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CHAPTER 2: MATTER
1. To determine melting point
Heating
Cooling
Boiling point
Time, s
to
t1
t2
t3
Example:
Graph shows the heating curve of element X.
Describe the graph in terms of states of matter, particle arrangements and changes in energy.
Sample answer:
Stage
to t1
State of matter
Liquid
t1 - t 2
Liquid
gaseous
t2 t3
Gaseous
Particles arrangement
The particles are close to each other.
The particles arrangement is not orderly.
Some of particles are close to each other
and some far apart.
The particles arrangement is not orderly.
The particles are far away from each other.
The particles arrangement is not orderly.
Changes in energy
The kinetic energy increases
The kinetic energy is constant
The kinetic energy increases
Atom
Proton number
No. of electron
Valence electron
Number of neutron / nucleon number
Chemical properties
Physical properties
No. of occupied shell
X
6
6
4
6/ 12
Y
6
6
4
8 /14
similar
different
similar
6p
6n
6p
8n
c) Procedure
- Weigh and record the mass of combustion tube
with porcelain dish
- Add a spatula of copper (II) oxide on the porcelain
dish. Weigh the tube again.
- Allow hydrogen gas flow into the tube for 5 10
minutes.
- Burn the excess hydrogen.
- Heat copper (II) oxide strongly.
- Turn off the flame when black solid turns brown
completely.
- Continue the flow of hydrogen until the set of
apparatus cool down to room temperature.
- Weigh the combustion tube with its content.
- -Repeat the process heating, cooling and
weighing until a constant mass is obtained and
record.
Result :
- combustion tube with porcelain dish = a g
- combustion tube with porcelain dish + copper (II)
oxide = b g
-combustion tube with porcelain dish + copper = c g
- mass of copper = ( c- a) g , Mass of oxygen = ( b- c ) g
Calculation:
Element / atom
Mass (g)
Number of mole
Simplest ratio of mole
Cu
x
x / 64
O
y
y / 16
Element / atom
Mass (g)
Number of mole
Simplest ratio of mole
Precaution :
1. The flow of H2 must be continuous during
cooling to prevent hot copper metal from
oxidized.
2. Allow hydrogen gas flow into the tube for 5
10 minutes to unsure air totally removed. The
mixture H2 and air may cause an explosion.
3. To determine all air totally removed, collect the
air and place lighted splinter, the gas burn quietly.
[To prepare H2]
4. Zn + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2
5. Anhydrous calcium chloride to dry the H2 gas.
6. CuO + H2 Cu + H2O
Mg
x
x / 24
O
y
y / 16
Precaution :
1. Clean Mg ribbon with sand paper to remove the
layer of oxide on its surface.
2. Lift / raise the lid at intervals to allow air in
3. When Mg ribbon start to burn, cover the crucible
with lid to avoid the white fume produced from
being escape to the air.
4. Repeat the process heating, cooling and
weighing to make sure all magnesium is
completely reacted with oxygen.
5. 2Mg + O2 2MgO
Na2O
+1
Sodium oxide
Does not have roman number
because sodium has only one
oxidation number
CuI
+1
Copper (I) iodide
Has roman number because
copper has more than one
oxidation number
Explain the following statements, referring to the electron arrangement of the elements.
(a) The elements of Group 18 are unreative and exist as monoatomic particles (3 marks)
(b) The reactivity of Group I elements increases down the group, whereas the reactivity of Group
17 elements decreases down the group.
(12 marks)
The points are:
Explanation
Change in proton number
Change in number of electrons and electron filled shells
Change in atomic size/radius/diameter
Strength of electrostatic attraction between nucleus and
valence electron
Tendency to
1
2
3
4
5
6 To become
7 Reactivity
Group I
Increases
Increases
Increases
Decreases /weaker
Group 17
Increases
Increases
Increases
Decreases /weaker
Releases electron
increases
Positive ion
Increases
Attract t/ accept
electron decreases
Negative ion
Decreases
(2) Explain how the melting point of Group 1 elements change down the group (4 marks)
decreases gradually
Reason
atomic size increases
metallic bonding between the atoms become weaker
Less energy is required / needed to overcome this metallic bonding.
(3) Chemical properties of element in group 17
I
II
III
To
produce
Cl2
III
Soda lime
Hot iron wool
HCl (cons) +
II
KMnO4(s)
Example: Compare the reactivity of reactions between chlorine and bromine with iron. [Diagram III]
Reaction
Reactants
A
Iron + chlorine gas
B
Observation
The hot iron wool ignites rapidly with a bright flame.
A brown solid is formed.
The hot iron wool glows moderately with fast.
A brown solid is formed.
Sample answer:
a) Chemical equation: 3Cl2 + 2Fe 2FeCl3
b) The reactivity of reaction A is higher than reaction B.
c) The atomic size of chlorine is smaller than bromine.
d) The forces of attraction of the nucleus toward the electrons are stronger.
e) It is easier for chlorine atom to attract/receive electron.
4
(4) Across period 3, atomic radius (atomic size) decreases / electronegativity increases. Explain.
a) Proton number increases by one unit.
b) The number of valence electrons in each atom increases.
c) Positive charge of the nucleus increases, thus
d) Nuclei attraction on valence electron increases.
e) Atomic radius (atomic size) decreases
f) Tendency to receive electron increases (to form negative ion) thus electronegativity increases.
