BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

BLUEPRINT OF LIFE
Answers to end of chapter revision questions
Please note that the following answers are sample answers only.
There may be many alternative answers to the same question that
are also correct. These are examples of correct answers.

Evolution
1 Distinguish
1.
Di tingui h between the terms selective pressure and competition.
competition
Answer: Selective pressure refers to changes in the environment which impact on
the evolution of organisms, whereas competition refers to the organisms vying
against one another for limited resources, with the successful organism surviving to
pass on their DNA to offspring.

CHAPTER

2. Outline the role of heredity and variation in the process of evolution by natural
selection.
Answer: Heredity is the passing on of genetic characteristics from one generation
to the next; this means that species with characteristics favourable for survival are
able to pass on these traits to their offspring and subsequent generations.
Variation in a population leads to organisms within a species having different
characteristics. If this variation has a genetic basis, it will be passed on to the
next generation during reproduction (heredity). Variation therefore leads to the
evolution (by natural selection) of organisms that are best equipped to survive in
their respective environments.
3. Describe one example of a transitional form and explain how it supports the
theory of evolution.
Answer: The Archaeopteryx shows features common to birds, such as a feathered
tail and wings and a wishbone extending to a keel bone for attachment to flight
muscles. It also had reptilian features such as teeth, a bony tail and claws on
three digits of its forelimbs. The presence of both bird and reptile characteristics
suggests that the Archaeopteryx is a transitional form between reptiles and birds.
This supports the theory of evolution by natural selection as it provides links in the
fossil record between reptiles and birds, backing the idea that living things arose
from a common ancestor and that living things change over time.
4. Compare convergent and divergent evolution, using one example of each.
Answer: Convergent and divergent evolution are both indicative of living things
changing over time as a result of natural selection favouring those variations that
best suit the organism to its habitat.
Convergent evolution occurs when distantly related species show similar
characteristics, for example the hedgehog and echidna. This has occurred due to
their occupying a similar niche in their environment and therefore evolving similar
traits to suit that niche.

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

Divergent evolution refers to animals which have basic similarities due to

their recent evolutionary divergence from a common ancestor. For example, the
ostrich, emu and kiwi are all thought to have evolved from a common ancestor on
Gondwanaland, evolving different characteristics once the continents split which
enabled them to survive in their different habitats. Divergent evolution is evolving
and becoming different as a result of adaptive radiation.
5. Distinguish between the terms analogous and homologous in relation to
limb structure.
Answer: Homologous structures are similar in anatomy and development, even
though they may have different functions. For example, the wing of a bat, the
burrowing foot of a mole and the fin of a manatee may look very different from
one another at first glance, but studies of structural anatomy reveal that they share
underlying similaritieseach has five digits connected by hand bones to small
wrist bones, which in turn connect to two long bones that meet at the elbow with
a single long upper arm bone. Homologous structures suggest that these organisms
shared a common ancestor and any differences are due to divergent evolution by
natural selection resulting from pressures imposed by the environment.
Analogous structures carry out a similar function, but have a different
structural basis, for example the wings of a bat and those of a grasshopper.
Analogous structures suggest that organisms are distantly related and have evolved
to become similar (convergent evolution) as a result of selective pressures in
similar environments.
6. Discuss the advantages and limitations of using biochemical technology to
determine evolutionary relatedness between living organisms.
Answer: Advantages of biochemical technology evidence:
It allows comparisons of organisms where homologous structures are not
available, for example organisms that are very distantly related (such as a
eucalypt and a human) or organisms whose complete body parts are not
available for comparison. This comparison of evolutionary relatedness was not
possible in the past.
It allows the relatedness of organisms to be quantitatively determined
similarities and differences in biochemical make up (such as amino acids in
proteins or nucleotides in DNA) can actually be measured. Results are objective
and more accurate than results that were based on observation (such as
comparative anatomy).
Limitations of biochemical evidence:
Some changes in DNA/amino acid sequences may not be identified if a
particular change that occurred in the past has reverted back to its original form
in a more recent organism, which would lead to false evidence.
Sometimes biochemical evidence gives conflicting results.

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

7. Compare the concept of punctuated equilibrium in evolution with Darwinian

evolution. Present your answer in the form of a table.
Answer:
Darwinian evolution

Punctuated equilibrium

Similarities

Living things change over long periods of time by a process where selective pressure in
the environment leads to differential survival and reproduction.

Differences

Living things evolved gradually over

a long period of time by natural
selection.

Living things evolved by short bursts of rapid

change, punctuated by long periods of
equilibrium.

Proposal

Put forward in 1858 by Charles

Darwin and Alfred Wallace, based on
observations of living evidence and
limited fossil evidence.

Put forward in the 1970s by Stephen Jay

Gould and Niles Eldridge, based on fossil
evidence.

Fossil evidence

If evolutionary change is gradual, it

could be predicted that there would
be fossilised remains showing these
ongoing changes. Darwinists use
transitional forms to support their
perspective of gradualism.

Many fossilised remains show millions

of years going by without any noticeable
evolutionary change to most species. (They
argue that if evolution occurs gradually,
as proposed by Darwinists, there should
be a much greater diversity among living
organisms than actually exists.)

