETAILS OF BRIDGES

CONSIDERED
The bridge is analyzed using FE static analysis. The

bridge decking system is represented by an equivalent
grid of beams. The distributed bending and torsional
stiffness of the decking system are assumed to be
concentrated in these beams for the purpose of analysis.
The method consists of transforming the bridge deck
structure into a network of rigidly connected beams
58
at distinct nodes that is visualizing the bridge by an

analogous grid. After simulating the bridge structure
into analogous grillage, the members are assigned
with elastic properties which are flexural and torsional
stiffness. Hence the analysis is carried out by using
consistent mass method. The boundary provided with
elastomeric pads are idealised with linear springs in
the computational model. MATLAB (Version 7.5) has
been used to generate the analytical model used in the
study.
TECHNICAL PAPERS
3.1 Bridge Description
A typical skew bridge as shown in Fig.2 is considered
for the present study. The skew angle () denotes the
angle between the axes of support abutment or pier
relative to a line normal to the longitudinal axis of
the bridge. Based on this notation, a straight bridge is
therefore, defined as having a 0 skew angle. Typical
simply supported, single span, two lane RCC bridges
were considered in this investigation. The bridge
considered can be concrete or steel bridge with full
composite action.
(a) Global Coordinate System

(b) Local Coordinate System
Fig.3 Degree of Freedom Considered in the Analysis
3.4
The different sets of grid configurations of bridges

were also considered in this analysis, such as 5x5, 5x3,
and 3x3. The bridge with 5x5 configurations refers to
five numbers of main beams and five numbers of cross
beams. Five main beams, three cross beams and three
main beams, three cross beams is adopted for 5x3
and 3x3 grid arrangements respectively. These grid
arrangements have been chosen with reference to the
presence of with and without central beams along the
span and the width of the bridge deck.
3.5
Fig.2 Schematic Diagram Showing Gird of a Double

Lane Skewed Bridge
3.2 Method of Analysis

A linear static analysis is carried out by the stiffness
approach. Upon achieving the element stiffness matrix
by considering the coordinate system as indicated in
Fig.3 (a) and (b), the total system matrix is assembled.
The boundary conditions are applied through
displacement vector and then the nodal deformations,
member end forces and the support reactions are
obtained. The system of simultaneous equations is
solved by using matrix approach and the results are
obtained in global coordinate system.
3.3 Aspect Ratios
Three different sets of aspect ratio of bridges (span is
to width) such as 1:1.5, 1:1.33, and 1:1 is considered
in this analysis. The ratios chosen for the analysis
were found very common in practise.
Configurations
Design Basis
The bridge was also studied by varying the sectional

property of main beams and cross beams. Type 1
bridges, with main beams and cross beams having
same sectional properties. Type 2 bridges, with cross
beams having half the value as that of Type 1 beams
and main beams having same sectional properties.
Type 3 bridges, with both cross beams and main
beams having half the sectional properties as that of
Type 1 beams. Hence the three types of the bridges are
referred by their type name in this paper.
4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1
Influence of Skew on Load Cases
An elaborate study was carried with varying skew

angles under four different load cases to predict the
variation in the bending moment, torsion moment,
stiffness and aspect ratio of bridge. Responses of the
parameters considered were grouped into deflections
59
TECHNICAL PAPERS
and forces and plotted. So that system response and
design implications could be studied elaborately.
4.1.1 Deflection Response
The central deflection and maximum deflection values
are plotted in Fig.4. It may be seen that a shift in values
and location for the four load cases are clearly seen. As
the skew angle increases, the span increases and at the
same time cross beams which were not participating
well in the straight spans come into system response
well. Due to presence of torsion effects inherent in

skew bridges, the integral action of main beams and
cross beams shifts the maximum deflection values and
at the same time brings down the central deflection
values. The variation of a maximum central deflection
reduces by 20% to 30% for 45 skew angle, while
maximum deflection increases by around 5% for
every increase of 5 skew angle. More important the
location of maximum deflection changes from central
towards the skewing direction.
Fig.4 Influence of Skew on Response
4.1.2 Bending Moments

The maximum bending moment are plotted as shown
in Fig.4. The span increases with the skew, maximum
bending moment is found decreasing with increase
skew angle. This is because of the participation of the
60
cross beams is well pronounced when the skew angle

increases. The similar variation pattern was found
irrespective of load position of bridges considered
during the analysis. The variation of a maximum
bending moment reduces by 60%.
TECHNICAL PAPERS
4.1.3 Torsion Moments
The maximum torsion moment are plotted as shown
in Fig 4. It may be noted that shift in the maximum
torsional moment is found with respect to loading
position. The maximum torsion moment is found
increasing up to 25 as skew angle irrespective of
loading position and then it decreases. The maximum
torsion moment was found drastically increasing with
increase in skew angle. The variation of a maximum
torsional moment increases by 600% for 25 skew
angle and then it get reduces to around 300% for 45
skew angle. This is because of the interaction of the
main beams and cross beams, which gets even higher
after 20 skew angle.
4.1.4 Stiffness
From above discussions the stiffness imposes a greater
impact on the parameters considered. The interaction
between both the main beams and cross beams is
more influencing on the stiffness. The responses of
the stiffness are plotted for four different loading
positions considered as shown in Fig.4. The stiffening
of the member was found with the increase in the skew
angle. The variation of the stiffness increases by 50%

for 45 skew angle while stiffness increases by around
5% for every increase of 5 skew angle.
4.2
Influence of Skew on Aspect Ratio
4.2.1 Deflections
The maximum deflection values for various skew
angle are plotted as shown in Fig.5. It may be noted
that there is no major shift in values and location
for the four load cases considered. The effect of the
aspect ratio is not well pronounced in the deflection.
The variation pattern confirms the discussion given in
4.1.1 and it found similar for all loading positions.
The maximum bending moment values for various
skew angle are plotted as shown in Fig.5. It may be
noted that there is meager variation in values and
location for the four load cases considered. The
effect of the aspect ratio is not well pronounced in
the bending moment. The variation pattern confirms
the discussion given in 4.1.2 and found similar for all
loading position considered.
Fig.5 Influence of Skew on Aspect Ratio
61
TECHNICAL PAPERS
The maximum torsion moment values for various
skew angle are plotted as shown in Fig.5. It may be
seen that there is shift in the values and location for
the four load cases considered. The effect of the aspect
ratio is well pronounced in the torsion moment. The
effect of aspect ratio of 1:1 is found minimum when
compared with that of the bridge with aspect ratio of
1:1.5. The interaction of the grids with the aspect ratio
of 1:1.5 is more when compared with other aspect
ratios considered. The variation pattern confirms the
discussion given in 4.1.3 and found similar for all
loading position considered.
4.3
Influence of Skew on Configuration
4.3.1 Deflections
The maximum deflection values for various skew
angles are plotted as shown in Fig.6. It may be noted
that there is variation in the pattern and shift in the
values with respect to configuration. The effect of the
configuration of the bridge is well pronounced on the
parameter. The 5x5 configuration shows the reduction
of the deflection, whereas the 3x3 configuration
shows the increase in the deflection. The participation