(5) Chemical properties of the oxide of element across Period 3 changes from basic oxide to amphoteric
oxide to acidic oxide.
Basic oxide sodium oxide (Na2O)
Amphoteric oxide Aluminium oxide (Al2O3)
Acidic oxide sulphur dioxide, SO2
CHEPTER 5: CHEMICAL BOND
(a) Group 1 elements react with Group 17 elements to produce compounds that have high melting points.
(4 marks)
The points are:
Ionic compound produced
Because involve transfer of electrons between metal atom and non metal atom.
Metal atom donates valence electron to form positive ion, non metal atom accepts electron to
negative ion.
The oppositely charged ions are held together by strong electrostatic force.
More heat energy is needed to overcome the strong force of attraction.
Formation of ionic compound (metal [Group 1,2 & 13] and non metal [ Group 14, 15, 16& 17])
Sample answer:
1.
Electron arrangement of atoms ( Na , 28.1 ; Cl 2.8.7 ) // valence electrons
2.
To achieve stable / octet electron arrangement
3.
Atom ( Na) releases one / valence electron to form sodium ion, Na+
4.
Half equation ( Na Na+ + e)
5.
Atom (Cl) gain / accept electron to form chloride ion, Cl6.
Half equation ( Cl + e Cl- )
7.
Oppositely charged ion, Na+ & Cl- are attracted to one another by strong electrostatic force of
attraction to form ionic compound, NaCl
8.
Diagram
Formation of covalent compound (nonmetal)
1. electron arrangement of the atom /valence electrons
2. to achieve duplet /octet electron arrangement
3. Atom (Carbon) contributes 4 electrons while (H) atom contributes 1 electron (for sharing).
4. one ( Carbon ) atom share 4 pairs of electrons with 4 (H) atoms to form covalent compound , CH4 /
ratio
5. diagram
CHAPTER 6: ELECTROCHEMISTRY
1. Factor that affect the electrolysis of an aqueous solution
(a) position of ions in the electrochemical series (cathode)
(b) concentration of ions in the electrolyte - halide ( Chloride, bromide and iodide)
(c) type of electrodes used in the electrolysis ( anode metal )
Application
(i) Electroplating
anode electroplating metal ( less electropositive metal / Cu, Ag, Ni )
cathode metal /object to be electroplated
electrolyte - solution that contains the metal ions of electroplating metal
(ii) Purification
anode impure metal ( Cu Cu2+ + 2e )
cathode pure metal ( Cu2+ + 2e Cu )
electrolyte - solution that contains the metal ions ( Cu2+)
(iii) Extraction of metal (reactive metal, sodium, aluminium)
Down`s Process extraction of sodium from molten sodium chloride.
Extraction of aluminium from molten aluminium oxide ( bauxite)
2. To construct the electrochemistry based on tendency to release electron /potential differences - voltaic
cell/ Electrochemical cell.
lead
copper
Copper(II) sulphate
solution
Cell P
Cell Q
4. Compare and contrast cell P and Q. Include in your answer the observation and half equation for the
reaction of the electrodes in both cells.
Cell P
Electrical chemical
+ve / anode: copper (OXIDATION)
-ve / cathode: copper
Cu2+ , H+
OH- , SO42Anode :Cu Cu2+ + 2e
(type of electrode)
2+
Cathode: Cu + 2e Cu
Characteristics
Cell Q
Energy change
Chemical electrical
Electrode
+ve/cathode: copper
-ve/ anode: lead (OXIDATION)
Ions present in
Cu2+ , H+
the electrolyte
OH- , SO42Anode: Pb Pb2+ + 2e
Half equation
Cathode: Cu2+ + 2e Cu
( ECS)
Observation
(ECS)
concentration of H+
MBVB
b
8
Result :
Titration
Final burette reading, cm3
Initial burette reading, cm3
Volume of hydrochloric acid 0.1 mol dm-3 , cm3
calculate the mass of solute ( mole = 0.1 x 100/1000 , 0.01 = mass/ 40)
weigh 0.4g of NaOH in weighing bottle using digital balance / electronic balance
pour into a beaker, rinse the bottle with distilled water.
dissolve NaOH with a little ( 10 20 cm3 )distilled water.
transfer the mixture into volumetric flask 100 cm3 rinse the beaker with distilled water.
pour the washings into volumetric flask 100 cm3
add distilled water, shake well
add distilled water drop by drop to finally bring the volume of solution to the 100 cm3 mark /
calibration mark.
Industries
Health
CHAPTER 8 SALT
A salt is a compound formed when the hydrogen ion, H+ from an acid is replaced by a metal ion or an
ammonium ion, NH4+
Preparation of soluble salt
acid + reactive metal(Zn / Mg) salt + H2 / 2H+ + Mg Mg2+ + H2
acid + carbonate metal salt + CO2 + H2O / 2H+ + CO32+ CO2 + H2O
Procedure:
1. pour ( 25 100cm3) acid ( 0.5 2.0 mol dm-3) into a beaker
2. heat slowly
3. add solid (metal / base/ carbonate ) a little until excess / no more dissolve
4. stir
5. filter the mixture into evaporating dish
6. heat (slowly) the filtrate until 1/3 from original volume / saturated solution formed
7. cool down the saturated solution (until crystallized )
8. filter (to separate the crystals)
9. dry / transfer onto filter paper / dry between sheets of filter paper
Observation
Chemical equation
Preparation of insoluble salt precipitation reaction / double decomposition reaction
Pb2+ + SO42- PbSO4
Example : Preparation of lead(II)sulphate.