88. Chimpanzees are more closely related to humans than to orangutans

orangutans. Explain
how advances in biochemical technology have changed scientific thinking about
the relationships between the organisms described above and use evidence to
justify the statement.
Answer: As a result of increased understanding of the structure of proteins
and DNA, new technologies have been developed which allow us to objectively
measure similarities and differences between biochemical components of living
organisms, such as proteins or DNA genetic material, in order to determine their
evolutionary relatedness. The quantitative results obtained make it possible to
reconstruct the evolutionary history of organisms, both living and extinct.
Recent advances in technology, such as DNA sequencing, DNA hybridisation
studies and amino acid sequencing in proteins, have allowed comparison of
organisms on a molecular basis rather than simply comparing structures.
In the past (around the late 19th century), studies based on structural anatomy
(such as studies of the hind limb, knuckle walking and enamel on teeth) resulted
in orangutans, gorillas and chimpanzees being classified in one family (Pongidae)
and humans being classified in a separate family (Hominidae).
More recently (within the past 40 years), the advanced technology of
amino acid sequencing has been adopted and has shown that proteins such
as cytochrome-c and haemoglobin reveal identical amino acid sequences in
chimpanzees and humans, but one amino acid difference between these species
and gorillas.
With further progress in the understanding of molecular biology, even newer
technologies such as DNA sequencing and DNA hybridisation have confirmed
the results of the amino acid sequencing: chimpanzees show a 97.6% similarity to
human DNA whereas gorillas show a 96.5% similarity to human DNA.
Therefore advances in technology could be said to have changed the scientific
thinking that gorillas and chimpanzees were more closely related to each other,

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

to the currently accepted thinking that chimpanzees and humans are more closely
related, based on the assumption that more closely related species share more
common sequences than do unrelated species.
9. Critically evaluate the impact of Lamarcks and Wallaces work on that of Charles
Darwin.
Answer: Jean Baptiste Lamarck, born in France, paved the way for evolutionary
thinking to take its place in society when he proposed a mechanism for
evolutionhis theory of evolution by the inheritance of acquired characteristics.
At the time, society was experiencing an industrial and political revolution which
encouraged freedom of thought. The comfortable thinking at the time was that
species were created independently and did not change over time and his ideas
challenged this thinking. The mechanism that he proposed opened discussion and
questioning, leading naturalists at the time to question and investigate whether it
could be accepted or discredited. Although his theory was eventually discredited
on the basis that acquired characteristics cannot be inherited, Lamarcks proposal
encouraged people to consider and debate other points of view, opening the way
for the proposal of further new ideas such as the theory of evolution by natural
selection, proposed by Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace in the late 19th century.
Although Darwin came up with his idea of evolution by natural selection in
1844, he mulled over his ideas in secret and discussed it with only a few trusted
colleagues, despite having found much evidence in support of his ideas. Darwin
was aware that his ideas were progressive and dangerousa public announcement
of a mechanism in support of the scientific thinking that living organisms evolve
(as opposed to the idea that each is created individually) would cause an outcry,
especially amongst the political and religious sectors of society. His findings led
him to believe the even more contentious idea that humans were probably also
the result of evolution and this caused Darwin to further delay sharing his ideas
with the scientific community in a public forum.
A letter from Alfred Wallace proved to be a catalyst in Darwin making his
findings public. In 1858, while suffering from malaria on one of his trips to
Indonesia, Alfred Wallace wrote a letter to Charles Darwin in which he outlined
his own theory of evolution by natural selection. Wallace noted that the northwestern Indonesian islands had bird species more similar to those of the closer
Asian mainland, whereas in the south-east, the birds were more similar to those
in nearby Australia, which led him to the conclusion that island forms may have
evolved from mainland forms which became isolated.
This theory was remarkably similar to that which Darwin had formulated
independently, 12 years previously and never published. Wallaces letter was the
trigger that prompted Darwin to put forward his ideas of evolution by natural
selection to the scientific community. With the encouragement of colleagues,
Darwin and Wallaces papers were presented jointly at a seminar in London.
Darwin followed this up by completing his book On the Origin of Species,
published in 1859, which detailed the evidence of his findings and the formulation
of his theory of evolution by natural selection.
Therefore it seems that, without Lamarcks ideas that challenged the religious
and social order of the times and the arrival of Wallaces letter, it is possible that
Darwin would not have considered putting forward his theory of evolution by
natural selection due to his awareness of the social and political upheaval it would
cause. These events led to Darwin finally laying out his argument in a scientific