of the cross beams is improved with the presence of
central beams. The absence of central beams along
width does not impact much on the parameter. The
maximum deflection decreases by 30% for 5x5 grid
arrangement. For 5x3 and 3x3 the maximum deflection
value increases by 30% and 110% respectively.
The maximum bending moment for various skew
that there is variation in the pattern and shift in the
values with respect to configuration. The effect of
the configuration of the bridge is well pronounced
on the parameter. The 5x5 configuration shows the
reduction of the bending moment and whereas the
5x3 configuration shows the increase in the bending
moment. The 3x3 shows the parabolic variation. The
participation of the cross beams is improved with
the presences central beams along the width. The
maximum bending moment decreases by 15% for
3x3 grid arrangement. For 5x5 and 5x3 the maximum
bending moment increases and decreases by 30%
respectively.
Fig.6 Influence of Skew on Design
62
TECHNICAL PAPERS
The maximum torsion moment for various skew
that there is a variation in the pattern and shift in the
values with respect to configuration. The effect of the
configuration of the bridge is well pronounced on the
parameter. The 5x5 configuration shows the drastic
increase in the torsion moment and whereas the other
configuration does not shows the wide variation. The
5x3 reduces by 60% and for 3x3 it increases by 40%.
The presence of the central beams along the span
increases the torsion moment and hence it needs to be
taken care while designing.
4.4 Design Implications
4.4.1 Design Basis on Individual and Interaction

Effects
The bending moment, torsion moment, deflection
was found for various skew angles. These values
were normalized with reference to the design moment

values were obtained as shown in Fig.7. The torsion
moment is found much higher than the capacity when
skew angle increases. Torsion moment increases by
about 300% on an average, for 45 skew angle. The
bending moment is found decreasing by 25% for 45
skew angle. The bending moment and the torsion
moments are always on higher side than capacity.
Torsion moment always calls for redesign even for a
small skew angle.
The interaction between the main beam and cross
beam is always high, and greater than the capacity.
This shows the interaction behaviour is high when
compared to the individual values. It increases
linearly till 20 and then it decreases with the increase
in skew angle. Similar pattern is observed irrespective
of the aspect ratio and the types of sectional properties
considered in the analysis.
Fig.7 Influence of Skew on Design
4.4.2 Design Changes for Section Revision

With the design for the straight as basis, one can
observe that no major design revisions are needed up to
a skew angle of 10 except that the stiffness changes by
10% and point of maximum deflection shifts by

location and value, maximum deflection reduces by
20%. This would mean that the design can sustain
up to a skew angle of 10 for stiffness increases by
63
TECHNICAL PAPERS
10% and the 50% decrease for moments. Whereas
for greater skew angles beyond 20 and up to 35
the design changes are needed. This change can be
done by revising steel or section. Most of these design
changes are needed for load cases of torsion-torsion
with bridge aspect ratio of 1:1.
4.4.3 Design Variations Needed for Skew Angle
In case bending moment the torsion-torsion load
position shows higher values than other load position
and the ratio is found always higher than the capacity
which calls for redesign of the section. But the bridge
remains safe because of the factors considered during
the design. The maximum value obtained for the
moment never lies same as normal bridge and there is
always shift in the location.
Torsion moment is never been the less than the
capacity when skew comes in to the picture. The
torsion moment is safe and under limiting value for
0 skew when skew increases they differ drastically.
The skew bridge always needs to be checked for the
torsion design as torsion moment involved increases
approximately four times the value of the normal
bridge. The element which yields maximum value for
normal bridge does not remain same for the skewed
bridge, it get shifted when skew angle increases.
When skew angle is included, minimum depth of
span/30 needs to be provided for the section. Say
skew angle of 15 the forces always on the higher
side, therefore needs a revision of the design. If initial
design is span/30 for both main beam and cross beam
then 14% increase required for bending moment
in main beam and 0% for cross beam, 7% decrease
for main beam and 1% decrease in cross beam for
torsional moment and 6% increase for stiffness. The
bridges with skew angle between 20 and 30 are very
critical as the all design forces are very high when
compared to other skew angle.
5
CONCLUSIONS
1.
Loading position and aspect ratio of bridge

does not influence much on the response pattern
whereas grid arrangements influences more
as it has higher impact on the stiffness of the
member.
64
2.
The member which yields maximum moment

for normal bridge does not yield maximum
value with skew angle. The maximum value
gets shifted in location and by value.
3.
Maximum Moment is increasing with increase

in span length.
4.
Maximum moment decreases with increase in

the skew angle which is significant after 20
skew angle.
5.
Negative moment is found in exterior girder;

hence exterior girder controls the design.
6.
Deflection decreases as skew angle increases

for all spans.
7.
Due to increase in stiffness the deflection

decreases with increase in skew angle and
hence moment decreases.
8.
Torsion increases drastically with increase in

skew angle and span length.
9.
Minimum value of span/30 of depth needs to be

provided for the bridge members.
10.
Bridge design becomes very critical for skew

angle between 20 and 30, as all the forces are
found dominant.
11.
Design revision is not required for skew bridge

with angle less than 10.
12.
Torsion design needs to be checked for the skew

bridge with sk`ew angle more than 10.
In general, this study exclusively illustrates the reports

on the effect of skew on the responses of bridges,
that is bending moment, torsion moment, stiffness,
deflection, aspect ratio, grid arrangement of skewed
bridge which indeed helps the design engineers to
understand the behaviour of the structure still better.
REFERENCE
1.
IRC:6 Standard Specification and Code of Practice

for Road Bridges Section II [Loads and Stresses],
Indian Road Congress, New Delhi.
2.
Menassa et al (2007), Influence of Skew Angle on

Reinforced Concrete Slab Bridges, Journal of Bridge
Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 12, No. 2.
TECHNICAL PAPERS
3.
Trilok Gupta and Anurag Misra (2007) Effect on Support

