28

CHAPTER 2

Diversity, Personality, and Values

Individual Differences
and Diversity
LE A R N ING
ROA DM A P

Individual differences are

the ways in which people are
similar and dissimilar in
personal characteristics.
Surface-level diversity
involves individual differences
in visible attributes such as
race, sex, age, and physical
abilities.
Deep-level diversity involves
individual differences in
attributes such as personality
and values.

SELF CONCEPT, SELF-AWARENESS, AND AWARENESS OF OTHERS

VALUING-OR NOT VALUING-DIVERSITY DIVERSITY ISSUES IN THE WORKPLACE
DIVERSITY AND SOCIAL IDENTITY

People are complex. You approach a situation one way, and someone else may approach
it quite differently. These differences among people can make it difficult to predict and
understand individual behavior in relationships, teams, and organizations. They also
contribute to what makes the study of organizational behavior so fascinating. The term
individual differences refers to the ways in which people are similar and dissimilar in
personal characteristics.
The mix of individual differences in organizations creates workforce diversity. Some
of these differences are easily observable and often demographic. They represent
surface-level diversity based on quite visible physical attributes such as ethnicity, race,
sex, age, and abilities. Other individual differencessuch as personalities, values, and
attitudesare more psychologically innate and less immediately visible. They represent
deep-level diversity that may take time and effort to understand.1
Regardless of the level, diversity issues are of great interest in OB. Women, for example, now lead global companies such as PepsiCo, Xerox, IBM, and Kraft. But they still hold
only 3 percent of top jobs in American firms.2 Why have so few women so far made it to
the top?3 Society is becoming more diverse in its racial and ethnic makeup. But a research
study found that rsums of people with white-sounding first namessuch as Brett
received 50 percent more responses from potential employers than those with blacksounding first namessuch as Kareem.4 How can these results be explained given that
the rsums were created equal?

Self-Concept, Self-Awareness, and Awareness of Others

Self-concept is the view
individuals have of themselves
as physical, social, spiritual, or
moral beings.
Self-awareness means being
aware of ones own behaviors,
preferences, styles, biases,
personalities, and so on.
Awareness of others is being
aware of the behaviors,
preferences, styles, biases, and
personalities of others.
Self-esteem is a belief about
ones own worth based on an
overall self-evaluation.
Self-efficacy is an individuals
belief about the likelihood of
successfully completing a
specific task.
Prejudice is the display of
negative, irrational, and
superior opinions and
attitudes toward persons who
are different from ourselves.

To best understand and deal well with individual differences and diversity, it only makes
sense that its important to have a strong sense of self. The self-concept is the view individuals have of themselves as physical, social, and spiritual or moral beings.5 It is a way of recognizing oneself as a distinct human being. Two factors that increase awareness of individual
differencesour own and othersare self-awareness and awareness of others. Selfawareness means being aware of our own behaviors, preferences, styles, biases, personalities, and so on. Awareness of others means being aware of these same things in others.
A persons self concept shows up in self-esteem, a belief about ones own worth based
on an overall self-evaluation.6 People high in self-esteem see themselves as capable, worthwhile, and acceptable; they tend to have few doubts about themselves. People who are low
in self-esteem are full of self-doubt and are often afraid to act because of it. Someones
self-concept is also displayed in self-efficacy, sometimes called the effectance motive,
which is a more specific version of self-esteem. It is an individuals belief about the likelihood of successfully completing a specific task. You could have high self-esteem and yet
have a feeling of low self-efficacy about performing a certain task, such as public speaking.
What determines the development of the self? How, for example, can we explain
prejudice in the form of negative, irrational, and superior opinions and attitudes toward persons who are different from ourselves? Perhaps you have heard someone say She acts like her
mother, or Bobby is the way he is because of the way he was raised. These two comments
illustrate the nature/nurture controversy: Are we the way we are because of hereditygenetic
endowment, or because of environmentthe cultural places and situations in which we have
been raised and live? It is most likely that these two forces act in combination, with heredity
setting the limits and environment determining how a person develops within them.7

30

The glass ceiling effect is

an invisible barrier limiting
career advancement of
women and minorities.

CHAPTER 2

Diversity, Personality, and Values

denied the full benefits of organizational membership. An example is when a manager

fabricates reasons not to interview a minority job candidate, or refuses to promote a
working mother on the belief that she has too many parenting responsibilities to do a
good job at this level. Such thinking underlies a form of discrimination called the glass
ceiling effect, an invisible barrier or ceiling that prevents women and minorities from
rising above a certain level of organizational responsibility.11

Diversity Issues in the Workplace

Race and Ethnicity The value of heterogeneous perspectives within teams and
Title VII of the Civil Rights
Act of 1964 protects
individuals against
employment discrimination
on the basis of race and color,
as well as national origin, sex,
and religion.

organizations can be gained from multicultural workforces with a rich mix of racial and
ethnic diversity. And Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 protects individuals against
employment discrimination on the basis of race and ethnicity, as well as national origin,
sex, and religion. It applies to employers with 15 or more employees, including state and
local governments.
According to Title VII, equal employment opportunity cannot be denied any person
because of his/her racial group or perceived racial group, his/her race-linked characteristics (e.g., hair texture, color, facial features), or because of his/her marriage to or association with someone of a particular race or color. It also prohibits employment decisions
based on stereotypes and assumptions about abilities, traits, or the performance of individuals of certain racial groups. But, as noted earlier in the research showing prejudice in
job searches against persons with black-sounding first names, its still an imperfect world.12

Gender Women are bringing not just task expertise but valuable interpersonal skills

The leaking pipeline

describes how women drop
out of careers before reaching
the top levels of organizations.