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

journal and completing his book, to allow the world to judge the validity of his
theory. The end result has been the widespread (but still not unanimous) current
acceptance of the theory of evolution by natural selection, proposed by Charles
Darwin and Alfred Wallace in the late 19th century.
10. Analyse the ways in which theories in biology are tested and validated, using the
theory of evolution as an example.
Answer: A theory is a scientists explanation of a principle. Since scientific
explanations are provisional and scientific views at any time depend on the
evidence available to support these views, theories may changewe say therefore
that science is tentative. Biology is a natural science and so its explanations of
natural phenomena are based on evidence and confirmable data. Scientists look
for evidence that shows cause and effect and they base their inferences on factual
information that can be observed and/or measured when formulating theories.
A number of predictions are made and then tested, either by experiment or by
looking for irrefutable evidence to support or oppose them. If a significant amount
of evidence is gathered that supports the hypotheses being tested (and no evidence
arises to the contrary), a theory is put forward that is acceptable to a number of
scientists at the time. As technology advances and understanding increases, new
evidence that becomes available may further support a view or it may invalidate
that view, leading to the development of a new theory.
The DarwinWallace theory of evolution by natural selection is supported by
a large amount of evidence, gathered over more than a century. Since macroevolution takes place over millions of years, it is impossible to directly test it
by experimentation within a lifetime or even over many generations. Therefore
evidence must be gathered to support the theory of evolutionthe theory
cannot be proved. To validate this theory, scientists have made predictions and
then tested themso far, their predictions have held true and so the theory is
considered valid. There are many strands of evidence which can be applied
to evolution. These include palaeontology (fossil studies), biogeography (the
distribution of living organisms across the continents), comparative anatomy
(similarities and differences in structure), comparative embryology (similarities in
early development) and biochemistry (determining sequences of chemicals such as
amino acids in proteins or base pairing in DNA then comparing them in organisms
that may share an evolutionary relationship).
When it was first proposed, difficulties arose in trying to fully explain the
theory of evolution by natural selection because there was no knowledge at that
point in time of how these characteristics could be inherited or even what caused
these differences or variations in living organisms. The theory of evolution by
natural selection was proposed before there was any knowledge of genes or an
explanation for how inheritance could come about.
In order to look at the historical development of a theory, we need to examine
the past ideas about the principle or concept compared with the currently accepted
ideas. Biological explanations are provisional and biological views at any time
depend on the evidence available to support these views. As technology advances
and understanding increases, new evidence that is gathered may further support
a view or it may refute that view, leading to the development of new biological
thinking and, at times, new theories.
Mendels laws which were rediscovered at the turn of the 20th century have
provided a greater understanding of the mechanisms of inheritance. These laws

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

and the discovery of the chromosome theory of inheritance have led to the
development of the field of genetic studies which has made rapid progress over
the past century. Knowledge and understanding of genes can be used to explain
how random variation arises and therefore provides further evidence for evolution.

CHAPTER

Genetics
1. Identify and describe Mendels hypotheses that were tested (dominance and
1
segregation) and/or any supporting evidence that was collected.
Answer:
Hypothesis

Supporting evidence collected

Pure-breeding organisms carry the same two

factors for a particular trait.

The offspring of pure breeding lines all resemble

their parents.

Hybrids (offspring of two parents that are pure

breeding for contrasting characteristics) all
resemble only one parent, but carry factors for a
trait from both parents. The characteristic of the
parent that they resemble is dominant and the
other characteristic is masked or recessive.

Dominance: when parents that are pure

breeding for contrasting characteristics (such
as tallness and shortness) are crossed, the
offspring all resemble one parent (in this
case the tall parent). There is not blending of
characteristics.

These factors pass as unmodified units to

successive generations according to set ratios
(that is they segregate during gamete formation
and recombine during fertilisation).

Segregation: when two hybrid plants are

crossed, one characteristic (dominant) appears
three times as frequently in the offspring as the
other (recessive) characteristic. That is, the
average ratio observed in offspring is 3:1. This
can be mathematically explained only if there
are two factors responsible for each trait and
they separate or segregate and each gamete
receives only one factor for the trait.

2. State three possible reasons why Mendels experimental results were ignored.
A
Answer:
1. He presented his papers to a very small group of scientists that were not very
eminent, in a small town in Moravia called Brnn.
2. His work differed from previous research, appeared to be based on very
little prior knowledge and the scientists to whom he presented may not have
understood is work. Mendels use of mathematics and statistics to analyse
results and make predictions in biology was also different.
3. He had no established reputation or recognition in the broader scientific world
because he had no prior significant research and no interaction with other
well-known scientists. As a result, his standing as a scientist may have been
doubted.
3. Science has been described as empirical (based on experimentation) yet also
creative. Assess whether this holds true for the establishment of Mendels laws.
Answer: Mendels laws were based on experimentation and he employed creativity
in his problem-solving techniques, resulting in valid scientific experiments on
which he based his laws.