Reactions of T-beams Skew Bridge Deck, Journal of
Engineering and Applied Sciences, ASCE, Vol. 2, No 1.
4.
Helba and Kennedy (1994), Parametric Study on Collapse

Loads of Skew Composite Bridges, Journal of Structural
Engineering, ASCE. Vol.120, No. 5.
5.
Mohammad A. Khaleel and Rafik Y. Itani, (1990),

Live-Load Moments for Continuous Skew Bridges,
Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, Vol 116, No. 9.
6.
David V. Hutton (2005), Fundamentals of Finite Element

Analysis (1st ed), TMH publication, New York, USA.
7.
Mario Paz (2004) Structural Dynamics Theory and

Computations (5th ed), CBS publications, New York,
USA.
8.
Stephen J. Chapman, (2004) Mat Lab Programming

for Engineers (3rd ed), Thomson learning publications,
Australia
9.
David S. Watkins, (1991) Fundamentals of Matrix

Computation (1st ed), Jhon wiley and sons publications,
New York, USA.
10.
Marshall C. Pease, (1965) Methods of matrix algebra

(1st ed), Academic press publications, New York, USA.
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65
66
EXPERIENCES FROM INVESTIGATION OF EXPANSION JOINTS

AND BEARINGS IN CONCRETE BRIDGES
S. K. Sharma*, Lakshmy Parameswaran**, Rajeev Goel*** and Sushil Kumar****
ABSTRACT
Bridges form an important critical infrastructure in the highway
network all over the world. Even though the concrete bridges
are expected to have a service life of about 100 years, some of
the existing bridges are in the state of distress due to various
reasons. Distressed or damaged expansion joints and bearings
are one of the reasons, as life of these components is much less
than the service life of bridge. Some of the problems in expansion
joints and bearings are mainly due to improper installation and
lack of inspection and periodic maintenance. Therefore, during
the service life of a bridge, these components are repaired or
replaced number of times. As the replacement of expansion joints
and bearings incur huge expenditure to the exchequer, it should
be taken up only after thorough inspection and investigation. The
paper highlights the investigations to be carried out on commonly
used expansion joints and bearings of concrete bridge as well
as the precautions to be taken during repair and replacement of
these components. Some of the issues related to overlay of mastic
over the expansion gap, fixing of anti garbage wire mesh for river
bridges and provision of anti theft measures for bearings are also
discussed for the benefit of engineers involved in the maintenance
of bridges.
INTRODUCTION
India has a vast transportation network. National

Highways of over 70,000 km length are being managed
by National Highway Authority of India (NHAI).
State highways of over 1,32,000 km length and major
district roads of about 1,67,000 km length are being
managed by state PWDs, local bodies etc. with the
massive NHDP program in progress. Many existing
bridges are in the state of distress due to various
reasons such as improper design, use of substandard
materials for construction, lack of good construction/
quality control, exposure to aggressive environment,
aging effects, increase in vehicular loads, natural
calamities such as flood, earthquake, cyclone etc.
and lack of timely inspection and repair. Also, it is
*
Principal Technical Officer
**
Sr. Principal Scientist
*** Principal Scientist
the right time to focus on implementation of bridge

management systems in India, as only limited funds
are available for the maintenance. Adopting a scientific
and systematic approach for inspection, investigation
repair and maintenance mainly helps in extending the
service life of bridge at an optimum budget.
With the availability of new materials and advanced
technology, the repair/rehabilitation of different
components of concrete bridges can be carried out
at a faster pace. No doubt, the rehabilitation of any
distressed component of the bridge need urgent repair
to meet the present day traffic requirements but at
the same time it shall be done judiciously. It is often
seen that emphasis is laid on execution of minor
repair, rather than addressing the issues that can crop
up due to delay in implementation of major repair
work. Further, attention should be paid in selection of
suitable and durable repair material and technology,
keeping in view the design life of the bridge.
Success of rehabilitation of any distressed bridge
or any concrete structure depends upon the synergy
between the different agencies involved such as
material suppliers, RMC manufacturers, owner and
contractor. Often it is been seen that the properties
of RMC at bridge site during delivery often deviates
from the designed properties at batching plant and it
can result in segregation, bleeding, loss of workability
and reduced compressive strength.
This paper is based on the experience of the authors on
investigation of distressed concrete bridges. Authors
observed that there is lack of knowledge about the
function and behavior of various bridge components
among the bridge maintenance engineers. Keeping
CSIR-Central Road Research Institute, Delhi-Mathura Road, New Delhi-110 025
**** Sr. Technical Officers
67
TECHNICAL PAPERS
the above in view, this paper attempts to educate the
engineers about various issues related to investigation,
repair and replacement of expansion joints and
bearings in concrete bridges.
2 ASSESSMENT OF CONDITION
BRIDGE EXPANSION JOINTS
OF
Expansion joints in the bridge deck are provided

to accommodate the structural movements at the
superstructure level due to various internal and
external factors such as thermal changes, imposition
of live loads, earthquake, shrinkage relaxation and
camber growth etc. Typical components of the most
commonly used expansion joints are shown in Fig. 1.
Expansion joints are among the smaller elements of

the bridge structure, but on failing to function properly,
create problems out of proportion to their size as
shown in Fig. 2(a). The detachment of neoprene cover
resulted to obstructed traffic flow and the delayed
administrative process compelled to fix a temporary
steel plate to span the gap opening as shown in
Fig. 2(b).
(a) Obstructed Traffic Flow

(b) Temporary Steel Plates
Spanning Gap
Fig.2 Obstructed Traffic Flow and Steel Plate Spanning the Gap
To assess the condition of expansion joints,

investigations shall be carried out as follows.
2.1
(a) Sliding Plade
Field Investigations
To assess the distress/damage in the expansion joints,

the easiest way is to initiate the inspection by travelling/
walking on the bridge. The feel of discomfort/
excessive noise over the expansion joints indicate the
possibility of deterioration of the expansion joints or
malfunctioning of the bearings and discomfort felt
during driving indicates the condition of the wearing
surface on the deck slab.
The accumulation of bituminous material across the
expansion joint shall be noticed as it creates hump.
Also, pay attention to the vertical alignment along
longitudinal direction and the measured value shall
not differ by 3%[1].
(b) Strip Seal