The leadership double bind

describes how women are
seen as weak in leadership if
they conform to the feminine
stereotype and also weak if
they go against it.

and styles to the workplace, such as listening and collaborative skills, and abilities to
multitask and synthesize alternative viewpoints effectively and quickly. Research shows
that companies with a higher percentage of female board directors and corporate officers, on average, financially outperform companies with the lowest percentages by significant margins.13 The presence of women leaders is also beneficial because they encourage
more women in the pipeline and act as role models and mentors for younger women.
Moreover, the presence of women leaders sends important signals that an organization
has a broad and deep talent pool, and offers an inclusive workplace.
Despite these benefits to organizations and anti-discrimination protections afforded
them under Title VII of the U.S. Civil Rights Act of 1964, women have not penetrated
the highest level of organizational leadership to the extent we would expect. Even worse,
many are still abandoning corporate careers just as they are positioned to attain
higher-level responsibilities. The term leaking pipeline was coined by Professor Lynda
Gratton and colleagues of the London Business School to describe this phenomenon.14
In one study of 61 organizations operating in 12 European countries, they found that the
number of women decreases the more senior the roles become.
The nonprofit research organization Catalyst reports that women consistently identify gender stereotypes as a significant barrier to advancement and cause for the leaking
pipeline.15 They describe a think-leader-think-male mind-set in which men are largely
seen as leaders by default because of stereotypically masculine take charge skills such
as influencing superiors and problem solving. Women, by contrast are stereotyped for
caretaking skills such as supporting and encouraging others. This creates what is called
a leadership double bind for women. If they conform to the stereotype they are seen as
weak, and if they go against the stereotype they are breaking norms of femininity.
As some describe it, female leaders are damned if they do, doomed if they dont.16
Organizations can help address these stereotypes by creating workplaces that are more
meaningful and satisfying to successful women, such as cultures that are less
command-and-control and status-based. As Catalyst reports, Ultimately, it is not
womens leadership styles that need to change but the structures and perceptions that
must keep up with todays changing times.17

32

CHAPTER 2

Diversity, Personality, and Values

WORTH CONSIDERING ...OR BEST AVOIDED?

Would You Please Move Over?

Were Making Room for Generation Y

mployers nd a lot to like in the skills Generation Y

membersthe Millennialsbring to the workplace. No
problem with technologytheyre always on the cusp of
things. No problem with collaborationtheyve grown up
with teamwork and social media. No problem either with
motivationtheyre task oriented and career focused.
But Gen Ys also need special handling. They can be
spoiled and self-centered, quick to complain when their
bosses dont communicate enough, when their skills arent
fully tapped, and when work rules and bureaucracy get too
restrictive. Theyre also impatient for new assignments and
promotions, and exible work arrangements. And when
they dont get them theyre quick to move on. Loyalty to a
single-employer career isnt part of their DNA.
Some employers go to great lengths to keep their Gen Ys
happy, even to the point where older employers feel a bit
put upon. The online book service Chegg cut middle management positions to make room for younger employees to
advance. CEO Dan Rosensweig said, If they dont feel like
theyre making a contribution to a company overall quickly,
they dont stay. Software rm Aprimo guarantees Gen Ys
promotion and a raise in a year if they perform up to expectations. When some of the older workers balked at this
special treatment, President Bob Boehnlein said, I had to
strong-arm a little bit.

Barry Austin/Moodboard/Corbis

Do the Analysis
Do Gen Ys deserve special treatment? And when they get
it, should it come at the expense of their more senior
co-workers? Just how do you blend the needs and interests
of a new generation of workers with others who have been
around awhileperhaps quite awhile? Who gains and who
loses when the new generation pushes employers to rethink
the nature of the employment contract?

points of conflict based on age stereotypes. Baby Boomers may view Millennials as feeling a sense of entitlement and not being hard working due to the way they dress and their
interest in flexible hours. Millennials may view Baby Boomers and Gen Xers as more
concerned about the hours they work than what they produce.22
The generational mix in organizations provides an excellent example of how diversity can deliver benefits. For example, Millennials seem to embrace gender equality and
sexual, cultural, and racial diversity more than any previous generation, and they bring
these values to work. Millennials also have an appreciation for community and
collaboration. They can help create a more relaxed workplace that reduces some of the
problems that come from too much focus on status and hierarchy. At the same time,
Boomers and Gen Xers bring a wealth of experience, dedication, and commitment that
contribute to productivity, and a sense of professionalism that is benefiting their
younger counterparts.23

Ability In recent years the disability rights movement has been working to bring
attention and support to the needs of disabled workers.24 Estimates indicate that over
50 million Americans have one or more physical or mental disabilities, and studies show
these workers do their jobs as well as, or better than, nondisabled workers. Despite this,
nearly three-quarters of severely disabled persons are reported to be unemployed, and
almost 80 percent of those with disabilities say they want to work.25

34

CHAPTER 2

Social identity theory is

a theory developed to
understand the psychological
basis of discrimination.

A feeling of in-group
membership exists when
individuals sense they are
part of a group and
experience favorable status
and a sense of belonging.
A feeling of out-group
membership exists when
individuals sense they are
not part of a group and
experience discomfort and
low belongingness.

Diversity, Personality, and Values

Questions like those just posed are the focus of social identity theory as developed by
social psychologists Henri Tajfel and John Turner in their quest to understand the psychological basis of discrimination.30 According to the theory, individuals have not one but
multiple personal selves. Which self is activated depends on the group with which the
person identifies. The mere act of identifying, or categorizing, oneself as a member of a
group will generate favoritism toward that group, and this favoritism is displayed in the
form of in-group enhancement. This in-group favoritism occurs at the expense of the
out-group. In terms of diversity, social identity theory suggests that simply having diversity
in groups makes that identity salient in peoples minds. Individuals engage these identities
and experience feelings of in-group membership and out-group membership.
The implications of social identity theory are straightforward. When organizations have
strong identities formed around in-group and out-group categorizations based on diversity,
this will work against a feeling of inclusion. Such in-group and out-group categorizations
can be subtle but powerful, and they may be most noticeable to those in the out-group
category. Organizations may not intend to create discriminatory environments, but when
only a few members of a group are present, this may evoke a strong out-group identity. They
may end up feeling uncomfortable and less a part of the organization. Managers and organizations try to deal with all this by creating work cultures and environments that welcome
and embrace inclusion. The concept of valuing diversity emphasizes an appreciation of differences while creating a workplace where everyone feels valued and accepted.31

Personality
LE A R N ING
ROA DM A P

Personality is the overall

combination of
characteristics that capture
the unique nature of a person
as that person reacts to and
interacts with others.