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

Science is empirical and this criterion is evident in Mendels experiments,

for example he counted plants to obtain quantitative results and then applied
mathematical formulae to establish his laws objectively. Mendels experiments
display the criterion of creativity, particularly in his problem-solving approach.
For example, he removed stamens from plants to prevent self-pollination and
ensure that only cross-pollination occurred and this creative thinking improved
his experimental technique.
Mendels careful analysis of results, combined with his creative thinking,
enabled him to link his observations to the process of sexual reproduction, and by
applying his understanding, he consequently established the Mendelian laws of
inheritance which still hold true today.
4. Explain how advances in scientific understanding brought about by Mendels
discoveries provide evidence for the DarwinWallace theory of evolution by
natural selection (PFA H1-based question.)
Answer: At the time that Darwin and Wallace proposed their theory of evolution by
natural selection, Darwin recognised that there was no known way of explaining
how variation could be passed on from parent to offspring. Mendels experiments
showed that:
each inherited trait in an individual is determined by a pair of factors which
pass as unmodified units (individual Mendelian factors today are called genes)
to successive generations according to set ratios
these factors are passed on in gametescharacteristics are carried from parents
to offspring by gametes (sex cells) and when gametes combine, they may bring
together a different combination of alleles for the same gene, for example the
gene for stem length in pea plants may differ in each parent. The segregation
and later fusion in fertilisation further increase the variation that can be
inherited in individuals, an essential ingredient in the process of evolution.
some factors may be masked (recessive), whereas others are expressed
(dominant), accounting for the variations which appear within individuals in a
population. Darwin described the random variation on which natural selection
acted, but he could not explain how this variation arose within a population or
how it was passed from one generation to the next.
By advancing the understanding of the hereditary nature of variation, Mendels
findings (when later rediscovered) provided an explanation of how natural
selection could lead to changes within a population, providing further evidence for
the DarwinWallace theory of evolution by natural selection.
5. Look at the following pairs of alleles and identify which would have a similar
appearance if the alleles presented by the capital letters are dominant over the
alleles presented by the small letters:
AA
Aa
aa
Bb
BB
Answer: AA and Aa; BB and Bb

bb

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

6. If you were carrying out breeding experiments with a group of organisms that
are heterozygous for a particular gene that has one dominant and one recessive
allele:
(a) How many different phenotypes of offspring would there be? Identify them
and give their expected ratios.
(b) How many different genotypes of offspring would there be? Identify them
and give their expected ratios.
Answer:
(a) There would be two phenotypes: individuals displaying the dominant
phenotype and individuals displaying the recessive phenotype (no blending
of phenotypes).
Phenotypic ratio: three dominant to one recessive.
(b) There would be three genotypes: one homozygous dominant: two
heterozygous dominant: one homozygous recessive.
Phenotypic ratio: three dominant to one recessive.
7. A homozygous pea plant with purple flowers is crossed with a pea plant with
white flowers.
(a) Which colour is dominant? Justify your answer.
(b) Use a Punnett square to show the possible genotypes that would result from
this cross.
(c) Calculate the ratios of phenotypes and genotypes of the offspring.
Answer:
(a) Purple. The heterozygous individual displays the dominant phenotypein this
instance, purple flowers.
(b) Let P = purple and p = white flowers.
Parents: Pp pp
Gametes: Pp pp
P

Pp

pp

Pp

pp

(c) Phenotype ratio: one purple to one white flower

Genotype ratio: one homozygous purple to one heterozygous purple to two
white flowers
8. Explain why each of the following statements is false:
(a) Offspring resulting from self-fertilisation are genetically identical.
(b) In a monohybrid cross Bb Bb, there is a 25% chance of a child being bb. If
the first child is bb, there is less of a chance that the second child will be bb.
Answer:
(a) During sexual reproduction, cells undergo meiosis to produce gametes.
Meiosis introduces genetic variationby crossing over and by independent
assortment and random segregation. The result is that each gamete carries
a different mixture of paternal and maternal genes. Furthermore, the genotypes
of the offspring are determined at the time of fertilisation by which male and
female gametes fuse. All of these stages in sexual reproduction (those words

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

listed in bold print) introduce genetic variety by mixing the genes present in
the parent individual. (Genetically identical offspring only result from asexual
reproduction such as propagation.)
(b) The order in which the offspring are born is not relevantthe birth of one
offspring does not affect the birth of the next, however if enough offspring
are born, then the above ratios may be attained. Every time meiosis occurs
and gametes are formed, there is an equal chance of the genes segregating
in a particular way and recombining during fertilisation. Just as each time
you spin a coin, you have a 50% chance of getting headsany one spin is
not influenced by the spin before itand so each gamete formation and
fertilisation process in living things is independent of the previous one.
9. Draw the standard symbols used in a pedigree to represent:
(a) parents (both unaffected)
(b) twins, one unaffected male and one affected female
(c) the Roman numeral indicating the generation of grandchildren.
Answer:
(a)
father

mother

(b)
unaffected
male
(c) III

female

10. Identify three uses of pedigrees.

Answer:
Animal pedigrees:
select suitable individuals for stud breeding by identifying any desirable traits
predict how closely related the parent animals are
verify the thoroughbred status of animals by breeding societies.
Human pedigrees:
determine if a particular family trait is genetically inherited
trace the occurrence of a genetic disorder, abnormality or disease within a
family over several generations
deduce genotypes by determining the probability that prospective parents are
heterozygous for (and therefore carriers of) a particular defective allele
predict the likelihood of a family member inheriting a trait/developing a
disorder.

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Chromosomesthe key to inheritance

1. How did the work of Sutton and Boveri increase our understanding of the role of
1
chromosomes in inheritance? (PFA H1-based question)
Answer:
Boveri increased our understanding by demonstrating that a full set of
chromosomes, found in the nucleus, is needed for normal development of
offspring.
Sutton and Boveri independently showed that each chromosome contains
numerous hereditary factors that are passed from parent to offspring by
gametes, as a result of meiosis.
Sutton changed previous thinking that all chromosomes were the same size and
shape and also noticed the similarity between the separation of chromosomes
in meiosis and Mendels law of segregation.
Both Sutton and Boveri arrived at the previously unknown conclusion that
many of Mendels factors were present on each chromosome.