Fig.1 Typical Components of Expansion Joint Assembly
68
Misalignment and excessive opening or closing of

the expansion joint as shown in Fig.3 also lead to
malfunctioning of the joint system and shall be noted
during inspection.
TECHNICAL PAPERS
(a) Worn Out Component of Expansion Joint Assembly
Fig.3 Closure and Large Opening of Expansion Gap
The edges of the expansion joints at the road level

as well as underneath shall be inspected for various
distresses such as broken edges, concrete spalling,
cracks or fissures, rust stains on the concrete surface,
damaged road surface at the road level, damaged steel
parts of the joint, peeled of neoprene seal etc. as shown
in Fig.4 and exposed reinforcement due to seepage of
water through the joint as shown in Fig.5.
(b) Deterioration of Concrete in the Vicinity of Joint
The extent of deterioration of components of the

expansion joints shall be assessed during inspection
after exposing it as shown in Fig.6, before
recommending the appropriate repair/replacement
strategy.
The expansion gap at the road level needs to be
measured and compared with the value used during
bridge design. The translational movement across the
expansion joint can be measured by installing LVDT.
The recorded translational and rotational movements
at the expansion joints in relation to the design values
helps to conclude about the functionality of the existing
expansion joints. The translational movements can
be monitored on hourly basis continuously for 2-3
days. It can be also be measured by putting permanent
marking on steel rails fixed across the joint. This will
help to assess the movement of expansion joints.
Fig.3 shows the closure and excessive gap opening of
the expansion joint.
(c ) View of Wornout Neoprene Sea
(d) Close View of Wornout Neoprene Seal

Fig.4 Deterioration in Expansion Joints
69
TECHNICAL PAPERS
through the dial gauge/LVDT as shown in Fig.7 or any
other suitable mechanism. If it exhibits translational
movement as anticipated in design, it can be presumed
that the bearings are functioning properly.
Fig.5 Seepage of Water Through Expansion Joint
Fig.7 Measurement of Movement of Longitudinal Girder at

Bearing Level
Neoprene bearings shall be inspected to know the

excessive bulging, tearing of neoprene, crushing of
steel laminates as shown in Fig. 8.
Fig.6 Exposed Expansion Joint During Inspection
The quality of concrete in the vicinity of the

expansion joint shall be investigated with the help of
non-destructive tests[2, 3, 4]. This include evaluation
of surface hardness using rebound hammer, concrete
homogeneity using UPV tests, in-situ compressive
strength of concrete through extraction of core.
(a) Good Condition
3 ASSESSMENT OF
BRIDGE BEARINGS
CONDITION
OF
Bridges are usually designed for an expected life

period of about 100 years. However, bearings of most
of the existing bridges have not exhibited satisfactory
performance for such a long time. Eventhough long
lasting bearings capable of transferring high load
have emerged now a days but still it is advisable to
keep provision for replacement of bearings. The
bearings shall be inspected regularly for any wear and
tear[5]. The functioning of bearings can be observed
in terms of measurement of translational movement
70
(b) Crushing of Neoprene Bearing

Fig.8 Condition of Bearings
TECHNICAL PAPERS
In case of steel bearings, during inspection, it shall
be looked for heavy rust which can occur due to
the leakage of water from the expansion joints. The
longitudinal movement (in mm) due to thermal
changes can be measured and shall be compared
with the design values and over run if any, shall be
recorded. Similarly, the vertical displacement i.e., out
of plumb line of bearing as shown in Fig.9 shall be
measured in terms of angle in radian corresponding
to temperature and shall be correlated with the design
requirements. In case of over run of the roller, the base
plate of the steel roller bearing of same thickness and
compatible material can be extended by fillet welding
to accommodate the movement.
Decision on repair/replacement
of expansion joints and bearings
The condition of expansion joints as shown in

Figs. 4(a), 4(b), 5 and 6 need replacement of existing
expansion joints with new expansion joint assembly.
The condition of the expansion joints shown in
Fig 2 and Fig. 4 (c) & Fig. 4(d) indicate the need for
replacement of neoprene seal. The condition of the
road surface shown in Fig.4 (b & c) is poor and needs
replacement of old mastic layer with a new layer of
mastic after crack repair and profile correction.
Elastomeric bearing as shown in Fig. 8(a) does not
exhibit any sign of excessive bulging, tearing of
neoprene and damaged steel laminate. Therefore,
it does not need replacement while, the neoprene
bearing shown in Fig. 8(b) needs replacement. The
bearing shown in Fig. 9 does not need replacement as
the tilt is within the permissible limit.
The replacement of expansion joints have been
described in the following section.
4.1
Fig.9 Tilt of Steel Bearings
Replacement of Expansion Joints
The replacement of expansion joints should be taken

up only after repair/replacement of bearings, as the
replacement of bearing needs lifting of the structure.
In case of replacement of existing expansion joints,
the concrete at the edge of the deck slab should be
dismantled to expose the reinforcement to a distance
of about 300 mm (minimum) on either side of the
expansion gap. If there is any deficiency of existing
reinforcement in the vicinity of the joint, then additional
reinforcement in both the longitudinal (along the
length of the expansion joint) and transverse directions
shall be provided and the same shall be welded with
the existing reinforcement by maintaining a lap length
of the reinforcing bar as per standards. To hold the
edge rails of the expansion joint assembly in position
firmly, additional steel studs can also be welded to the
existing/new reinforcement. Fig.10 shows different
stages of replacement of joint.
71
TECHNICAL PAPERS
(a) After Dismantling

(b) Provision of Additional

Reinforcement
(a) Additional Steel Studs

(b) Finished Expansion Joint
Fig.10 Different Stages of Replacement of Expansion Joint
4.2
Pouring of Concrete
Generally concrete grade compatible to the grade of

existing deck slab or 5 MPa higher shall be poured after
determining the in-situ concrete grade. The pouring
of concrete around the expansion joint assembly is
generally carried out in the morning/late night hours
when the atmospheric temperature is relatively low as
well the traffic volume is less. RMC is preferred for
this purpose. However, it has been observed that the
often the supplied RMC does not meet the requisite
grade and quality of concrete at the site which leads
to onset of early degradation of the concrete surface
in the vicinity of the expansion joints as shown in
Fig.11. So, the RMC manufactures should exercise
appropriate quality control measures and shall supply
concrete with requisite properties for repair work.
Here, it is to mention that the transported RMC shall be
poured with minimum possible lapse time otherwise,
it starts loosing workability and onsets the abrasion of
aggregates which affect the compressive strength of
concrete as shown in Fig.11.
72
Fig.11 Abrasion of Concrete in the Vicinity of Expansion Joint