Personality traits are

enduring characteristics
describing an individuals
behavior.
Big Five Personality 
Dimensions

BIG FIVE PERSONALITY TRAITS SOCIAL TRAITS

PERSONAL CONCEPTION TRAITS

The term personality encompasses the overall combination of characteristics that

capture the unique nature of a person as that person reacts to and interacts with others.
It combines a set of physical and mental characteristics that reflect how a person looks,
thinks, acts, and feels. Think of yourself, and of your family and friends. A key part of how
you interact with others depends on your own and their personalities, doesnt it? If you
have a friend who has a sensitive personality, do you interact with that person differently
than you do with a friend or family member who likes to joke around?
Sometimes attempts are made to measure personality with questionnaires or special
tests. Frequently, personality can be inferred from behavior alone. Either way, personality
is an important individual characteristic to understand. It helps us identify predictable
interplays between peoples individual differences and their tendencies to behave in
certain ways.

Big Five Personality Traits

Numerous lists of personality traitsenduring characteristics describing an individuals behaviorhave been developed, and used in OB research. A key starting point is to
consider the personality dimensions known as the Big Five Model:32
Extraversionthe degree to which someone is outgoing, sociable, and assertive.
An extravert is comfortable and confident in interpersonal relationships; an introvert is more withdrawn and reserved.
Agreeablenessthe degree to which someone is good-natured, cooperative, and
trusting. An agreeable person gets along well with others; a disagreeable person is
a source of conflict and discomfort for others.
Conscientiousnessthe degree to which someone is responsible, dependable, and
careful. A conscientious person focuses on what can be accomplished and meets

Personality

Attractiveness Good for Men

But Bad for Women When
Job Hunting
Physical attractiveness is often considered a pathway
to advancement and career success. The better looking
among us, the reasoning goes, tend to fare better. But
researchers from Ben Gurion University and Ariel
University Centre in Israel faced unusual results when
they tackled attractiveness in a study of employment
practices. They sent similar rsums with and without
photos of the job applicants to prospective employers.
These photos of the male and female applicants were

35

rated for attractiveness. Findings

showed that
attractive males
were better off
sending photos
with their rsums,
but attractive
StockLite/Shutterstock
females were not.
The hiring bias against attractive women in the study
was explained as jealousy on the part of human
resource staffers who are mostly female.

commitments; a person who lacks conscientiousness is careless, often trying to do

too much and failing, or doing little.
Emotional stabilitythe degree to which someone is relaxed, secure, and unworried. A person who is emotionally stable is calm and confident; a person lacking
in emotional stability is anxious, nervous, and tense.
Openness to experiencethe degree to which someone is curious, open to new
ideas, and imaginative. An open person is broad-minded, receptive to new things,
and comfortable with change; a person who lacks openness is narrow-minded, has
few interests, and is resistant to change.
A considerable body of literature links the personality dimensions of the Big Five
model with behavior at work and in life overall. For example, conscientiousness is a good
predictor of job performance for most occupations, and extraversion is often associated
with success in management and sales. Indications are that extraverts tend to be happier
than introverts in their lives overall, that conscientious people tend to be less risky, and
that those more open to experience are more creative.33
You can easily spot the Big Five personality traits in people with whom you work,
study, and socialize. But dont forget that they also apply to you. Others form impressions
of your personality, and respond to it, just as you do in response to theirs. Managers often
use these and other personality judgments when making job assignments, building
teams, and otherwise engaging in the daily social give-and-take of work.

Social Traits
Social traits are surface-level traits that reflect the way a person appears to others
when interacting in various social settings. A persons problem-solving style, based on
the work of noted psychologist Carl Jung, is a good example. It reflects the way someone
goes about gathering and evaluating information in solving problems and making decisions. Problem-solving styles are most frequently measured by the typically 100-item
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), which asks individuals how they usually act or
feel in specific situations. The MBTI is often used by organizations to improve selfawareness of participants in management development programs.34
The first component in Jungs typology, information gathering, involves getting and
organizing data for use. Styles of information gathering vary from sensation to intuitive.
Sensation-type individuals prefer routine and order and emphasize well-defined details in
gathering information; they would rather work with known facts than look for possibilities. By contrast, intuitive-type individuals prefer the big picture. They like solving new
problems, dislike routine, and would rather look for possibilities than work with facts.

Social traits reflect how a

person appears to others in
social settings.
Problem-solving style is
how we gather and evaluate
information when solving
problems.

36

CHAPTER 2

Diversity, Personality, and Values

OB IN POPULAR CULTURE

Ambition and
The Social Network
Sonys movie The Social Network is based on Facebooks
story and especially the role of visionary and controversial founder Mark Zuckerberg (played by Jesse
Eisenberg). Although Zuckerberg calls the lm pure
ction, it raises ethical questions about his actions
while developing the initial Web site, rening it, and
eventually turning it into a global company valued at
over $50 billion. Two former Harvard classmates,
Cameron and Tyler Winklevoss, sued him, claiming the
original idea was theirs. Another early collaborator and
co-founder, Eduardo Saverin, was initially left out of the
new rms nancial gains.
In its reaction to the lm, Entertainment Weekly asks,
Why did Zuckerberg betray these people? Or, in fact,
did he really?

Columbia Pictures/Photofest

One thing that cannot be denied is Zuckerbergs

ambition, the desire to succeed and reach for high
goals. Hes the youngest self-made billionaire in business history. As the movie shows, ambition is one of
those personality traits that can certainly have a big
impact on individual behaviorboth for the good and
for the bad.

Get to Know Yourself Better

Watch The Social Network and discuss with your friends and classmates
how different personalities and talents played out in creating the Facebook revolution. What can you learn that
might help you deal with the ethics and intricacies of human behavior in work situations? Then take Assessment 19:
Your Personality Type in the OB Skills Workbook. Personality is a good starting point for exploring your preferences
and gaining a better understanding of who you are. How difcult would it be for someone else to understand you?
Spend a few minutes looking at that. After you score the assessment, sit down with your roommate or a close friend
and discuss the results. Is what you discovered consistent with how they see you?