CHAPTER

2. Explain,
Explain in genetic terms:
(a) how alleles are responsible for the differences or variation seen in individuals
within a population
(b) how such characteristics could be passed on from one generation to the
next.
Answer:
(a) Genes or the environment or a combination of both genes and the
environment are responsible for the variation in individuals within a
population. Variation is of evolutionary advantage only if it has a genetic basis.
Genes on chromosomes determine characteristics that are inherited. Alleles are
different forms (variations) of the same gene and these alleles occur in pairs
in individuals. Alleles may be recombined to introduce new mixes of genetic
material, giving variation. Mutations are a source of new variations arising (as
opposed to the reshuffling of genetic material to introduce variability within a
population).
Genetic variation in individuals (and variability in a population) arises as
a result of sexual reproduction (a recombination of alleles that already
exist) or as a result of mutation (new alleles arise). Sexual reproduction
involves gamete formation (by meiosis, with crossing over, segregation
and independent assortment accounting for variation by recombining genes),
followed by fertilisation (fusion of male and female gametes which further
recombines genes). New alleles of a gene may arise by mutation, introducing
even more variation into a population.
(b) Haploid gametes carry one copy of each allele from parents to offspring,
resulting in genetic recombination, which leads to variations seen in different
individuals in a population. Variation within a population leads to differential
reproduction (those individuals that survive reproduce and therefore pass
on their alleles). Beneficial mutations are maintained in a gene pool because
they confer some selective advantage. Harmful mutations are eliminated from
the gene pool in nature because they reduce the chances of the individuals
survival while neutral or slightly harmful mutations may be carried in a
population.

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

The gene pool of a population contains genetic variation that has been
introduced by mutation and maintained by recombination. If mutations can be
inherited, they provide the variation on which natural selection acts, in order
for evolution to occur.
3. Explain how meiosis introduces variation during gamete formation.
Answer: Variation is introduced during sexual reproduction by:
meiosis: crossing overhomologous chromosomes exchange genes and so the
resulting combinations of alleles on chromatids differ from those originally on
the parent chromosomes
independent assortment: genes on different chromosomes sort independently,
giving different gene combinations in gametes (different from those of parents).
Meiosis results in a reshuffling of genetic material, introducing variation in a
population.
4. State two genetic consequences of fertilisation.
Answer: During fertilisation the male and female gametes combinethe possibility
of many different combinations of gametes fusing brings about variation.
The genetic consequences of fertilisation are that:
the original (diploid) chromosome number is restored
the many possible combinations of gametes that fuse are a significant source of
variation.
5. Identify one source of variation within living organisms that does not have a
genetic basis. Give an example of this type of variation and explain why it cannot
play a role in natural selection.
Answer: Variation between individuals in a population may be due to the influence
of environment, for example a person may increase the size of their biceps by
exercising in a gym, lifting weights to increase the size and strength of their
muscles. The offspring of a person who works out in the gym do not inherit that
persons large muscles. Therefore this type of variation, which does not have a
genetic basis, will not help the offspring to adapt to the environment and cannot
be acted upon by natural selection.
(Without genetic variation being passed from one generation to the next, there
can be no inherited differences in the ability to reproduce and, therefore, no
natural selection.)
6. Watson and Cricks working style was more successful than that of Franklin
and Wilkins. Discuss what made the working style of Watson and Crick more
successful.
Answer: Watson and Crick took a creative and collaborative approach which
involved sounding ideas off each other and building a model. They used any
research available to them, in the best interests of solving the scientific problem
with which they were faced. They discussed ideas with each other and questioned
any other colleagues who were working in similar fields, communicating broadly
and well. They did what we would call brainstorming todaythey gave
consideration to every idea put forward, even those that sounded impossible
believing that the correct idea would be amongst those that they came up with.
The advantages of this approach were that:
they gathered a large amount of information on DNA as a result of their broad
communicationboth their own findings and that of other people