Procedure
pour ( 25 50cm3) of soluble salt Pb(NO3)2 into a beaker
1.
add ( 25 50cm3) of soluble salt (Na2SO4)
2.
stir
3.
filter the mixture
4.
rinse residue / solid / precipitate
5.
dry between sheets of filter paper
6.
Observation
Chemical equation
Ionic equation
Action of heat on salt
Carbonate oxide metal (base) + CO2 except Na, K and NH4+
Example: CuCO3 CuO + CO2
Nitrate oxide metal + nitrogen oxide + oxygen except Na, K, (2NaNO3
Example : 2Mg(NO3)2 2MgO + 4NO2
+ O2
(Brown gas)
10
2NaNO2
+ O2 )
Ammonium chloride ammonia gas + hydrogen chloride gas, (NH4Cl NH3 + HCl )
Confirmatory test for cation and anion
1. State the material / chemical / reagent
2. procedure
3. observation
4. conclusion
Example: You are given a bottle of ammonium chloride solution. Describe chemical test to
verify the cation and anion.
(a) test for cation (NH4+)
1. pour 2 cm3 the solutions into a test tube
2. add 1 cm3 copper (II) sulphate solution
3. blue precipitate soluble in excess to form dark blue solution.
OR
4. add 2 to 3 drops of Nessler reagent into the test tube
5. brown precipitate.
6. Ammonium ions (NH4+) present.
(b) test for anion (Cl-)
1. pour 2 cm3 the solution into a test tube
2. add 1 cm3 of dilute nitric acid and silver nitrate solution.
3. white precipitate formed
4. confirm the presence of chloride ions
Example: You are given lead (II) nitrate and aluminium nitrate solution. Describe chemical test to
verify the cation and anion.
(c) test for cation
1. pour 2 cm3 the solutions into different test tubes
2. add 1 cm3 potassium iodide solution into the test tubes
3. yellow precipitate formed
4. lead (II) ion present
(d) test for anion
1. pour 2 cm3 of lead (II) nitrate solution into a test tube
2. add 1 cm3 of dilute sulphuric acid
3. add 1 cm3 of iron (II) sulphate solution
4. shake the mixure
5. tilt the test tube, add concentrated sulphuric acid carefully // drop by drop down the side of
the test tube
6. the brown ring formed
7. nitrate ion, NO3- present.
11
Aim : To construct the ionic equation for the formation of lead (II) chromate(VI)
[Continuous variation method]
Apparatus
: Test tubes of the same size, test tube rack, burette, retort stand with
clamp, ruler, glass rod, dropper.
: 0.5 mol dm-3 potassium chromate (VI) solution, 0.5 mol dm-3 lead (II)
nitrate solution.
Procedure
:
1. Seven test tubes of the same size were labelled from number 1 to 7. They were placed in a test tube
rack.
2. A burette was filled 0.5 mol dm-3 lead (II) nitrate solution, 5.00 cm3 of the lead (II) nitrate
solution was run into each the seven tubes.
3. Another burette was filled with 0.5 mol dm-3 potassium chromate (VI) solution.
4. Potassium chromate (VI) solution from the burette was added into each of the seven test tubes
according to the volumes specified in the table.
5. The mixture in each test tube was stirred with a clean glass rod.
6. The test tubes were left aside for about an hour.
7. The height of the precipitate in each test tube was measured. The colour of the solution above the
precipitate in each test tube was observed and recorded.
Material
Results:
Test tube
Volume of 0.5 mol
dm-3
Pb(NO3)2 /cm3
Volume of 0.5 mol
dm-3
K2Cr O4 /cm3
Height of precipitate
(cm)
Colour of solution
above the precipitate
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
0.60
1.20
1.80
2.40
3.00
3.00
3.00
colourless
colourless
colourless
yellow
yellow
colourless
colourless
Paper 2
Discussion
The volume of 0.5 mol dm-3 potassium chromate (VI), solution required to exactly react with 5.00 cm3 of 0.5
mol dm-3 lead (II) nitrate solution is 5.00 cm3.
Calculation:
Number of moles lead (II) ions = MV
= 0.5 x 5.00/1000 = 0.0025 mol.
Number of moles chromate (VI) ions = MV
= 0.5 x 5.00/1000 = 0.0025 mol.
Simplest mole ratio of lead (II) ions : chromate (VI) ions
0.0025 : 0.0025
1 : 1
12
Discussions:
1. A yellow precipitate of lead (II) chromate (VI) is formed in each of the seven test tubes.
2. The height of the precipitate increases gradually from test tubes 1 to 5 because more and more lead (II)
chromate (VI) is formed due to the increasing amount of potassium chromate (VI) added to the test tubes.
