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UNIT 3
SENSORS AND MACHINE VISION
Prepared by
S. Senthil Kumar, M.Tech
Assistant professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Sri Vidya College of Engineering and Technology
Virudhunagar
Transducers and Sensorswww.rejinpaul.com

Transducers:
Converts one type of physical variable into another form
Sensors:
Is a transducer which is used to make a measurement of a physical variable
of interest
Some common sensors and transducers include strain gauges, thermocouple,
speedometers and pitot tubes
Types of sensors and transducers:

1.
2.
Analog transducers
Digital transducers
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Desirable features of sensors
Accuracy:
True value can be sensed with no systematic positive or negative errors
Precision:
Little or no random variability in the measured variable
Operating range:
Sensor should provide a wide operating range
Speed of response:
Capable of responding to changes in the sensed variable in minimum time
Calibration:
Should be easy to calibrate
Reliability:
Should not be subjected to frequent failures during operation
Cost and ease of operation:

Cost must be low
Installation and operation of the device would not require a specially
trained or highly skilled operator
Types of Sensors
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Position sensors
Piezo electric sensors

LVDT
Resolvers
Optical encoders
Pneumatic position sensors
Range Sensors
Triangulation principle
Structured lighting approach
Time of flight range finders
Laser range meters
Types of Sensors
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Proximity sensors
Inductive and capacitive

Hall effect sensors
Ultrasonic proximity sensors
Optical proximity sensors
Touch sensors
Binary sensors
Analog sensors
Wrist sensors
Compliance sensors
Slip sensors
Position sensors
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Device that permits position measurement.

Either be an absolute position sensor or a relative
Types:
Piezoelectric sensor:
Piezo electric materials when stretched
or compressed generates electric charges with
one face of the material becoming positively charged and another
face become negatively charged
As a result a voltage is produced
The net charge on a surface is proportional to the amount by
which the charges have been displaced
Position sensors
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LVDT:
Linear Variable Differential Transformer
Consists of 3 coils
1 primary coil
2 secondary coils
Central coil is primary and other 2 are identical secondary

coils which are connected in series, such a way their output
oppose each other
Position sensors
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Magnetic core is moved through the central tube as a result of

displacement being monitored
When there is an alternating voltage input to the primary coil,
alternating e.m.f.s induced in secondary coils
With the magnetic core central, the amount of magnetic
material in each coil are the same, since their output oppose
each other the net result is zero output
When the core is displaced from the central position there is a
greater amount of magnetic core in one coil than the other,
resulting in greater e.m.f. is induced in one coil than the other
Operating range is from 2 to 400 mm with non-linearity
errors of 0.25%
The free end of the rod may be spring loaded for contact with
the surface being monitored
Position sensors
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Pneumatic position sensors:

Low pressure air allowed to escape through a port in front of
the sensor
This escaping air, in the absence of any close by object,
escapes and in doing so also reduces the pressure in nearby
sensor output
If there is a close by object, the air cannot so readily escapes
and this increases the sensor output port
Such sensors are used
for the measurement
of displacements of
fractions of mm in a
range of about 3 - 12
mm
Position sensors
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Encoders:
Gives a digital output as a result of linear or angular position
Incremental encoders
Detects changes in rotation from some datum position
Absolute encoders
Gives actual angular position
A beam of light passes through slots in a disc and it is detected

by a suitable light sensor
When the disc is rotated, a pulsed output is produced by the
sensor with the number of pulses being proportional to the
angle through which the disc rotates
Thus, angular position of the shaft is determined by the
number of pulses produced since some datum position
The resolution is determined by the number of slots in the disc
If there are 60 slots in the disc, then resolution = 6
10
Position sensors
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Encoders:
11
Position sensors
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Resolver:
Type of rotary electrical transformer used for measuring
degrees of rotation.
It is considered as an analog device
For position evaluation, resolver to digital converters are
commonly used
They convert sine and cosine signal into binary signal that can
be more easily be used by the controller
12
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Position sensors
Resolver
Encoder
Angle measurement
absolute
absolute or incremental
Absolute resolution
16 bits
13 bits
Incremental resolution
N/A
10,000 lines/revolution
Accuracy (arc minutes)
4 to 40
.25 to 6
Electronic interface
R/D converter
direct
Noise immunity
sensitive
best
Output signal
analog
analog or digital
Construction materials
robust
fragile
Weight
heavy
lighter
Inertia
high
low
Longevity
very high
high
Shock/vibration
rugged
limited
Temperature
+150 C
+100 C
Contamination
immune
vulnerable
Implementation
complex
simple
Interchangeability
limited
vast
Retrofit/upgrade
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Range sensors
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Triangulation principle:
Laser is directed to the surface at an oblique angle
By means of camera the displacement of the bright laser lines
can be determined in the image
If the angle between the camera and laser and the line
displacement is known, the component height can be
calculated
14
Range sensors
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Even differences of tenths of millimeters can be detected easily