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

they filled in all the missing gaps in their knowledge and understanding by
using chemistry textbooks and talking to people
their model building allowed them to visualise their proposalsthey looked at
the overall picture when interpreting available research
their non-judgemental approach and freedom to bounce ideas off each other
enhanced their creative thinking
their correct scientific approach of making predictions and testing their model
led them to reject their first incorrect model and develop a later one that proved
to hold true for predictions such as the mechanism for self-replication.
The disadvantages of this approach were that:
their work was not always orderly and methodicalthey had to rely on the
meticulous detail obtained from the expert crystallography skills of Rosalind
Franklin to fill in the missing part of their puzzle; measurements and details
which Watson wrote down and Crick recognised as giving DNA its double
helical nature.
The team work of Watson and Crick, which they later acknowledged as having
played such an important part in their discovery, contrasted with the strained
working relationship between Franklin and Wilkins. Wilkinss expertise was in
isolating high-quality DNA which could be used for X-ray diffraction; Franklins
strengths were her X-ray diffraction skills and her logic and ability to analyse
X-ray crystallography photos, and her intense and meticulous effort in collecting
data. At the time of Watson and Cricks discovery, Franklin and Wilkins had both
independently come across evidence that DNA was a helix in the wet form, but
they did not discuss their findings effectively and their communication was poor.
By processing information from other researchers, long discussions and many
hours spent manipulating models, Watson and Cricks idea took shape and seemed
to workthey discovered the detailed structure of the now famous DNA double
helix, as well as the discovery that bases are always paired in a particular way
which provided a mechanism for DNA to self-replicate.
The successful working style of Watson and Crick was therefore a major
contributing factor that led to them being awarded the Nobel prize in physiology
and medicine in 1962 for their work on the discovery of DNA.
7. Explain why DNA is sometimes referred to as the blueprint of life.
Answer: A blueprint is a plan of the design of a building, usually created by
an architect. The plan or blueprint determines the eventual structure (and
functionality) of the building. DNA is the chemical (a macromolecule) found in the
nucleus of each cell and it codes for the production of proteins and determines the
ultimate structure and functioning of living organisms. It is therefore referred to as
the blueprint of life as it holds in a coded form the plan or design of the living
organism in which it occurs.
8. Distinguish between the terms nucleotide and nucleic acid.
Answer: A nucleotide is a basic subunit of nucleic acidsit is made up of a sugar,
a phosphate and a base. For example, adenine, thymine, cytosine and guanine are
the types of bases that form part of the nucleotides that make up the nucleic acid
DNA.
A nucleic acid is a large molecule (polymer), such as DNA or RNA, made up of
repeating units of nucleotides.

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

DNA functioningchanges in DNA structure are

reflected in phenotype
1. Explain how the biochemical process of protein synthesis that occurs in cells is
1
related to macroscopic changes in the organism.
Answer: The biochemical pathway of protein synthesis involves transcription
of the coded instructions in DNA into messenger RNA, which then moves into
the cytoplasm where it is translated into protein. Genes are therefore expressed
in terms of the protein products that they produce. Many of these proteins are
enzymes, which control chemical functioning of cells. Other proteins that are
produced may form a structural part of the cell (e.g. the protein in cell membranes,
collagen in connective tissue, silk in insect cocoons) and some proteins form
essential chemicals such as hormones (e.g. insulin), defence proteins (e.g.
antibodies) and transport proteins (e.g. haemoglobin). DNA directs the production
of these proteins which in turn determine the macroscopic structure of the
organism. Any change in the DNA (e.g. by mutation) will lead to a corresponding
change in the messenger RNA and this may lead to a difference in the amino
acid sequence of a polypeptide (or a difference in the length of the polypeptide
change or its three-dimensional configuration). A change in the polypeptide may
bring about a variation of the usual protein and this new variation may confer
structural differences; for example it may be an enzyme which no longer functions
as it should (or at all), or it may be a pigment protein that now changes colour.
Therefore we see that a microscopic change in DNA structure could lead to
macroscopic changes in the organism as a result of changes to the structure of one
or more proteins that are encoded by the DNA.
An enzyme called DNA polymerase enzyme is usually involved in checking
the biochemical process of transcription and corrects any bases that have been
incorrectly inserted, but at times this cross-checking does not work effectively.
Mistakes in DNA replication may also lead to macroscopic changes within an
organism, but these will be limited to all cells arising from that defective parent
cell. However, a mutation in a germ line cell means that all or most of the cells
that form as a result of division of this cell will duplicate the error and so all of
them (most or all cells in the developing organism) will show the macroscopic
change.

CHAPTER

2. Distinguish between DNA and mRNA.

Answer: DNA is a double-stranded helix, whereas RNA is single stranded.
DNA contains the nitrogenous bases thymine, adenine, cytosine and guanine,
whereas RNA contains the nitrogenous base uracil in place of thymine (the other
three bases are the same for RNA as for DNA).
The sugar that forms part of the sugar-phosphate backbone in DNA is
deoxyribose sugar, whereas in RNA it is ribose sugar. It is the sugar that gives them
their namesDNA is deoxyribonucleic acid and RNA is ribonucleic acid.

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

3. Match the phrase in the first column with the correct term in the second column
in the table below.
Phrase

Term

1. DNA makes an identical copy of itself.

(a) translation

2. DNA acts as a template for mRNA.

(b) replication

3. mRNA triplet of bases that determines which amino acid will be

brought in.

(c) transcription

4. Carries DNA code from cytoplasm to nucleus.

(d) mutation

5. Where transcription takes place.

(e) mitochondrion

6. Triplet of bases on one end of tRNA.

(f) ribosome

7. Material which genes are made of.

(g) codon

8. Contains non-nuclear DNA.

(h) anticodon

9. Change in nucleotide sequence in a gene.

(i) DNA

10. mRNA is decoded and directs the sequencing of amino acids

to make a polypeptide chain.

(j) mRNA

Answer:
1

10

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

4. Draw a flow chart to outline the process by which DNA controls the production
of polypeptides. Indicate at which points enzymes are involved and name these
enzymes.
Answer:
DNA in nucleus unzips in region of desired gene
enzyme: helicase

transcription

mRNA nucleotides pair

with nucleotides on DNA
non-coding strand

mRNA nucleus

enzyme: RNA
polymerase
cytoplasm

mRNA on ribosomes

translation

tRNA aligns according to

mRNA base sequence

amino acids joined in sequence

polypeptide

5. In the form of a table, compare the processes of DNA replication and protein
synt
sy
nthe
hesi
sis.
s.
synthesis.
Process

DNA replication

Protein synthesis

When it occurs

Immediately before cell division.