The second component of problem solving, evaluation, involves making judgments

about how to deal with information once it has been collected. Styles of information
evaluation vary from an emphasis on feeling to an emphasis on thinking. Feelingtype individuals are oriented toward conformity and try to accommodate themselves to
other people. They try to avoid problems that may result in disagreements. Thinking-type
individuals use reason and intellect to deal with problems and downplay emotions.
When the two dimensions of information gathering and evaluation are combined,
four basic problem-solving styles can be identified. As shown in Figure 2.1, people can be
classified into combinations of sensationfeeling (SF), intuitivefeeling (IF), sensation
thinking (ST), and intuitivethinking (IT).
Research indicates that there is a fit between the styles of individuals and the kinds of
decisions they prefer. For example, STs (sensationthinkers) prefer analytical strategies
those that emphasize detail and method. IFs (intuitivefeelers) prefer intuitive
strategiesthose that emphasize an overall pattern and fit. Not surprisingly, mixed styles
(sensationfeelers or intuitivethinkers) select both analytical and intuitive strategies.
Other findings also indicate that thinkers tend to have higher motivation than do feelers,
and that individuals who emphasize sensations tend to have higher job satisfaction than
do intuitives. These and other findings suggest a number of basic differences among

Personality

37

S
SensationFeeling

SensationThinking

Interpersonal
Specic human detail
Friendly, sympathetic
Open communication
Respond to people now
Good at:
Empathizing
Cooperating
Goal: To be helpful

Technical detail oriented

Logical analysis of hard data
Precise, orderly
Careful about rules and procedures
Dependable, responsible
Good at:
Observing, ordering
Filing, recalling
Goal: Do it correctly

T
IntuitiveFeeling

IntuitiveThinking

Insightful, mystical
Idealistic, personal
Creative, original
Global ideas oriented to people
Human potential
Good at:
Imagining
New combinations
Goal: To make things beautiful

Speculative
Emphasize understanding
Synthesize, interpret
Logic-oriented ideas
Objective, impersonal, idealistic
Good at:
Discovery, inquiry
Problem solving
Goal: To think things through

FIGURE 2.1 Four problemsolving styles of the Jungian

typology.

different problem-solving styles, emphasizing the importance of fitting such styles with a
tasks information processing and evaluation requirements.35

Personal Conception Traits

What are known as personal conception traits represent various ways people think
about their social and physical setting, their major beliefs, and personal orientations
toward a range of issues. Personal conception traits often discussed in the work context
include locus of control, proactive personality, authoritarianism/dogmatism, Machiavellianism, and self-monitoring.

Locus of Control The extent to which a person feels able to control his or her own
life is known as locus of control.36 People have personal conceptions about whether
events are controlled primarily by themselves, which indicates an internal orientation, or
by outside forces, such as their social and physical environment, which indicates an
external orientation. Internals, or persons with an internal locus of control, believe that
they control their own fate or destiny. In contrast, externals, or persons with an external
locus of control, believe that much of what happens to them is beyond their control and
is determined by environmental forces (such as fate).
In general, externals are more extraverted in their interpersonal relationships and are
more oriented toward the world around them. Internals tend to be more introverted and are
more oriented toward their own feelings and ideas. Figure 2.2 suggests that internals tend to
do better on tasks requiring complex information processing and learning as well as initiative.
Proactive Personality Some people in organizations are passive recipients when
faced with constraints, whereas others take direct and intentional action to change their

Personal conception traits

show up as personal beliefs
and orientations toward
settings and issues.

Locus of control is the

extent a person feels able to
control his or her own life and
is concerned with a persons
internalexternal orientation.

38

FIGURE 2.2 Ways in which

internal locus of control differs
from external locus of control.

A proactive personality is
the disposition that identifies
whether or not individuals
act to influence their
environments.

CHAPTER 2

Diversity, Personality, and Values

Information processing

Internals make more attempts to acquire information,

are less satised with the amount of information they
possess, and are better at utilizing information.

Job satisfaction

Internals are generally more satised, less alienated,

less rootless, and there is a stronger job satisfaction/
performance relationship for them.

Performance

Internals perform better on learning and problemsolving tasks when performance leads to valued
rewards.

Self-control, risk, and

anxiety

Internals exhibit greater self-control, are more

cautious, engage in less risky behavior, and are less
anxious.

Motivation,
expectancies, and
results

Internals display greater work motivation, see a

stronger relationship between what they do and what
happens to them, expect that working hard leads to
good performance, and feel more control over their time.

Response to others

Internals are more independent, more reliant on

their own judgment, and less susceptible to the
inuence of others; they are more likely to accept
information on its merit.

circumstances. The disposition that identifies whether or not individuals act to influence
their environments is known as proactive personality. Individuals with high proactive
personalities identify opportunities and act on them, show initiative, take action, and
persevere until meaningful change occurs. Those low in proactivity are the opposite.
They fail to identifylet alone seizeopportunities to change things. They tend to be
passive and reactive, preferring to adapt to circumstances rather than change them.37
In the ever more demanding world of work, many employers are seeking individuals
with more proactive qualitiesindividuals willing to take initiative and engage in proactive problem solving. Research supports this, showing that proactive personality is
positively related to job performance, creativity, leadership, and career success. Other
studies have shown that proactive personality is related to team effectiveness and
entrepreneurship. Moreover, when organizations try to make positive and innovative
change, these changes have more positive effects for proactive individualsthey are
more involved and more receptive to change. This research is showing that proactive
personality is an important and desirable element in todays work environment.

Authoritarianism/Dogmatism Both authoritarianism and dogmatism as personal

Authoritarianism is a
tendency to adhere rigidly to
conventional values and to
obey recognized authority.
Dogmatism leads a person to
see the world as a threatening
place and to regard authority
as absolute.

conception traits deal with the rigidity of someones beliefs. A person high in authoritarianism tends to adhere rigidly to conventional values and to obey recognized authority. This
person is concerned with toughness and power and opposes the use of subjective feelings.
Highly authoritarian individuals present a special problem because they can be so eager to
comply with directives from authority figures that they end up willing to behave unethically.38
An individual high in dogmatism sees the world as a threatening place. This person
regards legitimate authority as absolute, and accepts or rejects others according to how
much they agree with accepted authority. Superiors who possess these latter traits tend
to be rigid and closed. At the same time, dogmatic subordinates tend to want certainty
imposed on them.

Personality

39

CHECKING ETHICS IN OB

Personality Testing
Dear [your name goes here]:
I am very pleased to invite you to a second round of
screening interviews with XYZ Corporation. Your oncampus session with our representative went very well,
and we would like to consider you further for a full-time
position. Please contact me to arrange a visit date. We
will need a full day. The schedule will include several
meetings with executives and your potential team
members, as well as a round of personality tests.
Thank you again for your interest in XYZ Corp. I look
forward to meeting you during the next step in our
recruiting process.
Sincerely,
/signed/
Human Resource Director
Getting a letter like this is great news: a nice conrmation of your hard work and performance in college.
You obviously made a good rst impression. But have
you thought about this personality test thing? What
do you know about them and how they are used for
employment screening?