(Newly Constructed Bridge)
The authorities should implement strict quality

performance clauses in the Work award document
to ascertain the delivery of required grade of concrete
by RMC manufacturers. It is often observed that the
grade of concrete used for pouring in the expansion
joint assembly to make it monolithic with the existing
deck slab is of high strength (about M40 grade)
irrespective of the existing grade of deck slab (M25 in
old bridges). The use of different grade of concrete in
this area needs a debate.
5 Mastic Overlay
Course
for
Wearing
This is an activity which is generally carried out

during the routine repair of any bridge or flyover. It is
observed that 25 mm thick mastic layer is overlaid on
the existing mastic layer without removing the existing
layer. This creates additional dead load on the structure
TECHNICAL PAPERS
and also creates undulations on the road surface. The
overlaying of the additional mastic layer over the
existing mastic layer also leads to the formation of
trough shaped profile at the expansion joint and this
depression becomes another cause of nuisance to the
road users as shown in Fig. 12 (a). Similar condition
is also noticed, when the mastic often laid over the
expansion gap in an attempt to achieve smooth riding
quality as shown in Fig.12 (b & c). This leads to
the clogging of the expansion gap, thereby causing
restriction to the movement of expansion joint. The
mastic covering over the expansion gap shall be
removed for the proper functioning of expansion joint.
Such situations should be avoided and the normal
codal procedures need to be adopted[1].
The condition of the road surface shown in Fig.4
(b&c) is bad and needs replacement of old mastic with
a new layer of mastic after crack repair and profile
correction.
(a) Trough Formation
Provision of wire mesh for river

bridges
Now a days, 2-3m high wire mesh is being erected

on the upstream as well as downstream sides of
many bridges to prevent dumping of garbage in to
the river by the motorist. This wire mesh is erected
over deck slab with additional steel angles/channels
to hold it firmly on both side of the bridge (upstream
and downstream). The wire mesh fixed steel frame is
embedded continuously thorough out the length of
the bridge superstructure, without leaving any space
for the expansion or contraction of the superstructure
as shown in Fig.13. The free movement of the
superstructure gets restricted which may lead to the
development of undue stresses and develops cracking/
spalling of the edge beam or the cantilever slab
supporting the wire mesh. Hence, proper recess should
be left at the location of each expansion joint.
(b) Joint Overlaid with Mastic
Fig.13 Continuous Wire Mesh Over the Expansion Joint
(c ) Clogged Joint
Fig.12 Different Situations of Mastic Overlay
Need for anti-theft measures
The theft of utilities or other components (such as

steel pipe provided over the crash barriers on either
side of the carriageway railings, noise barriers etc.)
is posing a great challenge to the bridge authorities.
Even steel bearings, which support the longitudinal
girders and positioned firmly on the pier and connected
with bottom of the girders, have not been spared. The
thieves often get access to the top of the pier cap either
from the river bed or from some locations where the
head room is less and at the locations where the head
73
TECHNICAL PAPERS
room is high, they use animal like elephant/camel or
small wooden ladder to fulfill their purpose. The steel
roller bearings (about 80 odd numbers) were either
partially (roller) or completely stolen from a bridge
in Delhi as shown in Fig. 14. The girders remained in
hanging state, without any support (refer Fig.14b) until
it was noticed by the concerned authority. On noticing
the theft, the concerned authority put wooden blocks
under the longitudinal girders (Fig. 14c). During the
rehabilitation of this bridge, new steel bearings have
been installed with anti-theft arrangement which has
been embedded in the soffit of the longitudinal girder.

But the question arises, how to protect these bearings
and the bridges. One way to combat such type of
problem is that the concerned authority should carry
out a periodic inspection (monthly or bi-monthly basis)
of at least those locations which are prone to theft and
a proper record shall be maintained. This will not only
help to identify the missing bearing but also help in
observing the functioning of the bearings. There is an
urgent need to find some workable solutions against
such incidents.
(a) Carving of Concrete
(b) Free Hang of Girder
(c) Supported on Wodden Block
(d) Span Supported on Wooden Planks
Fig.14 Typical Theft of Steel Bearings
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the experience of authors during

investigations of concrete bridges with distress in
expansion joints and bearings, following conclusions
have been drawn.

74
Thorough investigation of the expansion joints

and bearings shall be carried out before taking
rehabilitation. It shall not be on the sample

basis.
Strict quality control measures needs to be
enforced for materials like RMC used for
repair and rehabilitation as well as for bridge
components such as bearings and expansion
joints, so that service life is considerably
extended.
TECHNICAL PAPERS

New mastic layer should be laid after removing

the earlier layer, repairing the cracks and doing
profile correction to achieve smooth riding
quality.
to publish this paper. Thanks are also due to

Sh. Narendra Kumar, Technical Officer and Sh.
Surendra Verma, Technical Assistant, Bridges and
Structures Division.
Mastic layers should not be extended over

the expansion gap to prevent clogging of the
expansion joints.
REFERENCES
1.
IRC:SP:69-2005 Guidelines
Expansion Joints.
2.
Wire mesh erected over the bridges should have

sufficient gap in the vicinity of expansion joints
for free movement of bridge superstructure.
ASTM C 597-97, Standard Test Method for Pulse Velocity

through Concrete, Annual Book of ASTM Standards,
1998, Easton, MD, USA.
3.
There is a need to find some mechanism to

combat the theft problem of bearings and other
fixtures.
IS: 13311 Part-I-1992, Non-Destructive Testing of

Concrete- Method of Test- Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity,
Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
4.
IS: 13311 Part-II-1992, Non-Destructive Testing of

Concrete- Method of Test- Rebound Hammer, Bureau of
Indian Standards, New Delhi.
5.
IRC: 83 Part II-1987 Standard Specifications and Code of

Practice for Road Bridges Section IX (Bearings).
Formation of trough shaped profile over the

expansion joint shall be avoided.
9 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors are thankful to Director, CSIR-Central Road
Research Institute, New Delhi for granting permission
&
Specifications
for
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75
AMENDMENT TO CLAUSE No. 204 OF IRC: 6-2010 STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS

AND CODE OF PRACTICE FOR ROAD BRIDGES, SECTION II LOADS AND STRESSES
(FIFTH REVISION)
{As approved by IRC Council during in its 198th meeting held on 8.1.2013 at Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu)}
This amendment was prepared and recommended by Load & Stresses Committee (B-2) of IRC and placed before
the BSS Committee. The BSS Committee in its meeting held on 12th December, 2012 approved this amendment.
The Council in its 198th meeting held on 8th January, 2013 approved this amendment.
This amendment is also available on IRC Website for wider circulation and benefit of the Highways
professionals.
IRC: 6-2010
204 LIVE LOADS
204.1 Details of I.R.C Loadings
204 LIVE LOADS
204.1.1 For bridges classified under Clause 201.1, the design live load shall consist of standard wheeled or
204.1
Details of I.R.C Loadings
tracked vehicles or trains of vehicles as illustrated in Figs. 1, 2 & 3 and Annex A. The trailers attached to the
204.1.1
classifiedasunder
Clause 201.1, the design live load shall consist of standard wheeled
driving unit are
not toFor
bebridges
considered
detachable.
or tracked vehicles or trains of vehicles as illustrated in Figs. 1, 2 & 3 and Annex A. The trailers attached
204.1.2 Withinto the

kerb unit
to kerb
of the roadway,
the standard vehicle or train shall be assumed to travel
the driving
are notwidth
to be considered
as detachable.
parallel to the length of the bridge and to occupy any position which will produce maximum stresses provided
204.1.2 Within the kerb to kerb width of the roadway, the standard vehicle or train shall be assumed to
that the minimum
clearances
a vehicle
the roadway
face
of will
kerb
and maximum
between two passing or
travel parallel
to the between
length of the
bridge andand
to occupy
any position
which
produce
stresses
provided
the1,minimum
between a vehicle
and the roadway face of kerb and
crossing vehicles,
shown
in that
Figs.
2 & 3, clearances
are not encroached
upon.
between two passing or crossing vehicles, shown in Figs. 1, 2 & 3, are not encroached upon.
204.1.3 For each standard vehicle or train, all the axles of a unit of vehicles shall be considered as acting
For each causing
standard vehicle
or train,
all the axles of a unit of vehicles shall be considered as
simultaneously204.1.3
in a position
maximum
stresses.
acting simultaneously in a position causing maximum stresses.
CLASS 70R (T)
76
Amendment to IRC:6-2010
Notes Under Fig. 1:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
The nose to tail spacing between two successive vehicles shall not be less than 90m for tracked vehicle
and 30m for wheeled vehicle.
For multi-lane bridges and culverts, each Class 70R loading shall be considered to occupy two lanes and
no other vehicle shall be allowed in these two lanes. The passing/crossing vehicle can only be allowed on
lanes other than these two lanes. Load combination is as shown in Table 2.
The maximum loads for the wheeled vehicle shall be 20 tonne for a single axle or 40 tonne for a bogie of
two axles spaced not more than 1.22m centres.
Class 70R loading is applicable only for bridges having carriageway width of 5.3m and above
(i.e. 1.2 x 2 + 2.9 = 5.3). The minimum clearance between the road face of the kerb and the outer edge of
the wheel or track, C, shall be 1.2m.
The minimum clearance between the outer edge of wheel or track of passing or crossing vehicles for
multilane bridge shall be 1.2m. Vehicles passing or crossing can be either same class or different class,
Tracked or Wheeled.
Axle load in tonnes, linear dimension in meters.
For tyre tread width deductions and other important notes, refer NOTES given in Annex A.
Class A Train of Vehicle

Fig. 2 Class A Train of Vehicles (Clause 204.1)
77
NOTES UNDER FIG. 2:
1)
The nose to tail distance between successive trains shall not be less than 18.5m.
2)
For single lane bridges having carriageway width less than 5.3m, one lane of Class A shall be considered
to occupy 2.3m. Remaining width of carriageway shall be loaded with 500 Kg/m2, as shown in Table 2.
3)
For multi-lane bridges each Class A loading shall be considered to occupy single lane for design purpose.
Live load combinations as shown in Table 2 shall be followed.
4)
The ground contact area of the wheels shall be as under:

Axle load (tonne)
Ground contact area
11.4
6.5
2.7
5)
B (mm)
W (mm)
250
200
150
500
380
200
The minimum clearance, f, between outer edge of the wheel and the roadway face of the kerb and the
minimum clearance, g, between the outer edges of passing or crossing vehicles on multi-lane bridges shall
be as given below:
Clear carriageway width

5.3m(*) to 6.1m(**)
Varying between 0.4m to 1.2m
Above 6.1m
1.2m
f
150mm for all carriageway widths
(*) = [2x(1.8+0.5)+0.4+2x0.15]
(**) = [2x(1.8+0.5)+1.2+2x0.15]
6)
78
Axle loads in tonne. Linear dimensions in metre

Class B Train of Vehicle

Fig. 3 Class B Train of Vehicles (Clause 204.1)
79
IRC: 6-2010
NOTES UNDER FIG. 3:

1) The nose to tail distance between successive trains shall not be less than 18.5m.
2) No other live load shall cover any part of the carriageway when a train of vehicles (or trains of
vehicles in multi-lane bridge) is crossing the bridge.
3) The ground contact area of the wheels shall be as under:
Ground contact area
Axle load (tone)
6.8
4.1
1.6
B (mm)
W (mm)
200
150
125
380
300
175
4) For bridges having carriageway width less than 5.06m, only single lane of Class B loading shall
be considered.
5) The minimum clearances, f, between outer edge of the wheel and the roadway face of the kerb
and the minimum clearance, g, between the outer edges of passing or crossing vehicles on multilane bridges shall be as given below:
6) Axle loads in tonne. Linear dimensions in metre.
Clear carriageway width
5.06m(*) to 5.86m(**)
Varying between 0.4m to

1.2m
Above 5.86m
1.2m
f
150mm for all
carriageway widths
(*)= [2x(1.8+0.38)+0.4+2x0.15]
(**)= [2x(1.8+0.38)+1.2+2x0.15]
80
IRC: 6-2010
204.1.4 Vehicles in adjacent lanes shall be taken as headed in the direction producing maximum
stresses.
204.1.5 The spaces on the carriageway left uncovered by the standard train of vehicles shall not
be assumed as subject to any additional live load unless otherwise shown in Table 2.
204.2
Dispersion of Load through Fills of Arch Bridges
The dispersion of loads through the fills above the arch shall be assumed at 45 degrees both along and
perpendicular to the span in the case of arch bridges.
204.3
Combination of Live Load
This clause shall be read in conjunction with Clause 112.1 of IRC: 5.The carriageway live load
combination shall be considered for the design as shown in Table 2.
Table 2 Live Load Combination
Sl.
No.
1)
Carriageway Width
(CW)
Less than 5.3
2)
5.3m and above but less

than 9.6m
One lane of Class 70R OR two lanes for

Class A
3)
9.6m and above but less

than 13.1
One lane of Class 70R for every two

lanes with one lanes of Class A on the
remaining lane OR 3 lanes of Class A
4)
13.1m and above but

less than 16.6m
16.6m and above but
less than 20.1
20.1m and above but
less than 23.6
5)
6)
Number of Lanes for