in practice without special effort
In case of obtuse angle, the measuring accuracy is low, but
large differences in height can be detected
15
Range sensors
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Structured lighting approach:

Used for measuring 3-D shape of an object using projected
light patterns and a camera system
Goal is to produce a depth edge of the real world scene
Projection of patterns consisting of many stripes at once
Applied in precision shape measurement for production
control(turbine blades), capturing environments for augmented
reality gaming
16
Range sensors
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Time of flight range finders:

Time of flight:
Method that measures the time taken by the object, particle or
wave to travel through a particular medium
Used for the measurement of distance
As time-of-flight measurements are preferentially used for
large distances, the beam quality of the laser source is crucial
Applied in safety sensors, single spot parking sensor, distance
measurement gauge
Very high photosensitivity allows the operating ranges up to
several meters and a accuracy down to a centimeter depending
on the lens and illumination power
17
Range sensors
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Laser range meter:

Uses laser beam to determine the distance of object
Operates on time of flight principle by sending a laser pulse in
a narrow beam towards the object and measuring the time
taken by the pulse to be reflected off the target and returned to
the sender
Due to high speed of light, this technique is not appropriate for
high precision sub-millimeter measurements, where other
techniques are used
18
Proximity Sensors
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Able to detect the presence of nearby objects without any

physical contact
Proximity sensor may often emit an electromagnetic field or a
beam of electromagnetic radiation and looks for changes in the
field or return signal
Maximum distance that this sensor can detect is defined as
nominal range
They are highly reliable
Used in parking systems, vibration measurement systems,
conveyor systems
19
Proximity Sensors
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Inductive and capacitive proximity sensors:

Operating principle is based on a high frequency oscillator that
creates a field in the close surroundings of the sensing surface
The presence of metallic and any material in the operating area
causes a change of oscillation amplitude
The rise or fall of such oscillation is identified by a threshold
circuit that changes the output state of sensor
Operating distance of the sensor depends on the actuators
shape and size and is strictly linked to the nature of material
Sensitivity regulation is useful in applications, such as
detection of full containers and non-detection of empty
containers
20
Proximity sensors
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Hall effect sensors:

Hall effect:
When a beam of charged particles passes through a magnetic
field, forces act on the particles and the beam is deflected from
the straight line path
A current flowing in the conductor is like a beam of moving
charges and thus can be deflected by a magnetic field
Working:
Consider electrons moving in a conductive plate with a
magnetic field at right angles to the plane of the plate
As a consequence of the magnetic field, the moving electrons
are deflected to one side of the plate and thus that side
becomes negatively charged, while the opposite side becomes
positively charged since the electrons are directed away from it
This charge separation produces an electric field in the
material
21
Proximity Sensors
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The
charge
separation
continues until the forces on
the charged particles from
the electric field just balance
the forces produced by the
magnetic field
22
Proximity Sensors
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Ultrasonic proximity sensors:

Evaluates the attributes of a target by interpreting the echoes
from radio or sound waves respectively
Converts energy into ultra sound or sound waves above the
normal range of human hearing
Components are emitter and detector

Emitter continuously emits the light
When the target comes with in the operating range of the
sensor the light from the emitter is reflected off the target and
detected by the detector
23
Proximity Sensors
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Optical proximity sensors:

Costs more than other types of proximity sensors
Widely used in automated systems
Commonly known as light beam sensors
24
Touch Sensors
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Can be generated by robots arm movements