Tek Image/Photo Researchers, Inc.

The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission says that personality tests cant have an adverse
impact on members of protected groups. And, a
report in the Wall Street Journal advises that lawsuits
can result when employers use personality tests that
werent specically designed for hiring decisions.
Some people might even consider their use an
invasion of privacy.

Make the Decision

What are the ethical issues of personality testing? When might the use of personality
tests be considered an invasion of privacy? When might their use be considered unethical? Now go back to the
situation just described: Will you take the tests at XYZ? Will you ask any questions about the tests when you contact
the human resources director? Is the fact that XYZ uses personality tests a positive or a negative in terms of your
likely t with the rm?

Machiavellianism The very name of the sixteenth-century author Niccolo Machiavelli

often evokes visions of someone who acts with guile, deceit, and opportunism. Machiavelli
earned his place in history by writing The Prince, a noblemans guide to the acquisition and
use of power.39 The subject of Machiavellis book is manipulation as the basic means of gaining and keeping control of others. From its pages emerges the personality profile of Machiavellianismthe practice of viewing and manipulating others purely for personal gain.
Persons high in Machiavellianism approach situations logically and thoughtfully, and
are even capable of lying to achieve personal goals.40 They are rarely swayed by loyalty,
friendships, past promises, or the opinions of others, and they are skilled at influencing
others. They can also be expected to take control and try to exploit loosely structured
environmental situations but will perform in a perfunctory, even detached, manner in
highly structured situations. Where the situation permits, they might be expected to do
or say whatever it takes to get their way. Those low in Machiavellianism, by contrast, tend
to be more strongly guided by ethical considerations and are less likely to lie, cheat, or get
away with lying or cheating.

Machiavellianism causes
someone to view and
manipulate others purely for
personal gain.

40

CHAPTER 2

Self-monitoring is a persons
ability to adjust his or her
behavior to external
situational (environmental)
factors.

Diversity, Personality, and Values

Self-Monitoring Self-monitoring reflects a persons ability to adjust his or her

behavior to external, situational (environmental) factors.41 High self-monitors are sensitive
to external cues and tend to behave differently in different situations. High self-monitors
can present a very different appearance from their true self. In contrast, low self-monitors,
are less able to disguise their behaviorsWhat you see is what you get. There is also
evidence that high self-monitors are closely attuned to the behavior of others and conform
more readily than do low self-monitors.42 Thus, they appear flexible and may be especially
good at adjusting their behavior to fit different kinds of situations and the people in them.

Personality and Stress

LE A R N ING
ROA DM A P

Emotional adjustment
traits are traits related to
how much an individual
experiences emotional
distress or displays
unacceptable acts.
Persons with Type A
orientations tend to be
impatient, achievement
oriented, and competitive.
Persons with Type B
orientations tend to be
easygoing and less
competitive.
Stress is a state of tension in
response to extraordinary
demands, constraints, or
opportunities.

Type A Behaviors 

TYPE A ORIENTATION AND STRESS WORK AND LIFE STRESSORS

OUTCOMES OF STRESS APPROACHES TO MANAGING STRESS

An individuals personality can also be described in terms of emotional adjustment

traits that indicate how one handles emotional distress or displays unacceptable acts,
such as impatience, irritability, or aggression.43 Among these, a personality with Type A
orientation is characterized by impatience, desire for achievement, and perfectionism. In
contrast, those with a Type B orientation are characterized as more easygoing and less
competitive in relation to daily events.44 Type A people tend to work fast and to be abrupt,
uncomfortable, irritable, and aggressive. Such tendencies may show up as obsessive
behavior. When carried to the extreme, it may lead to greater concerns for details than for
results, resistance to change, and overzealous attempts to exert control. In contrast, Type B
people tend to be much more laid back and patient in their relationships with others.

Type A Orientation and Stress

In one survey of college graduates, 31 percent reported working over 50 hours per week,
60 percent rushed meals and 34 percent ate lunches on the run, and 47 percent of those
under 35 and 28 percent of those over 35 had feelings of job burnout. A study by the Society for Human Resources Management found that 70 percent of those surveyed worked
over and above scheduled hours, including putting in extra time on the weekends; over
50 percent said that the pressure to do the extra work was self-imposed.45
The situations just described all evidence the presence of stress as a state of internal
tension experienced by individuals who perceive themselves as facing extraordinary
demands, constraints, or opportunities.46 If you look back to the discussion of Type A and
Type B personalities, the fact is that Type As often bring stress upon themselves. They
may even do this in situations others may find relatively stress free. You can spot Type A
personality tendencies in yourself and others through the following patterns of behavior:
Always moving, walking, and eating rapidly
Acting impatient, hurrying others, put off by waiting
Doing, or trying to do, several things at once
Feeling guilty when relaxing
Hurrying or interrupting the speech of others47

Work and Life Stressors

Not all stress that we experience is personality driven. Any variety of things can cause
stress for individuals. Some stressors can be traced directly to what people experience in
the workplace, whereas others derive from life situations and nonwork factors.

Work Stressors There is no doubt that work can be stressful and job demands can
sometimes disrupt ones worklife balance. Work stressors can arise from excessively

Personality and Stress

high or low task demands, role conflicts or ambiguities, poor interpersonal relations,
career progress that is either too slow or too fast, and more. The following is a list of common stressors:
Task demandsbeing asked to do too much or being asked to do too little
Role ambiguitiesnot knowing what one is expected to do or how work performance is evaluated
Role conflictsfeeling unable to satisfy multiple, possibly conflicting, performance
expectations
Ethical dilemmasbeing asked to do things that violate the law or personal values
Interpersonal problemsexperiencing bad relationships or working with others
with whom one does not get along
Career developmentsmoving too fast and feeling stretched; moving too slowly
and feeling stuck on a plateau
Physical settingbeing bothered by noise, lack of privacy, pollution, or other
unpleasant working conditions