3. The colour of solution above the precipitate in test tubes 1 to 4 are colourless due to the excess lead (II)
nitrate.
4. The colour of solution above the precipitate in test tubes 6 to 7 is yellow due to the excess potassium
chromate (VI).
5. Ionic equation: Pb2+ + Cr2O72- PbCr2O7
Conclusion:
As / when the volume of potassium chromate (VI) solution used increases, the height of the precipitate
increases until it achieves a maximum height.
CHAPTER 9 : MANUFACTURED SUBSTANCES IN INDUSTRY
1. Contact process: manufactured sulphuric acid
Stage
1
Equation
SO2
S + O2
2SO2 + O2 2SO3
3
4
Explanation
Sulphur is burned in the excess of oxygen gas to produce sulphur
dioxide gas.
SO2 is then heated in excess oxygen gas, catalyst Vanadium (V)
oxide, 1 atm and 450 550 o C , to produce sulphur trioxide gas.
Gas sulfur trioxide dissolve in sulphuric acid to produce oleum
Oleum is added to water to produce sulfuric acid
Gas SO3 is not dissolve in water to produce H2SO4 straight away because the reaction will produce a
lot of heat which is dangerous( cause the forming of acid fumes)
Usage of sulphuric acid:
To manufacture fertilizer, soap and detergent
To make explosive material, paint / pigment, polymer
As metal cleaner and electrolyte in car battery.
2. Haber Process
N2 +
3H2
2NH3
Condition: Catalyst: iron, temperature: 450 550 oC, Pressure 200 500 atm
Usage: to manufacture fertilizer
2NH3 + H2SO4 (NH4 )2 SO4
3NH3 + H3PO4 (NH4 )3 PO4
NH3 + HNO3 NH4NO3
13
3. High percentage of nitrogen is a good fertilser for plants. How to calculate %N in fertiliser?
urea CO(NH2)2 and ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3), which one is a better fertiliser?
[ RAM : N,14; C,12 ;O,16; H,1]
Sample answer:
% N in Urea = mass of nitrogen / RMM urea x 100
= 2x14 / 60 x 100 = 46.67%
% N in NH4NO3 = 2x14 / 80 x 100 = 35.00 %
Urea is a good fertilizer than ammonium nitrate, because the percentage of nitrogen in urea higher than
ammonium nitrate.
4. Describe how toxic waste product from factory affects the quality of the environment. Your description
should include the following aspects. Source, process and effect.
Sample answer:
1. [Source] sulphur dioxide gas produced by factory or burning of fossil fuels
2. [process ] sulphur dioxide gas dissolves in rain water / water to form acid rain,
2SO2 +O2 + 2H2O 2H2SO4]
3. [effect ] toxic waste / acid flows to into lakes and rivers, acid rain lowers the pH value of water, soil
and air.
4. Fish and other aquatic organisms die.
5. acid rain corrodes concrete buildings and metal structures
6. acid destroys trees in forest
7. Acid rain reacts with minerals in soil to produces salt which are leached out the top soil.
8. Plants die of malnutrition and diseases.
9. Soil becomes acidic, unsuitable for growth of plants and destroys the roots of plants.
10. sulphur dioxide causes respiratory problems in humans.
5. POLIMER: - large molecules made up of identical repeating sub-units of monomers which are
joined together by covalent bonds.
Synthetic polymer
Polythene
Polypropene
Polyvinyl chloride, PVC
Perspex
Monomer
Ethene
Propene
Chloroethene
Methylmethacrylate
monomer ( ethene)
Uses
Plastic bags, plastic container
Piping, car batteries
Artificial leather, water pipe
Safety glass, reflectors
14 polymer (polyethene)
ALLOY
An alloy is a mixture of two or more elements with a certain fixed composition in which the major
component is a metal.
1. The composition , properties and uses of some alloy
Alloy
Bronze
Composition
Cu
Tin
Brass
Cu
Zinc
Iron
Carbon
Steel
Stainless
steel
Iron
Carbon
Chromium
Duralumin Aluminium
Copper
Magnesium
manganese
Pewter
Tin, Copper
antimony
Properties
-Hard and strong
-does not corrode easily
-has shiny surface
-harder than copper
Hard and strong
-shiny
-strong
-does not rust
-light
-strong
-lustre, shiny
-strong
Uses
-in building of statue or monuments.
-in making of medals
-swords and artistic material
-in making of musical instruments and
kitchenware
-in construction of buildings and bridges
-in building of the body of cars and railway
tracks
-in making of cutlery
-in making of surgical
instrument
-in building of the body of aeroplane and
bullet trains
In making of souvenirs
Test tube
A
B
C
Paper 2
Conclusion
1. The concentration of Fe2+ ions in the test tube A is higher than in test tube B. No Fe2+ ions are present in
test tube C.
2. The rate of rusting in test tube A is higher than that in test tube B. No rusting takes place in test tube C.
Alloy slow down the rate of rusting.
Properties, composition and uses different type of glass
Type
Properties
Fused glass
Chemical
Uses
composition
SiO2
Lenses, telescope
mirrors, optical fibres,
Laboratory glassware.
SiO2
CaCO3 /
Na2CO3
SiO2
B2O3
Na2O
Laboratory glassware,
cooking utensils.