Design Purposes
1
Load Combination
One lane of Class A considered to
occupy 2.3m. The remaining width of
carriageway shall be loaded with 500
kg/m2
One lane of Class 70R for every two

lanes with one lane of Class A for the
remaining lanes, if any, OR one lane of
Class A for each lane.
5
6
NOTES:
1)
The minimum width of the two-lane carriageway shall be 7.5m as per Clause 112.1 of IRC: 5.
2)
See Note No. 2 below Fig. 1A of Annex A regarding use of 70R loading in place of Class AA
Loading and vice-versa.
81
IRC: 6-2010
TABLE 2 : LIVE LOAD COMBINATIONS

S.NO. NO. OF LANES
FOR DESIGN
PURPOSE
1.
CARRIAGEWAY WIDTH (CW) & LOADING ARRANGEMENT
1 LANE
CLASS A
CASE 1 : CLASS A - 1 LANE
2.
2 LANES
CLASS 70R(W)
CASE 1 : CLASS 70R (W)
CLASS A
CLASS A
CASE 2 : CLASS A - 2 LANES
3.
3 LANES
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS 70R(W)
CLASS A
CASE 2 : CLASS A - 1 LANE + CLASS 70R (W)
82
IRC: 6-2010
S.NO. NO. OF LANES
FOR DESIGN
PURPOSE
4.
CONTD......
4 LANES
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS 70R(W)
CLASS A
CASE 2 : CLASS A - 2 LANE +CLASS 70R (W)
CLASS 70R(W)
CLASS 70R(W)
CASE 3 : CLASS 70R (W) - 2 LANES
5.
5 LANES
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS 70R(W)
CASE 2 : CLASS A - 3 LANES +CLASS 70R (W)
83
IRC: 6-2010
S.NO. NO. OF LANES
FOR DESIGN
PURPOSE
5.
5 LANES
CONTD.....
CONTD.....
CLASS 70R(W)
CLASS 70R(W)
CLASS A
CASE 3 : CLASS 70R (W) - 2 LANES + CLASS A -1 LANE
CLASS 70R(W)
CLASS A
CLASS 70R(W)
CASE 4 : CLASS A -1 LANE + CLASS 70R (W) - 2 LANES
6.
6 LANES
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS 70R(W)
CASE 2 : CLASS A - 4 LANES + CLASS 70R (W)
84
10
S.NO. NO. OF LANES
FOR DESIGN
PURPOSE
6.
IRC: 6-2010
CONTD.....
6 LANES
CONTD.....
CLASS A
CLASS 70R(W)
CLASS A
CLASS 70R(W)
CASE 3 : CLASS A - 2- LANES + CLASS 70R (W) - 2 LANES
CLASS 70R(W)
CLASS A
CLASS A
CLASS 70R(W)
CASE 4 : CLASS 70R (W) + CLASS A - 2 LANES + CLASS 70R (W)
NOTES UNDER TABLE 2:

1) Class 70RWheeled loading in the Table 2 can be replaced by Class 70R tracked, Class AA
tracked or Class AA wheeled vehicle.
2) Maximum number of vehicles which can be considered, are only shown in the Table 2. In case
minimum number of vehicles govern the design (e,g torsion) the same shall also be considered.
3) All dimensions in Table 2 are in metre.
85
11
(To be inserted below the existing NOTES FOR LOAD CLASSIFICATION CHART of IRC:6 )
WHEELED VEHICLE
Fig. 1A Class AA Tracked and Wheeled Vehicles (Clause 204.1)
NOTES UNDER FIG. 1A:

1)
The nose to tail spacing between two successive vehicles shall not be less than 90m.
2)
For multi-lane bridges and culverts, each Class AA loading shall be considered to occupy two lanes and
no other vehicle shall be allowed in these two lanes. The passing/crossing vehicle can only be allowed on
lanes other than these two lanes. Load combination is as shown in Table 2.
3)
The maximum loads for the wheeled vehicle shall be 20 tonne for a single axle or 40 tonne for a bridge
of two axles spaced not more than 1.2m centres.
4)
Class AA loading is applicable only for bridges having carriageway width of 5.3m and above
(i.e. 1.2 x 2 + 2.9 = 5.3). The minimum clearance between the road face of the kerb and the outer edge of
the wheel or track, C, shall be 1.2m.
5)
Axle loads in tone. Linear dimensions in metre.
86
Amendment to Clause No. 209.3.3 and new notes below Table Nos. 3.1, 3.2 & 3.4
of IRC: 6-2010 Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for Road
Bridges, Section II Loads and Stresses (Fifth Revision)
{As approved by IRC Council during in its 198th meeting held on 8.1.2013 at Coimbatore
(Tamil Nadu)}
These amendments were prepared and recommended by Load & Stresses Committee (B-2) of IRC and
placed before the BSS Committee. The BSS Committee in its meeting held on 12th December, 2012
approved these amendments. The Council in its 198th meeting held on 8th January, 2013 approved these
amendments.
These amendments are also available on IRC Website for wider circulation and benefit of the Highways
professionals.
Sub Clause No.
209.3.3
Para (iv)
New Note 9 below

Table 3.1
Existing
For bridge decks supported by single
beam or box girder CD shall be taken
as 1.5 for b/d ratio of 2 and as 1.3 if
b/d 6. For intermediate b/d ratios
CD shall be interpolated. For deck
supported by two or more beams or
box girder it shall be taken as 1.5
times C D for the single beam or box,
however the value shall not be less
than 1.3.
Nil
New Note 4 below