41

 Common Work Stressors

Life Stressors Life stressors such as family events (e.g., the birth of a new child), economic difficulties (e.g., loss of income by a spouse), and personal affairs (e.g., a separation
or divorce) can all be extremely stressful. That pretty much goes without saying. But its
also true that people can easily suffer from spillover effects that result when forces in their
personal lives spill over to affect them at work or when forces at work spill over to affect
their personal lives. Because it is often difficult to completely separate work and nonwork
lives, especially in this age of smart devices that keep us continually in touch with work
and personal affairs, life stressors and spillover effects are highly significant.
Outcomes of Stress
The stress we experience at work or in personal affairs isnt always negative. Scholars
talk about two types of stress.48 The first is eustressconstructive stress that results in
positive outcomes. It occurs when moderatenot extremestress levels prompt things
like increased work effort, greater creativity, and more diligence. You may know such
stress as the tension that causes you to study hard before exams, pay attention in class,
and complete assignments on time. The second type of stress is distressdestructive
stress that turns out to be dysfunctional for both the individual. Key symptoms of individuals suffering distress are changes from regular attendance to absenteeism, from
punctuality to tardiness, from diligent work to careless work, from a positive attitude to

Learning to Power Down:

Vacation Habits Vary Around
the World
Most years I leave my vacation days on the tableso
says a bank marketing manager. Sound farfetched? Not
necessarily; perhaps a bit extreme but still indicative of
a pattern. A global survey of vacation habits finds that
Americans on the average take fewer vacation days than
they are allowed: an average of 12 out of 14. They leave
anywhere from 2 to 11 days unused. This contrasts with
French and Spanish workers who take all of their
allocated 30 days, whereas the Japanese take only 4 of
10. One worker says, Its almost not worth the stress of

Eustress is constructive
stress that results in positive
outcomes for the individual.
Distress is destructive stress
that is dysfunctional for the
individual.

having double the

work when you
get back. Some
employers are
trying to curb
tendencies to
work too much
as a way of helping
people do better
Photomorphic/Robert Churchill
work. The
consulting firm KPMG uses a wellness scorecard to
track and counsel workers who skip vacations and
work excessive overtime.

42

Job burnout is a loss of

interest in or satisfaction with
a job due to stressful working
conditions.

CHAPTER 2

Diversity, Personality, and Values

a negative attitude, from openness to change to resistance to change, or from cooperation to hostility.
One possible outcome of extended distress, for example, is the job burnout that
shows up as loss of interest in and satisfaction with a job due to stressful working conditions. Someone who is burned out feels emotionally and physically exhausted, and is
less able to deal positively with work responsibilities and opportunities. More extreme
reactions to distress include bullying of co-workers and even workplace violence. It is
also clear that too much stress can overload and break down a persons physical and
mental systems, resulting in absenteeism, turnover, errors, accidents, dissatisfaction,
reduced performance, unethical behavior, and even illness.49

Approaches to Managing Stress

Coping Mechanisms Along with rising sensitivities to stress in the workplace,
interest is also growing in how to manage, or cope, with distress. Coping is a response or
reaction to distress that has occurred or is threatened. It involves cognitive and behavioral efforts to master, reduce, or tolerate the demands created by the stressful situation.
There are two major types of coping mechanisms. Problem-focused coping strateProblem-focused coping
mechanisms manage the
gies try to manage the problem that is causing the distress. Indicators of this type of
problem that is causing the
coping are comments like Ill get the person responsible to change his or her mind, Ill
distress.
make a new plan of action and follow it, and Im going to stand my ground and fight for
Emotion-focused coping are what I need. Emotion-focused coping strategies try to regulate the emotions drawn
mechanisms that regulate
forth by stress. Indicators of this type of coping include comments like Ill look for the
emotions or distress.
silver lining, try to look on the bright side of things, Ill accept the sympathy and understanding offered by others, and Ill just try to forget the whole thing.50
People with different personalities tend to cope with stress in different ways. In respect
to the Big Five, emotional stability has been found linked with increased use of hostile reaction, escapism/fantasy, self-blame,
withdrawal, wishful thinking, pasAchievement-Striving, and Learning to Say No
sivity, and indecisiveness. People
high in extraversion and optimism
Persons high in achievement-striving can be overwhelmed by opportunities.
tend to show rational action, posiThey may end up over committed and less successful in the long run. A key
tive thinking, substitution, and
element of managing stress is learning to say No.51
restraint. And individuals high in
openness to experience are likely to
When to Say No
use humor in dealing with stress.
Focus on what matters mostfocus on your priorities.
Coping is a response or
reaction to distress that has
occurred or is threatened.

Weigh the yes-to-stress ratiohow much added stress will this cause? Is it
worth it?
Take guilt out of the equationguilt is inflated due to feeling of selfimportanceits okay to say no.
Sleep on itdiscipline yourself to not automatically say yes; what will it cost you?
How to Say No
Just say noor Im sorry but I cant. . . .
Be briefstate your reason and avoid elaborations or justificationsIm
swamped.
Be honestdont fabricate reasons; the truth is always best and people do
understand.
Be respectfulI am honored to be asked but I cant do it.
Be ready to repeatstick to it if they ask again; just hit the replay button, dont
give in.

Stress

Prevention Stress
prevention is the best first-line
strategy in the battle against
stress. It involves taking action to
present stress from reaching
destructive levels. Work and life
stressors must be recognized
before one can take action to
prevent their occurrence or to
minimize their adverse impacts.
Persons with Type A personalities, for example, may exercise
self-discipline, whereas supervisors of Type A employees may
try to model a lower-key, more
relaxed approach to work. Family

Values

43

problems may be partially relieved by a change of work schedule; simply knowing that
your supervisor understands your situation may also help to reduce the anxiety caused
by pressing family concerns.

Personal Wellness To keep stress from reaching a destructive point, special techniques of stress management can be implemented. This process begins with the recognition of stress symptoms and continues with actions to maintain a positive performance
edge. The term wellness is increasingly used these days. Personal wellness involves the
pursuit of ones job and career goals with the support of a personal health promotion program. The concept recognizes individual responsibility to enhance and maintain wellness
through a disciplined approach to physical and mental health. It requires attention to such
factors as smoking, weight management, diet, alcohol use, and physical fitness.

Personal wellness involves

the pursuit of ones job and
career goals with the support
of a personal health
promotion program.