When a cell needs to manufacture a protein

product.

Type of cell in which it

occurs

A somatic (body) cell about to undergo mitosis or

a germ cell about to undergo meiosis.

A differentiated somatic cell.

Main steps involved

DNA unzips (whole molecule).

Each original strand gives rise to a complementary
strand of DNA.

DNA unzips only in that part of a chromosome

where the required gene occurs.
The gene on one strand of DNA (the non-coding
strand) gives rise to a complementary strand of
mRNA.
The mRNA moves into the cytoplasm and is
translated into a protein (with the help of tRNA).

Result

All chromosomes within a cell are replicated,

forming two identical genomes.

Protein products that were encoded by the gene

are produced in the cell, for cell functioning or to
form a structural part of the cell.

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

6. (a) Define a mutagen and give examples.

(b) Distinguish between spontaneous and induced mutations and give an
example of each.
Answer:
(a) A mutagen is any environmental factor that induces mutations in DNA that is
exposed to the factor. For example ionising radiation such as X-rays, gamma
rays and ultraviolet light; certain chemicals such as benzene, tar in tobacco
smoke, nitrites and biological agents such as certain viruses, for example the
hepatitis B virus.
(b) A spontaneous mutation is a mistake that arises randomly during DNA
replicationit occurs approximately once in every billion base pairs replicated
and are also known as random errors in cell division.
An induced mutation is a mistake that arises during DNA replication as a
result of the influence of an environmental factor such as ionising radiation or
certain chemicals. The environmental factor causes a greatly increased rate of
mutation compared with the rate of spontaneous mutation.
7. Compare gene mutations with chromosome mutations, giving an example of
each.
Answer: A gene mutation involves a change in the nucleotide bases within a
genethis could be as a result of the rearrangement of the bases or a deletion,
insertion or duplication of one or more base pairs. For example, colour blindness
and cystic fibrosis in humans.
A chromosomal mutation involves a change in many genesthat is, a
rearrangement, deletion, insertion or duplication of many genes (a whole portion)
of a chromosome.
Changes in chromosome number could be considered chromosomal mutations,
since all the genes on one chromosome may be deleted or duplicated, for example
Downs syndrome, which features an additional copy of chromosome 21.
8. The following scientists all made major scientific breakthroughs that are accepted
in the fields of genetics and evolution today:
(a) Darwin and Wallace
(b) Mendel
(c) Beadle and Tatum.
(i) For each scientist or pair of scientists listed above, identify the scientific
hypothesis, theory or law that they proposed.
(ii) For each scientist or pair of scientists, analyse and outline the way in
which they tested and validated their hypothesis, theory or law.
Answer:
Scientific hypothesis,
theory or law that was
proposed
Darwin and
Wallace

The theory of evolution by

natural selection

The way in which the hypothesis, theory or law was

tested and validated
Original theory based on observations of numerous
organisms including evolution on islands of birds.
Predictions held true based on various strands
of evidence such as palaeontology, biogeography,
comparative anatomy, comparative embryology and
biochemical evidence.
continued . . .

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

Scientific hypothesis,
theory or law that was
proposed

The way in which the hypothesis, theory or law was

tested and validated

Mendel

Geneticsthe law
of dominance and
independent assortment

Mendel made and tested numerous predictions using

seven characteristics in garden peas; his experiments
were rediscovered and tested (repeated successfully)
35 years later (in the early 1900s) and subsequent to
that and have held true.

Beadle and
Tatum

One geneone
polypeptide hypothesis

Beadle and Tatums original hypothesis, the one gene

one protein hypothesis was tested against predictions
and did not hold true for all caseswhile the basis to
their theory held true, it changed in detail as geneticists
came to a greater understanding of the structure and
functioning of genes and proteins. It had to be amended
with the discovery that some proteins consist of more
than one polypeptide chain and one gene may code
for one polypeptide chainonly part of a protein. The
hypothesis seems to be holding true, but may change
again in the light of recent discoveries in molecular
genetics.

Applications and implications of genetics

1. Define
1
Define selective breeding,
breeding artifi
artificial
cial pollination,
pollination artifi
artificial
cial insemination and
hybridisation.
Answer: Selective breeding can be thought of as a form of artificial selection
imposed by humans when they conduct deliberate crosses in living organisms to
obtain a combination of desirable characteristics in the offspring. Genetically, it
can be described as a reproductive technique applied to manipulate the phenotype
of offspring. An example of selective breeding is crossing a Fresian bull (a variety
where the females have a high milk yield) with a Jersey cow (a breed known for
the ability to produce creamy milk) in an attempt to breed offspring that produce
large amounts of creamy milk.
Artificial pollination is a selective breeding technique used in plants where
pollen is taken from a plant with one desired characteristic (e.g. a plant variety that
is disease resistant) and brushed onto the female parts (stigma) of another plant
with another desired characteristic (e.g. a long-flowering season).
Artificial insemination is a technique whereby semen containing sperm is
introduced with a syringe into the reproductive tract of a female. It is artificial
because it involves human intervention and it is used as a modern selective
breeding technique to produce offspring with favourable characteristics (it is
similar to selective breeding, except that only the sperm is transported as opposed
to the entire male animal).
Hybridisation involves cross-breeding two genetically different individuals.
If the organisms that are cross bred are from the same species (but different
varieties), this is termed intraspecific hybridisation, but if they belong to different
species, it is interspecific hybridisation. Hybridisation occurs both in nature and
artificiallyit occurs as a result of human manipulation of breeding to try to
improve the quality of plants and animals, a phenomenon known as hybrid vigour.