Enables the robot to predict the resulting sensor signals of its
internal motions
Measures force, contact time and repetition
Robots uses touch signals to map the profile of a surface in
hostile environment such as water pipe
Types:
Analog Sensors
Digital Sensors
25
Touch Sensors
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Analog Sensors:
Gives the change in electric property to signify the change in
environment
Sensor circuits are designed to monitor these changes and
provide a voltage difference
26
Touch Sensors
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Digital Sensors:
Output of this sensor can be either ON or OFF or it can be 1 or
0
27
Wrist Sensors
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Several different forces exist at the point where a robot arm

joins the end effectors
Wrist force sensor can detect and measure these forces
Consists of specialized pressure sensors known as strain gauges
Strain gauges convert the wrist forces into electric signals,
which go to the robot controller
28
Slip sensors
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Slip can be defined as relative movement of one objects

surface over an other when in contact
In an assembly operation, it is possible to test the occurrence
of slip to indicate some pre determined contact forces between
the object and assembled part
To implement this grasping motion with the robot hand,
sensors have been proposed that detect an incipient slip with in
the contact surface or stick-slip
29
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UNIT 4
Robot kinematics and Robot
Programming
Prepared by
S. Senthil Kumar
AP/MECH
SVCET
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Robot Programming
Teach Pendant Programming
Programmers pendant
Operators pendant
Lead Through programming

Powered lead through
Manual lead through
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Teach pendant Programming
Serves as a primary point of control for initiating and

monitoring operations
Guides the robot while teaching the locations
Types:
Programmers pendant
Operators pendant
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Programmers pendant is designed for using while an

application is being written and debugged
Operators pendant is designed for use during normal system
operation
Operator pendant has a palm operated switch, which is
connected to the remote emergency stop circuitry of the
controller
Major areas of teach pendant are
Data entry buttons
Used to input data normally in response to prompts that appear on the
pendant display
Emergency stop switch

Halts program execution and turns off power
User LED:
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When it is not lit, none of the predefined functions are being used
When it is lit application program is being in use
Mode control buttons:

When it is in manual mode, these buttons select which robot joint will
move, or the co-ordinate axis along which the robot will move
Manual state LEDs:

Indicated the type of manual motion that has been selected
Speed bars:
Used to control robots speed and direction
Slow button:
Selects between two different speed ranges of speed bars
Pre-defined function button:

display of co-ordinates, clear error etc.,
Programmable function button:

Used in custom application programs
Soft button:
Depends on application program being run, or the selection made from the
pre-defined function
buttons
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Robot is moved through the desired motion path in order to

record the path into controller memory
Two types
Powered lead through
Manual lead through
Powered lead through:

Makes use of teach pendant to control various joint motors
Helps in driving the robot arm and wrist through series of
points in space
Each point is recorded in memory for subsequent playback
during work cycle
Largely limited to point to point control options, since it is
difficult to regulate complex geometric motions in space
Includes part transfer tasks, machine loading and unloading
and spot welding
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Manual lead through:

Also called as walk through method
Used for continuous path programming where the motion
cycle involves smooth complex curvilinear movements of arm
Most widely used application is Spray painting, where the gun
is attached at the end effector must execute a smooth, regular
motion pattern to pain in an even manner over the entire
surface to be coated
Continuous arc welding is another example
The programmer physically grasps the robot arm and manually
moves it through the desired motion cycle
If the robot is large, it will be difficult to move
Two modes of control systems for both lead through procedures:
1. teach mode : used to program the robot
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2. Run mode : used Get
to execute
the program
Robot programming Languages

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Textual robot languages possess a variety of structures and
capabilities
Generation of programming languages:
First generation language
Second generation language
Future generation language
First generation language:
Uses a combination of command statements
Developed largely to implement motion control with a textual
programming language
Also called as motion level languages
Typical features include
Ability to define manipulator motions

Straight line interpolation
Branching
Elementary sensorGet
commands
involving
binary
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VAL programming is an example of first generation robot
programming language
Limitations include
Inability to specify complex arithmetic computations for use during
program execution
Inability to make use of complex sensors and sensor data
Limited capacity to communicate with other computers
Second generation languages:

Overcome many of the limitations of the first generation
languages
Enables the robot to accomplish more complex tasks
Also called as structured programming languages
Commercially available languages include
AML, RAIL, MCL, VAL-II
Programming in these languages is similar to computer

programming
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One limitation is that computer programmers skills are

required to accomplish the programming
Features and capabilities are
Motion control
Basically same as for the first generation languages
Advanced sensor capabilities

Capacity to deal with more than simple binary signals like analog signals
Capacity to control devices by means of sensory data
Limited intelligence
Ability to utilize information received about the work environment to modify
system behavior in a programmed manner
Communications and data processing

Provisions for interacting with computers and computer data bases
Sensors can be able to measure the forces

Limited intelligence is provided
Error recovery is enhanced

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Future generation languages:
Involves a concept called work modeling
Robot possesses a three dimensional world and it is capable of
developing its own step by step procedure to perform a task
based on a stated objective of what is to be accomplished
Two basic ingredients
First, is robot system has its control memory a 3-D model
This model includes the robot manipulator itself, the work table,
fixtures, tools etc.,
At times the robot develops its own three 3-D model of work space
Second, is the capacity of automatic self programming
In effect, the human programmer gives the system an objective, and the
system develops its own program of actions required to accomplish the
objective
VAL Programming
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Victors Assembly Language, named after Victor Scheinman in

1979 by Unimation, Inc., for its PUMA robot series
The language is then upgraded to VAL II in 1984
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Unit V
Implementation and Robot Economics
Prepared by
S. Senthil Kumar
AP/MECH
SVCET
Steps involved in implementation of robots are
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Initial familiarization with the technology

Plant survey to identify potential applications
Selection of the application
Selection of the robot
Detailed economic analysis and capital authorization
Planning and engineering the installation
Installation
Robot implementation
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Initial familiarization with the technology:

It is important that the management should provide continuous
support for the implementation f new robot
It is important that the manager responsible for using the
system also be committed to its success
Another way to key success is to include production personnel
in the project
Without the acceptance of workers the problem of installing
and operating a robot cell in the plant becomes much more
difficult
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Plant survey to identify potential applications:

Hazardous or uncomfortable working conditions
Repetitive operations
Difficult handling jobs
Multi shift operation
Selection of best application:
Operation is simple and repetitive
Cycle time of operation
Delivery of parts
Part weight
Inspection requirement
Replacement of persons
Setups and changeovers are frequent
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Selection of robot:
Material transfer
Machine loading
Spot welding
Arc welding
Spray coating
Assembly
Detailed economic analysis and capital authorization:
The engineer must describe the project in terms of its
application features, required change to existing equipment,
new equipment that must be acquired, fixtures and tooling,
anticipated production rates, effects on labor, potential
problem areas
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Planning and engineering the installation:

Study the operation method
Design of robot workcell
Workcell control
Safety considerations designed into the cell
End effector design
Design of other tools and fixtures for the cell
Installation:
start up
Debugging
Trial production runs
Fine tuning of workcell
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Safety Consideration for Robot Operations
There are three occasions when humans are close enough to

machine to be exposed to danger
During programming of robot
During operation of the robot cell when humans work in the
cell
During maintenance of robot
Work design consideration for safety:
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Safety Consideration for Robot Operations
Safety sensors and safety monitoring:

Level 1 perimeter penetration detection
Level 2 intruder detection inside workcell
Level 3 intruder detection in the immediate vicinity of the
robot
Training:
Awareness
Justification
Application
Operations and maintenance
Economic Analysis
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Basic data required:

Type of robot installation
Cost data required for analysis
Direct cost assosiated with robot project
Investment cost
Operating cost and savings
Method of Economic Analysis:

Pay back method
Equivalent uniform annual cost method
Return on investment method

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Transducers and Sensorswww.rejinpaul.com

Types of sensors and transducers:

Cost and ease of operation:

Piezo electric sensors

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Inductive and capacitive

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Device that permits position measurement.

Central coil is primary and other 2 are identical secondary

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Magnetic core is moved through the central tube as a result of

Pneumatic position sensors:

A beam of light passes through slots in a disc and it is detected

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Accuracy (arc minutes)

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Even differences of tenths of millimeters can be detected easily

Structured lighting approach:

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