Automobile
headlights.
SiO2
PbO
CaO
Decorative items,
crystal glass ware,
lens, prism, chandelier
Composite Materials is a structural material that is formed by combining two or more different
substances such as metal, alloys, glass, ceramics and polymers.
Composite
material
Reinforced
concrete
Component
Concrete
Steel
Superconductor
Photochromic
glass
Properties of
composite
Stronger, high tensile
strength does not
corrode easily, can
withstand higher
applied forces and
loads, cheaper.
Uses of
components
Construction of
framework for
highway, bridges
and high-rise
building
Conducts electricity
Generators,
transformers,
electric cable,
amplifiers,
computer parts
MRI
Water storage
tanks, small boat,
helmet
Sensitive to light :
darkens when light
intensity is high,
becomes clear when
light intensity is low.
Photochromic
optical lens, camera
lens, car
windshields, optical
switches, light
intensity meters.
Fibre glass
Properties of
component
Hard but brittle, low
tensile strength
Glass of high
refractive index
Glass
Polyester plastic
Glass
Silver chloride
or silver
bromide
Sensitive to light
17
Note:
1. Catalyst a substance which alters the rate of chemical reaction while remains chemically
unchanged at the end of reaction.
2. Observable changes for measuring the rate of reaction.
(a) volume of gas liberated
(b) precipitate formation
(c) change in mass during reaction, colour ,temperature, pressure
1. Catalyst (Manganese (IV) oxide)
a) Decomposition of sodium chlorate (V), 2NaClO3 2NaCl + 3O2
b) Decomposition hydrogen peroxide ,
2H2O2 2H2O + O2
2. Catalytic converters in the car exhaust system contain rhodium, platinum or chromium (III) oxide Cr2O3.
Example:
1. Aim: To investigate the effect of temperature of sodium thiosulphate Na2S2O3 solution on the rate of
reaction
Problem Statement:
How does temperature of sodium thiosulphate Na2S2O3 solution affect the rate of reaction?
Hypothesis:
When the temperature of sodium thiosulphate Na2S2O3 solution increases, the rate of reaction increases.// the
higher the temperature of sodium thiosulphate solution, the higher the rate of reaction.
Variables:
Manipulated :Temperature of sodium thiosulphate solution.
Responding :Rate of reaction/ Time taken for the cross X to disappear from the sight.
Fixed
: Concentration and volume of sulphuric acid, concentration and volume of sodium
thiosulphate solution.
Apparatus : 150 cm3 connical flask, 50 cm3 measuring cylinder,10cm3 measuring cylinder, stopwatch,
thermometer, Bunsen burner, tripod stand, wire gauze.
Materials: 0.2 mol dm-3 sodium thioulphate solution, 1.0 mol dm-3 sulphuric acid, white paper marked X
at the centre.
Procedure:
1. 50 cm3 of 0.2 mol dm-3 sodium thiosulphate solution is measured using measuring cylinder and poured
into a conical flask.
2. The temperature of the solution is measured with a thermometer.
3. The conical flask is placed on a white paper marked`X`.
4. 5 cm3 of 1 mol dm-3 sulphuric acid is measured and then poured quickly and
carefully into the sodium thiosulphate solution.
5. The stopwatch is started immediately and the conical flask is swirled.
6. The mark `X` is viewed / observed vertically from above.
19
1/ time taken ,
1/t ( s-1)
Discussion
Based on plotted graph: [ calculation ]
The higher the temperature of sodium thiosulphate, the shorter the time taken for crossX to disappear
from the sight.
The rate of reaction directly proportional to the temperature of sodium thiosulphate solution used. //
As the temperature sodium thiosulphate solution increases, the time taken decreases. Therefore the rate of
reaction increases.
Conclusion :
The rate of reaction increases as the temperature sodium thioulphate solution increases.
-^H
20
Apparatus: test tube, 10 cm3 measuring cylinder, test tube rack, spatula.
Materials: (5-10) volume of H2O2 solution, manganese (IV) oxide (MnO2) powder, wooden splinter
Procedures:
1. label two test tube as A and B
2. Using a measuring cylinder measure 5 cm3 of 20 volume of H2O2 solution and pour into test
tube A.
3. Add spatula of manganese (IV) oxide powder into test tube A.
4. Shake the test tube.
5. Immediately place a glowing splinter into the test tube.
6. Observe and record the changes.
7. Repeat the same procedure for test tube B without MnO2
Observation: [Paper 2]
Test tube
A
B
Observation
Effervescence occurred. The glowing wooden splinter relight.
No effervescence. The glowing wooden splinter did not relight.
Discussion:
Manganese (IV) oxide (MnO2) increases the rate of decomposition of hydrogen peroxide. Decomposition
of hydrogen peroxide produces oxygen gas. 2H2O2 2H2O + O2
21
C6H12O6
Fermention
C2H4Br2
C2H6
C2H4(OH)2
C2H5OH
C2H5Br
C2H5OH
Hydroxyl
-OH
Br2
CH3COOH
Carboxyl
-COOH
Oxidation
H2
C2H4
Double bond between
C atoms, C=C
KMnO4/ H+,
K2Cr2O7/ H+
H2O
HX
- CH2- CH2-
A
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
Esterification
H2SO4
CH3COO C2H5
Ethyl ethanoate
KMnO4/H+ / K2Cr2O7/ H+
3. C2H4 + H2O
C2H5OH
22
4. C6H12O6
Yeast
2C2H5OH + 2CO2
Homologous
series
Alkane
General formula
Functional group
CnH2n + 2 , n = 1,2..