Values
LE A R N ING
ROA DM A P

SOURCES OF VALUES

PERSONAL VALUES

CULTURAL VALUES

Values are broad preferences concerning appropriate courses of action or outcomes.

They reflect a persons sense of right and wrong or what ought to be.52 Statements
like Equal rights for all and People should be treated with respect and dignity are
indicators of values. And we recognize that values tend to influence attitudes and
behavior.

Sources of Values
Parents, friends, teachers, siblings, education, experience, and external reference groups
are all possible influences on individual values. Our values develop as a product of the
learning and experience we encounter in the cultural setting in which we live, as learning
and experiences differ from one person to another. Value differences result. Such differences are likely to be deep seated and difficult (though not impossible) to change. Many
have their roots in early childhood and the way a person has been raised.53

Values are broad preferences

concerning appropriate
courses of action or
outcomes.

Personal Values
The noted psychologist Milton Rokeach classified values into two broad categories.54
Terminal values reflect a persons preferences concerning the ends to be achieved; they are
the goals an individual would like to achieve during his or her lifetime. Instrumental values
reflect the means for achieving desired ends. They represent how you might go about
achieving your important goals. Rokeach identifies the eighteen terminal values and
eighteen instrumental values shown in Figure 2.3. Take a look at the list. Then ask this: What
are my top five values, and what do they say about me and how I relate or work with others?
Bruce Meglino and colleagues discuss the importance of value congruence between
leaders and followers. 55 It occurs when individuals express positive feelings upon encountering others who exhibit values similar to their own. When values differ, or are
incongruent, conflicts over such things as goals and the means to achieve them may
result. Research finds that satisfaction with a leader is greater when there is congruence
among the four values of achievement, helping, honesty, and fairness.56
Achievementgetting things done and working hard to accomplish difficult things
in life
Helping and concern for othersbeing concerned for other people and with helping
others
Honestytelling the truth and doing what you feel is right
Fairnessbeing impartial and doing what is fair for all concerned

Terminal values reflect a

persons preferences
concerning the ends to be
achieved.
Instrumental values reflect a
persons beliefs about the
means to achieve desired ends.

 Megilino Values Schema

44

CHAPTER 2

Diversity, Personality, and Values

Terminal Values
A comfortable life (and prosperous)
An exciting life (stimulating)
A sense of accomplishment (lasting contribution)
A world at peace (free of war and conict)
A world of beauty (beauty of nature and the arts)
Equality (brotherhood, equal opportunity)
Family security (taking care of loved ones)
Freedom (independence, free choice)
Happiness (contentedness)
Inner harmony (freedom from inner conict)
Mature love (sexual and spiritual intimacy)
National security (attack protection)
Pleasure (leisurely, enjoyable life)
Salvation (saved, eternal life)
Self-respect (self-esteem)
Social recognition (admiration, respect)
True friendship (close companionship)
Wisdom (mature understanding of life)

Instrumental Values
Ambitious (hardworking)
Broad-minded (open-minded)
Capable (competent, effective)
Cheerful (lighthearted, joyful)
Clean (neat, tidy)
Courageous (standing up for beliefs)
Forgiving (willing to pardon)
Helpful (working for others' welfare)
Honest (sincere, truthful)
Imaginative (creative, daring)
Independent (self-sufcient, self-reliant)
Intellectual (intelligent, reective)
Logical (rational, consistent)
Loving (affectionate, tender)
Obedient (dutiful, respectful)
Polite (courteous, well mannered)
Responsible (reliable, dependable)
Self-controlled (self-disciplined)

FIGURE 2.3 Terminal and Instrumental Values in the Rokeach value survey.

Cultural Values
Culture is the learned and
shared way of thinking and
acting among a group of
people or society.

Cultural quotient, or CQ,

describes someones ability
to work effectively across
cultures.

Power distance is a cultures

acceptance of the status and
power differences among its
members.
Uncertainty avoidance is
the cultural tendency to
be uncomfortable with
uncertainty and risk in
everyday life.

Values can also be discussed for their presence at the level of national or societal culture. In
this sense, culture can be defined as the learned, shared way of doing things in a particular
society. It is the way, for example, in which its members eat, dress, greet and treat one
another, teach their children, solve everyday problems, and so on.57 Geert Hofstede, a Dutch
scholar and consultant, refers to culture as the software of the mind, making the analogy
that the minds hardware is universal among human beings.58 But the software of culture
takes many different forms. We are not born with a culture; we are born into a society that
teaches us its culture. And because culture is shared among people, it helps to define the
boundaries between different groups and affect how their members relate to one another.
Cultures are known to vary in their underlying patterns of values, and these differences
are important in OB. The way people think about such matters as achievement, wealth and
material gain, risk, and change, for example, may influence how they approach work and
their relationships with organizations. Increasingly now you will hear the term cultural
quotient (CQ) used to describe someones ability to work effectively across cultures. And its
a point well worth considering in terms of personal growth and professional development.
One framework for understanding how value differences across national cultures
was developed by the cross-cultural psychologist Hofstede. His framework is shown in
Figure 2.4 and includes these five dimensions of national culture:
Power distance is the willingness of a culture to accept status and power differences among its members. It reflects the degree to which people are likely to respect
hierarchy and rank in organizations. Indonesia is considered a high-power-distance
culture, whereas Sweden is considered a relatively low-power-distance culture.
Uncertainty avoidance is a cultural tendency toward discomfort with risk and ambiguity. It reflects the degree to which people are likely to prefer structured versus
unstructured organizational situations. France is considered a high-uncertaintyavoidance culture, whereas Hong Kong is considered a low-uncertainty-avoidance
culture.

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CHAPTER 2

Diversity, Personality, and Values

Study Guide

Key Questions and Answers

Why are individual differences and diversity important?

The study of individual differences attempts to identify where behavioral tendencies

are similar and where they are different to more accurately predict how and why people
behave as they do.
Self-concept is the view individuals have of themselves as physical, social, and spiritual
or moral beings. It is a way of recognizing oneself as a distinct human being.
Both self-awareness (being aware of our own behaviors, preferences, styles, biases, and
personalities) and awareness of others (being aware of these same things in others) are
important capabilities if we are to best understand individual differences and diversity.
The nature/nurture controversy addresses whether we are the way we are because of
heredity or because of the environments in which we have been raised and live.
There are many types of diversity, but the most commonly discussed in the workplace
are racial/ethnic, gender, age, disability, and sexual orientation.
In recent years there has been a shift from a focus on diversity to a focus on inclusion.
This represents a need to emphasize not only recruitment but retention.
Social identity theory suggests that many forms of discrimination are subtle but powerful, and may occur in subconscious psychological processes that individuals of outgroups perceive in the workplace.
Organizations can value diversity by promoting cultures of inclusion that implement policies
and practices to help create a more equitable and opportunity-based environment for all.