CHAPTER

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

2. Distinguish between gene cloning and whole organism cloning.

Answer: Gene cloning is a technique that results in the production of multiple
identical copies of a gene. It is part of the process of genetic engineering and takes
place at a cellular level.
Whole organism cloning is an asexual reproductive technology that uses the
DNA (or nucleus) of a mature organism (the parent organism) to produce a
genetically identical, fully developed identical organism. The clone is a genetically
identical twin of the original organism, for example the cloning of seedless
watermelons and bananas.
3. Each time a mammal is cloned, the process of somatic cell nuclear transfer
(SCNT) involves three animals. Identify and describe the role played by each of
these animals during SCNT.
Answer:
1. The mature animal to be cloned (genome donor): this animal provides a
nucleus which contains the DNA instructions to be passed on to the new
(cloned) individual.
2. The female egg donor: she provides an egg cell whose nucleus is removed
termed an enucleated egg cell. The cytoplasm of this egg cell is needed to
activate all genes in a nucleus, even those that may have been shut down in a
mature cell.
3. The surrogate mother: the cloned embryo is implanted into her uterus to
develop and grow; she will give birth to the embryo, but is not its biological
mother.
4. What is a transgenic species? Give an example to illustrate your answer.
Answer: A transgenic species is a species of organism that contains in its genome
one or more genes from another species, genes that have been artificially
introduced by genetic manipulation (genetic engineering). A species is only
considered to be transgenic if it passes the inserted gene on to its offspring in
reproduction. An example of a transgenic species is Bt cottona bacterial gene
(from Bacillus thuringiensis) has been inserted into the cotton genome to make
the cotton resistant to the caterpillar of the Helicoverpa zea moth. Another example
is sheep that carry the human insulin genethey produce insulin in their milk.
5. It is interesting to note that the second-cloned horse, Pieraz-Cryozootech, was
cloned from a gelding (a castrated male horse). Consider the implications and
advantages of this application of cloning as a reproductive technology.
Answer: Cloning allows the breeding of castrated male animals and the main
advantage of this is to override the problem experienced in endurance racing
whereby champions could not be bred as they had been sterilised. The
implications are that this could decrease genetic diversity within the race horses,
but also that they could be used to study the effects of environment (such as type
of training and/or nutrition), since all animals cloned from one parent would be
genetically identical. The racing fraternity would need to decide on the legal issues
of racing cloned horses.
6. Explain how developing a transgenic species can introduce wide-scale resistance
to a disease.
Answer: Biologists and breeders in agriculture can insert a gene for resistance
to a particular disease into an organism that is not normally resistant, but which
gives a high crop yield. If these organisms compete successfully with the wild

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BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

type organisms, they will survive, reproduce and pass on the gene for resistance
to their offspring. Therefore the transgenic species will become widespread and
can introduce wide-scale resistance to a particular disease. An example where a
transgenic species has been successfully created to resist an insect pest is that of
Bt cotton. In this case a bacterial gene (from Bacillus thuringiensis) is inserted
into the cotton genome to make the cotton resistant to the pest of the Helicoverpa
zea moth. Cotton plants with this gene kill the Helicoverpa zea caterpillar because
the gene allows them to produce a protein that is lethal to the caterpillar when
ingested. To prevent resistance arising in the caterpillars, two genes have been
inserted into the new generation cotton plants as it is less likely that caterpillars
will become resistant to both genes. This has reduced the need for pesticides in
cotton, while introducing wide-scale resistance to the pest.
7. Explain how the genetic diversity of a species may be increased using:
(a) cloning
(b) transgenic species.
Answer: In both cloning and the creation of transgenic species, individuals are
subjected to artificial selection for a limited number of traits over many generations
and only a small number of parental organisms contribute to the genetic make up
of the next generation.
(a) In cloned individuals, the continued use of one parent (an artificial form
of asexual reproduction) or only a few parents limits the gene pool and
decreases genetic diversity, since all offspring resulting from one parent have
identical combinations of genes. However, the cloning of animals that are
extinct, endangered or with a limited lifespan can be used to increase the
existing gene pool.
(b) The technology of creating transgenic species allows scientists to artificially
select the specific traits that they want expressed and to recombine these
within an individual. The potential impact on genetic diversity depends on
how well the transgenic organism with a newly combined genome competes
in the wild. In the short term, creating transgenic organisms increases the gene
pool because it introduces a genotype that did not exist in the wild. However,
if these organisms out compete wild-type organisms, the genomes of the latter
will be lost from the environment, leading to a decrease in biodiversity. Also, if
transgenic organisms are selectively inbred to maintain parent lines, this could
lead to a decrease in biodiversity.

19
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