Ethane
Alkene
CnH2n , n = 2..
Ethene
Alcohols
Hydroxyl group / - OH
Ethanol
Carboxylic
acid
CnH2n + 1 COOH, n =
0,1,2..
23
Member , example
4. Your are required to prepare one namely ester by using ethanoic acid is one of the reactants. By using a
namely alcohol, describe one experiment to prepare the ester. In your description include the chemical
equation and observation involved.
Ester: ethylethanoate
Material: ethanol, etahanoic acid, water, concentrated sulphuric acid
Apparatus: Boiling tube / test tube, Bunsen burner, test tube holder, beaker
Procedure:
1. Pour 2 cm3 of ethanol into a boiling tube / test tube
2. Add 1 cm3 of ethanoic acid
3. Add 2 to 4 drops of concentrated sulphuric acid
4. Heat the mixture gently for about two minutes
5. Pour the mixture into a beaker containing water.
Observation: Sweet/ pleasant / fruity smell // insoluble in water
Chemical equation: CH3COOH + C2H5OH CH3COO C2H5 + H2O
4. Dehydration of alcohol
Diagram of set up of apparatus
1. Complete and functional
2. Labels of set up of apparatus correct
Procedure:
a) Place some glass wool in a boiling tube
b) Use a dropper to add propan-1-ol to wet the glass wool.
c) Clamp the boiling tube horizontally and placed unglazed porcelain chips in the mid section of
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Observation
Latex coagulates immediately
Latex coagulates slowly
Rubber particles
Rubber molecules
Unvulcanised rubber
Vulcanised rubber
Result / Data
Type of rubber
vulcanised
unvulcanised
Initial length , cm
Elasticity
Hardness
Elasticity
Tensile strength
Resistance to heat
Resistance to oxidation
Effect of organic solvent
Unvulcanised rubber
Less harder
Less elastic
Weaker
Cannot withstand higher
temperature
More easily oxidized
Become soft and sticky easily
Conclusion:
1. Vulcanised rubber is more elastic than unvulcanised rubber due to the presence of cross-linkage of
sulfur atoms between the rubber molecules. Vulcanised rubber could return to its original length after
removal of the weight.
To prepare vulcanised rubber
Rubber can be vulcanized by dipping natural rubber sheets into disulphur dichloride solution
in methylbenzene or heated with sulphur.
Note:
Vulcanised rubber is more heat resistance due to the presence of cross-linkage of sulfur atoms
increases the size of rubber molecules. Force of attraction between molecules will increase.
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Alkene ( hexene )
Hydrocarbon ( contain C and H atom)
Low melting and boiling point
Insoluble in water, soluble in organic solvent
Cannot conduct electricity
Density less than water
Completely combustion produce CO2 + H2O
, CnH2n , n= 2
10 Identify test
1. Combustion, burn less soot flame.
(% of carbon per molecule is lower)
Chemical tests
2. add bromine water , brown colour
remains
3. add acidified KMnO4 , purple colour
remains
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Rusting of iron
1. When iron exposed to water and oxygen
2. Iron atom releases 2 electrons to form iron (II) ion, Fe2+ / is oxidized to form iron (II) ion, Fe2+
3. Fe Fe2+ + 2e // (anode) [ oxidation]
4. Iron acts as reducing agent
5. Oxygen and water receives /gain electrons to form hydroxide ions.
6. O2 + 2H2O + 4e 4OH- (cathode) [reduction]
7. Oxygen acts as oxidizing agent.
8. Iron (II) ion, Fe2+ combine with hydroxide ion, OH- to form iron (II) hydroxide, Fe(OH)2.
9. Iron (II) hydroxide, Fe(OH)2 oxidized by oxygen to form iron (III) oxide, brown solid/precipitate,
Fe2O3.x H2O. // Fe2+ Fe3+ + e
Effect of the contact of other metals on the rusting of iron.
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Observation
Intensity of dark
blue colouration
Low
FeMg
Fe-Zn
Intensity of pink
colouration
High
High
Fe-Sn
Moderate
Low
Fe-Cu
High
Low
Condition of nail
The surface of the nail was partially covered with
reddish brown solid
No reddish brown solid was found on the surface of
the nail.
No reddish brown solid was found on the surface of
the nail.
The whole surface of the nail was covered with
reddish brown solid
The whole surface of the nail was heavily covered
with reddish brown solid
The nail in test tube A rusted a little. No rusting occurred to the nails in test tubes B and C .The nail in test
tube D rusted but the nail in test tube E rusted even more.
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Discussion
1. Based on the observations magnesium and zinc metals inhibit rusting of iron, while copper and tin
metals speed up rusting of iron.
2. This is because magnesium and zinc are more electropositive than iron. Magnesium atom or zinc
atom releases its electron more easily than iron.