What is personality?

Personality captures the overall profile, or combination of characteristics, that represents the unique nature of an individual as that individual interacts with others.
Personality is determined by both heredity and environment; across all personality
characteristics, the mix of heredity and environment is about 5050. The Big Five
personality traits are extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability,
and openness to experience.
A useful personality framework consists of social traits, personal conception traits,
emotional adjustment traits, and personality dynamics, where each category represents one or more personality dimensions.

How are personality and stress related?

Stress emerges when people experience tensions caused by extraordinary demands,

constraints, or opportunities in their jobs.
Personal stressors derive from personality type, needs, and values; they can influence
how stressful different situations become for different people.
Work stressors arise from such things as excessive task demands, interpersonal problems, unclear roles, ethical dilemmas, and career disappointments.
Nonwork stress can spill over to affect people at work; nonwork stressors may be traced
to family situations, economic difficulties, and personal problems.
Stress can be managed by preventionsuch as making adjustments in work and nonwork
factors; it can also be dealt with through coping mechanisms and personal wellnesstaking
steps to maintain a healthy body and mind capable of better withstanding stressful situations.

Self-Test 2

What are values, and how do they vary across cultures?

Values are broad preferences concerning courses of action or outcomes.

Rokeach identifies terminal values (preferences concerning ends) and instrumental
values (preferences concerning means); Meglino and his associates classify values into
achievement, helping and concern for others, honesty, and fairness.
Hofstedes five dimensions of national culture values are power distance, individualism
collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, masculinityfemininity, and long-term/shortterm orientation.
Culture is the learned and shared way of doing things in a society; it represents deeply
ingrained influences on the way people from different societies think, behave, and solve
problems.

Terms to Know
Americans with
Disabilities Act (p. 33)
Authoritarianism (p. 38)
Awareness of others (p. 28)
Coping (p. 42)
Culture (p. 44)
Cultural quotient (p. 44)
Deep-level diversity (p. 28)
Discrimination (p. 29)
Distress (p. 41)
Dogmatism (p. 38)
Ecological fallacy (p. 45)
Emotion-focused coping
(p. 42)
Emotional adjustment
traits (p. 40)
Eustress (p. 41)
Glass ceiling effect (p. 30)
In-group membership (p. 34)
Individual differences (p. 28)
Individualismcollectivism
(p. 45)

Instrumental values (p. 43)

Job burnout (p. 42)
Leaking pipeline (p. 30)
Leadership double bind
(p. 30)
Locus of control (p. 37)
Long-term/short-term
orientation (p. 45)
Machiavellianism (p. 39)
Masculinityfemininity
(p. 45)
Out-group membership
(p. 34)
Personal conception traits
(p. 37)
Personal wellness (p. 43)
Personality (p. 34)
Personality traits (p. 34)
Power distance (p. 44)
Prejudice (p. 28)
Proactive personality (p. 38)

Problem-focused coping
(p. 42)
Problem-solving style (p. 35)
Self-awareness (p. 28)
Self-concept (p. 28)
Self-efficacy (p. 28)
Self-esteem (p. 28)
Self-monitoring (p. 40)
Social identity theory (p. 34)
Social traits (p. 35)
Stigma (p. 33)
Stress (p. 40)
Surface-level diversity (p. 28)
Terminal values (p. 43)
Title VII of the Civil Rights
Act of 1964 (p. 30)
Type A orientation (p. 40)
Type B orientation (p. 40)
Uncertainty avoidance (p. 44)
Universal design (p. 33)
Values (p. 43)

Self-Test 2
Multiple Choice
1. Individual differences are important because they ____________.
(a) mean we have to be different
(b) reduce the importance of individuality
(c) show that some cultural groups are superior to others
(d) help us more accurately predict how and why people act as they do
2. Self-awareness is ____________ awareness of others.
(a) more important than
(b) less important than
(c) as important as
(d) not at all related to

47

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CHAPTER 2

Diversity, Personality, and Values

3. Self-efficacy is a form of ____________.

(a) self-awareness
(b) self-esteem
(c) nurture
(d) agreeableness
4. Personality encompasses ____________.
(a) the overall combination of characteristics that capture the unique nature of a person
(b) only the nurture components of self
(c) only the nature components of self
(d) how self-aware someone is
5. People who are high in internal locus of control ____________.
(a) believe what happens to them is determined by environmental forces such as fate
(b) believe that they control their own fate or destiny
(c) are highly extraverted
(d) do worse on tasks requiring learning and initiative
6. Proactive personality is ____________ in todays work environments.
(a) punished
(b) missing
(c) becoming more important
(d) losing importance
7. People who would follow unethical orders without question would likely be high in
____________.
(a) internal locus of control
(b) Machiavellianism
(c) proactive personality and extraversion
(d) authoritarianism and dogmatism
8. Managers who are hard-driving, detail-oriented, have high performance standards,
and thrive on routine could be characterized as ____________.
(a) Type B
(b) Type A
(c) high self-monitors
(d) low Machs
9. Eustress is ____________ stress, while distress is ____________ stress.
(a) constructive, destructive
(b) destructive, constructive
(c) negative, positive
(d) the most common, the most relevant
10. Coping involves both ____________ and ____________ elements.
(a) cognitive, intellectual
(b) promotion, prevention
(c) problem-focused, emotion-focused (d) cultural, psychological
11. When it comes to values, ____________.
(a) instrumental values are more important than terminal values
(b) value congruence is what seems to be most important for satisfaction
(c) it is rare that people hold similar values
(d) most cultures share the same values
12. Culture is ____________.
(a) a persons major beliefs and personal orientation concerning a range of issues
(b) the way a person gathers and evaluates information
(c) the way someone appears to others when interacting in social settings
(d) the learned, shared way of doing things in a particular society