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Example 1

A control system consists of three separate subsystems, all components of


which have reliabilities that are exponentially distributed. The subsystems are
(a) a single component having a failure rate of 1 106 /, (b) two
identical components having failure rates of 8 106 / and for which one
component must operate for success and, (c) three components having failure
rates of 5 106 /, 2 106 / and 10 106 / and for which
two components must operate for success. If all subsystems must be successful
for satisfactory system operation, evaluate the probability of surviving for a
period of 5000 hr.

2 out of 3

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Example 1
Solution:
= 5000

probability of surviving 5000 hrs =()()() = .

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Mean time to failure (MTTF)


(): distribution function of times to failure

=
0

: Mean time to failure

E(failure density function or distribution of times to failure)


E() is the expected value

We know that =

, thus:

= (
) = = 0 +

0
0
0
Since 0 = 1 & = 0
0 = 0 1 + 0 = 0, thus we have:

=
0

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MTTF for series systems

For a series system that its components follow exponential distribution

= = exp( ) .
0

1
=1

=1

1
1 + 2 + +

This could be intuitively deduced that the MTTF of an exponential distribution


is the reciprocal of the failure rate. Since a series system of components having
exponentially distributed reliabilities has an equivalent failure rate of =1
and the distribution is itself exponential, it would follow that the MTTF of such
a series system would be the reciprocal of its equivalent failure rate.

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MTTF for 2-component parallel systems


For a 2-component parallel system that its components follow exponential
distribution

= =
0

exp 1 + exp 2 exp 1 + 2 .

Solving the above integral results in the following equation:


1
1
1
= +
1 2 1 + 2

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MTTF for n-component parallel systems


For an n-component parallel system
=
1
1
1
1
1
1
+ + +

+
+
+
1 2

1 + 2 1 + 3
+
1
1
1
+
+
+ +
+ .
1 + 2 + 3 1 + 2 + 4
+ +

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Standby systems

Standby redundant system


e.g., it is impractical to have the main electricity supply connected to a protection system
simultaneously with a back-up battery supply.

This type of system may also be particularly advantageous when the redundant
standby component(s) has a lower failure rate in the standby or idle mode than it
has in the operating mode.

The fundamental problem in standby systems is that a failure sensing and


changeover device is required to bring the standby unit into operation when the
main component fails.

These elements are additional items not required in parallel redundant systems and
therefore can and do affect the overall reliability of the system.

Hence it is not possible to generalize whether standby systems are more reliable or
less reliable than parallel redundant systems; each must be analyzed separately and
the relative merits compared.

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Standby systems: perfect switching


2-component system

2 identical component:
a single main component
one standby component
Assume a constant hazard rate, i.e., the failures are described by exponential
distributions
This arrangement can be regarded as an equivalent single unit which is allowed to fail
once.
After the first failure of the equivalent unit (failure of A), the standby component (B)
takes over for the remainder of the mission and therefore the system does not fail.
If there is a second failure of the equivalent unit (failure of B), the system also fails.
The logic of this system operation implies that the Poisson distribution can be used to
evaluate the probability of system failure since this distribution gives the probability of
any number of component failures provided the components are operating in their useful
life period.

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Standby systems: perfect switching


2-component system (i.e., 1 main and 1 standby)

In this case it is necessary to find the probability of not more than one failure.
Poisson distribution:

=
!
: the probability that components fail in time
P[no components fail]= 0 = t
P[exactly one component fails]= 1 = t

Therefore, the reliability of the system is


= 0 + 1 () = t (1 + )

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LSU

Classroom activity 1
2 standby components (i.e., 1 main and 2 standby)
Now consider one main component and two standby components, and
assume that the switching is perfect
The number of failures that can be tolerated in the equivalent unit is two before
the system fails

What is the system reliability?

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LSU

Classroom activity 1
2 standby components (i.e., 1 main and 2 standby)
Now consider one main component and two standby components, and
assume that the switching is perfect
The number of failures that can be tolerated in the equivalent unit is two before
the system fails

The system reliability is as follows:


2

= 0 + 1 + 2 () = t (1 + +
)
2!

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Classroom activity 2
n standby components (i.e., 1 main and n standby)
Consider a system with n standby components, and assume that the
switching is perfect
The number of failures that can be tolerated in the equivalent unit is n before
the system fails

What is the system reliability?

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Classroom activity 2
n standby components (i.e., 1 main and n standby)
Consider a system with n standby components, and assume that the
switching is perfect
The number of failures that can be tolerated in the equivalent unit is n before
the system fails

The system reliability is


= 0 + 1 + 2 + + ()

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Standby systems: perfect switching


Mean time to failure:
We know that (see slide 7):

=
0

Thus, for a single standby component

=
and for n standby components
=

This result is intuitively obvious as the system becomes serial. As one component fails, a
second identical component comes into operation.
Therefore, the system MTTF is the sum of the individual component MTTF values.

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Example 2

Consider the two following power systems. System (a) is parallel redundant and
system (b) is standby redundant. The consumers, which consume 6MW, are
supported by the power distribution networks. Transformers T1 and T2 each having
a failure rate of 0.02 f/hr.
a) Compare the reliability of the two systems after a time of 10 hr if power distribution
network, load and sensing and changeover devices are all 100% reliable.
b) Also, compare the MTTFs of the two systems.
B1

T1

B1

Power distribution
network

B1

Electric power
consumer

T1

B1
Switch

Power distribution
network

6 MW

6 MW
T2

(a)

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Electric power
consumer

T2

(b)

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Example 2
Parallel system (a)
= 1 + 2 (12)

1
1

1
2

1
1 +2

Standby redundant system (b)


= 0 + 1 = t (1 + )

2
= =

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Example 2
It can be seen from this example that the reliability of the standby system is
greater than that of the parallel redundant system.
It should be noted however that this is a general conclusion only when the
sensing and changeover device is 100% reliable.
This comparison is also reflected in the values of MTTF where the standby
system MTTF is significantly longer than that of the parallel redundant
system.
It should be remembered that the MTTF is only meaningful if the
components do not enter the wear-out region before the scheduled end of
the mission.

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