Mg Mg2+ + 2e
O2 + 2H2O + 4e 4OH3. Copper and tin are less electropositive than iron. Iron atom releases its electrons more easily than
copper atom or tin atom.
4. Fe Fe2+ + 2e
5. The less electropositive metals that in contact with iron, the faster the rusting of iron occurs.
6. The more electropositive metals that in contact with iron prevent iron from rusting.
Conclusion:
Rusting can be prevented when iron is in contact with a more electropositive metal. Rusting occurs faster
when iron is in contact with a less electropositive metal.
1. Displacement reaction Metal:
Example: Zn + CuSO4 ZnSO4 + Cu // Zn + Cu2+ Cu + Zn2+
a) Zn atom oxidized to Zn2+ , Zn Zn2+ + 2e
b) Oxidation number of Zn changes / increase from 0 to +2,
c) Zn acts as reducing agent.
d) Copper (II) ion reduced to Cu, Cu2+ + 2e Cu
e) Oxidation number of copper changes / decrease from +2 to 0
f) Cu2+ ion acts as oxidizing agent
Example:
An experiment is carried out to determine the relative position of three metals, silver, L and M, in the
electrochemical series.
silver
silver
L nitrate
nitrate
nitrate
solution
solution
solution
Experiment
LM
M
Observation
grey deposit
colourless solution
grey deposit
light blue solution
no change
Based on results, arrange the three metals in order of increasing electropositivity. Explain you answer.
Sample answer:
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1. Silver, M and L
2. L can displace silver from silver nitrate solution.
3. L is more electropositive than silver // L is higher than silver in electrochemical series.
4. M metal can displace silver from silver nitrate solution.
5. M is more electropositive than silver // M is higher than silver in the electrochemical series.
6. M cannot displace L from L nitrate solution.
7. M is less electropositive than L // L is higher than M in the electrochemical series.
2. Displacement of Halogen:
Aim: To investigate oxidation and reduction in the displacement of halogen from its halide solution.
Procedure:
1. Pour 2m cm3 of potassium bromide solution into a test tube.
2. Add 2 cm3 of chlorine water to the test tube and shake the mixture.
3. Add 2 cm3 of 1,1,1-trichloroethane / tetrachlorometane to the test tube and shake the mixture and
leave it on the test tube rack
4. Record theobservation.
5. Repeat steps 1 to 4 using another halogens and halide solutions.
Tabulation of data:
Halogen
Halide
solution
Potassium chloride
Potassium bromine
Potassium iodide
Chlorine
Bromine
Iodine
X
X
/
/
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2I- I2 + 2e (oxidation
bromine water
33
5. Describe an experiment to investigate oxidation and reduction in the change of iron(II) ions to iron(III)
ions and vice versa.
(i)
Procedure:
1. Pour 2 cm3 of freshly prepared iron(II)sulphate solution into a test tube.
2. Using dropper, add bromine water drop by drop until no further changes are observed.
3. Heat slowly / gently
4. Add 3 drops of potassium hexacyanoferrate (II) solution / sodium hydroxide solution.
5. Dark blue precipitate // brown precipitate formed.
(ii) Changing of Fe3+ ions to Fe2+ ions
Procedure:
1. Pour 2 cm3 of iron(III)sulphate solution into a test tube.
2. Add half spatula of zinc / Mg powder to the solution.
3. Shake the mixture until no further changes are observed.
4. Filter the mixture.
5. Add 3 drops of potassium hexacyanoferrate (III) solution / sodium hydroxide solution into the filtrate.
6. Dark blue precipitate // green precipitate formed.
Reactivity series
1. reactive metal with oxygen
Aim: 1. to investigate the reactivity of metal with oxygen
2. To arrange metals in term of their reactivity with oxygen
Procedure:
1. Put one spatula of potassium manganate(VII), KMnO4 ,
into a boiling tube.
2. Push some glass wool into the boiling tube and clamp horizontally.
3. Place one spatula magnesium powder on a piece of asbestos paper
and put into the boiling tube.
4. Heat magnesium powder strongly and then heat the solid KMnO4.
5. Observe and record how vigorous the reaction and colour of
the residue when it is hot and when it is cold.
2Mg + O2 2MgO
Produce oxygen
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K
Na
Ca
Mg
Al
C
Zn
H
Fe
Sn
Pb
Cu
Hg
Ag
Au
Positions of
carbon and
hydrogen in the
reacting series
of metal
reducing
agent
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6. To determine heat of combustion (material and apparatus, procedure, tabulation of data, calculation,
observations, precautions).
Procedure:
1. (100 200) cm3 of water is measured using a measuring cylinder
2. and poured into a copper tin.
3. The initial temperature of water is measured and recorded, 1
4. A spirit lamp is filled with butanol/ other alcohol and weighed, x gram
5.The spirit lamp is light and put under the copper can.
6.The water is stirred continuously with a thermometer.
7.When the temperature of water increased by 30oC, the flame is put off.