Table 3.2
Nil
New Note 8 below

Table 3.4
Nil
Proposed
For bridge decks supported by single beam or
box girder CD shall be taken as 1.5 for b/d
ratio of 2 and as 1.3 if b/d 6. For intermediate
b/d ratios CD shall be interpolated. For deck
supported by two or more beams or box girders,
where the ratio of clear distance between the
beams or boxes to the depth does not exceed 7,
CD for the combined structure shall be taken
as 1.5 times C D for the single beam or box.
For calculation of time period and seismic
force, dead load, SIDL and appropriate
live load as defined in 219.5.2, shall not be
enhanced by corresponding partial safety
factor as given in Table 3.1 and shall be
calculated using unfactored loads.
force, dead load, SIDL and appropriate live load
as defined in 219.5.2, shall not be enhanced
by corresponding partial safety factor as given
in Table 3.2 and shall be calculated using
unfactored loads.
force, dead load, SIDL and appropriate live load
as defined in 219.5.2, shall not be enhanced
by corresponding partial safety factor as given
in Table 3.4 and shall be calculated using
unfactored loads.
87
Amendment to Clause No. 205.2.2 of IRC:78-2000 Standard Specifications

and Code of Practice for Road Bridges, Section VII Foundations and
Substructure (Second Revision)
{As approved by IRC Council during in its 198th meeting held on 8.1.2013 at Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu)}
This amendment was prepared and recommended by Load & Stresses Committee (B-2) of IRC and placed before
the BSS Committee. The BSS Committee in its meeting held on 12th December, 2012 approved this amendment.
The Council in its 198th meeting held on 8th January, 2013 approved this amendment.
This amendment is also available on IRC Website for wider circulation and benefit of the Highways
professionals.
Refer clause 705.2.2 below first para:
a)
For hard rocks, with an ultimate crushing strength
Of 10 MPa or above arrived at after considering the
overall characteristics of the rock, such as,
fissures, bedding planes, etc.
(b)
All other cases
0.6 m
1.5 m
The above Para is modified and read as :

Type of Rock
Embedment depth
a)
For rocks of moderately strong and above in table 2 of classification 0.6 m

of rock (under clause 8.2 of appendix 2) having UCS of more than
12.5 MPA or where it is not possible to take core to get the UCS but
extrapolated SPT N value is more than 500
b)
For rocks of moderately weak and below in table 2 of classification 1.5 m

of rock (under clause 8.2 of appendix 2) having UCS <12.5 MPA but
2.5 MPA or where it is not possible to take core to get the UCS but
extrapolated SPT N value is more than 100 but less than 500
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
NEW/REVISED PUBLICATIONS NOW AVAILABLE ON SALE

The IRC has recently brought out the following publications, which will be
quite beneficial to the highway professionals:
a) New Publications:

i)
IRC:37-2012 Tentative Guidelines for the Design of Flexible Pavements

Price `600 + `40 for Packing and Postage
ii) IRC:SP:96-2012 Guidelines for Selection, Operation and Maintenance of

Concrete Batching and Mixing Plants Price `600 + `30 for Packing and
Postage
iii) SOAR-21 State-of-Art-Report: Use of Jute Geotextiles in Road

Construction and Prevention of Soil Erosion/Landslides Price `600 + `30
for Packing and Postage
iv) SOAR-22 State-of-Art-Report: Areas of Application and Techniques of

Instrumentation in Traffic Engineering Price `600 + `30 for Packing and
Postage
v) Souvenir/Technical Papers-Seminar on Recent Trends in Highways

Development 10 & 11 October 2012 Price `600 + `40 for Packing and
Postage
b) Revised Publications:

i)
Second Revision of IRC:53-2012 Road Accident Recording Forms A-1

and A-4 Price `200 + `20 for Packing and Postage
ii) Third Revision of IRC:67-2012 Code of Practice for Road Signs

iii) First Revision of IRC:103-2012 Guidelines for Pedestrian Facilities


* Copies of these publications can be obtained from IRC Office
against cash payment or can be purchased online through IRC
website: www.irc.org.in. For more details please contact + 91 11 2338 7759 or
E-mail: sale@irc.org.in
* Students pursuing BTech/MTech/Phd courses can avail 25% discount on purchase
of IRC publications.
96

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INDIAN HIGHWAYS

A REVIEW OF ROAD AND ROAD TRANSPORT DEVELOPMENT

Number 5 May 2013

ICT Pvt. Ltd.

Inside Front Cover

Inside Back Cover

Tiki Tar Industries India Ltd.

Alchemist Touchnology Ltd.

Primax Equipment Pvt. Ltd.

Casta Engineers Pvt. Ltd.

Bentley Systems Pvt. Ltd.

From the Editors Desk

Quality Audit for Concrete Constructions

Sustainability Challenges & Opportunities in Bridge

Influence of Skew Angle in the Design of Grids

Perma Construction Aids Pvt. Ltd.

Experiences from Investigation of Expansion Joints and

Arun Soil Lab Pvt. Ltd.

76-88 Amendments to IRC:6-2010 and IRC:78-2000

89-90 Circulars Issued by MORT&H

Redecon (India) Pvt. Ltd.

Alexis Enterprises Pvt. Ltd.

Halcrow Consulting India Pvt. Ltd.

Jalnidhi Bitumen Specialities Pvt. Ltd.

New/Revised Publications Now Available on Sale

The Indian Roads Congress

Tender Notice of NHs Kanpur

Founded : December 1934

Jamnagar House, Shahjahan Road,

Kama Koti Marg, Sector 6, R.K. Puram

From the Editors Desk

EPC IN HIGHWAY WIN-WIN FOR ALL

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, May 2013

Place: New Delhi 

Vishnu Shankar Prasad

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, May 2013

The event generated a lot of interest from all the

road & road transport sector. The students were

Two day National Workshop/ Conference.

Three day Technical Exhibition on

Three days Career Counselling Session

The State Government of Rajasthan extended full

Shri Shanti Dahliwal, Honble Minister Urban Development, Govt. of Rajasthan

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, May 2013

Shri G.S. Sandhu, Additional Chief Secretary,

Shri Gajendra Haldea, Advisor to DCH (Infrastructure)

During the event the Experts/Speakers made

3. Road Drainage A case Study of Panipat City

1. Design of Noise Barrier for Elevated Highway

4. Enabling New Policy Initiatives of MoRTH

5. New Materials & Technology in Roads by

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, May 2013

A Panel Discussion was also held. The students/

(iii) Team of S/Shri Gaurav Upadhyay

The list of the educational institutions which

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, May 2013

Amity School of Engineering and Technology

Pandit Deendayal Petroleum

Baldev Ram Mirdha Institute of Technology,

PEC University of Technology

CBS Group of College

Poornima Group of Institutions, Jaipur

Ganpat University, Meshana, Gujarat

Global Institute of Technology, Jaipur

Place: New Delhi

T+ = -27.87 + 0.68TTOP + 0.04D