8.The spirit lamp is weighed again, y gram
9.The highest temperature is recorded, 2
Results:
Mass of weight of spirit lamp + butanol /g
Final mass of spirit lamp + butanol /g
Mass of butanol used/g
Highest temperature of water /oC
Initial temperature of water /oC
Increased in temperature /oC
Calculation:
Heat change = mc
= 100 x 4.2 x (2 1)
=aJ
x
y
(x-y) // z
1
2
(1 - 2 ) // 3
aJ
(z/74) mol
Precautions:
1. Make sure the flame from the combustion of ethanol touches the bottom of the copper can // The
spirit lamp is placed very close or just beneath the bottom of the copper can.
2. Stir the water in the copper can continuously.
3. The spirit lamp must be weighed immediately (because the ethanol is very volatile).
4. A wind shield must be used during experiment.
Heat of displacement
Aim: To determine the heat of displacement of copper by zinc and iron
Procedure:
1. Measure 25 cm3 of 0.2 mol dm-3 of copper(II)sulphate solution and pour into a plastic cup / polystrene cup.
2. Record the initial temperature of the solution.
3. Pour 0.5g of zinc powder into the solution.
4. Stir the mixture with thermometer
5. Measure and record the highest temperature of the reacting mixutre.
Tabulation of data:
Metal
Initial temperature, oC
Highest temperature, oC
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Zinc
Iron
Heat of precipitation
Aim: To determine the heat of precipitaion of silver chloride, AgCl
Apparatus: plastic cup, thermometer, measuring cylinder
Material : silver nitrate solution , 0.5 mol dm-3 , sodium chloride solution, 0.5 mol dm-3
Procedure:
1. Measure 20 cm3 0.5 mol dm-3 of silver nitrate solution and pour into plastic cup.
2. Measure and record the initial temperature of silver nitrate solution.
3. Measure 20 cm3 0.5 mol dm-3 of sodium chloride solution and pour into plastic cup.
4. Measure and record the initial temperature of sodium chloride solution.
5. Add the sodium chloride soltuions into the silver nitrate solution quickly and stir the mixture.
6. Measure and record the highest temperature of the reacting mixture.
Tabulation of data:
initial temperature of silver nitrate solution, oC
initial temperature of sodium chloride solution, oC
Average temperature of both solutions, oC
highest temperature of the reacting mixture, oC
Heat of precipitation is the heat released / heat change when one mole of precipitate is formed from their
ions in aqueous solution.
ammonium nitrate
(NH4NO3)
Calcium chloride or
magnesium sulphate
39
student carried
experiments to
cleansing effect
detergent on
soft water and
respectively.
40
Test
10. Place a small amount of the residue into a test tube add distilled water, shake it well.
produce a lot of lather ( very foamy)
Observation : white solid, slippery and produce a lot of lather ( very foamy).
Chemical equation:
3. You are given liquid soap, sample of hard water, sample of soft water and other materials.
Describe an experiment to investigate the effect of cleaning action of the soap in different types of water.
You description must include example of hard water and soft water, observation and conclusion.
[10 marks]
Sample answer:
1. hard water : sea water
2. soft water : distilled water
Materials: liquid soap, sea water, distilled water, pieces of cloth with oil stain.
Apparatus: beaker (suitable container), glass rod, measuring cylinder
Procedure:
1. pour (100 200) cm3 sea water into a beaker/ suitable container
2. Add (10 20 ) cm3 liquid soap into the beaker.
3. stir the mixture
4. Place a piece of cloth with oil stain into the beaker.
5. Record the observation.
6. Repeat step 1 4 using distilled water.
Observation:
1. The oil stain in hard water remained but removed in soft water.
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Conclusion:
1. Hard water contains Mg2+ or Ca2+. Soap anion formed scum (insoluble salt) when react with Mg2+ or Ca2+.
2. Soap is not an effective cleansing agent in hard water but only effective in soft water.
Detergent
Sodium carboxylate
Preparation
Saponification
1. sulphonation
2. neutralization
1. alkylation
2. sulphonation
3. neutralization
Function
To add fragrance to both the detergent and
fabrics
To remove protein stains such as blood
To convert stains into colourless
substances
To prevent the dirt particles removed from
redepositing onto cleaned fabrics
To add to the bulk of the detergent and
enable it to be pour easily
To add brightness and whiteness to white
fabrics.
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Example
Amylases, proteases, celluloses, lipases
Sodium perborate
Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC)
Sodium sulphate, sodium silicate
Fluorescent dyes
Builder
Sodium tripolyphosphate
Food additive
Type
Preservatives
Function
To slow down/ prevent the
growth of microorganism,
therefore food can kept for
longer periods of time
Examples
Salts/sugar: draws the water out of the cells of
microorganism and retards the growth of
microorganism.
Vinegar: provides an acidic condition that inhibits the
growth of microorganism.
NaNO3 (Burger)
Benzoic acid / sodium benzoate: to slow down the
growth of microorganism.
Antioxidants
Flavorings
Stabilizers
Thickeners
Dyes
Type
Analgesic
Medicine
Function
Example
To relieve pain without affected Aspirin
consciousness
Paracetamol
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Effect on health
-Internal bleeding and
ulceration
-can cause brain and liver
damage to children
Over dose can cause brain and
liver damage
Codeine
Antibiotics
Penicillin
(Penicillium
notatum)
Streptomycin
Amphetamines
Barbiturate /
tranquilizer
chlorpromazine
haloperidol,
clozapine
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