SUBMITTED TO: Sir DR: Kanya

Q1: Discuss:

Q1: Discuss:
1. Creep and Brittle fracture:
Ans:

CREEP:

When materials under severe service conditions are required

to sustain steady loads for long periods of time, they undergo a time
dependent deformation. This is known as creep.
It can also be defined as
the slow and progressive deformation of a
material with time at constant stress. Creep is found to occur at higher
temperature than at lower temp. Therefore the study of creep is very
important for those materials which are used at high temp like components
of gas turbines, furnaces, rockets, missiles etc.

Creep curve:

The creep curve is obtained by applying a constant

tensile load below the yield point to a specimen maintained at constant
temperature.
As soon as the specimen is loaded, there will be an instantaneous strain
which is denoted by o on the creep curve. Further deformation of the
metal only after the instantaneous strain is considered as
creep
deformation.

Primary creep: OR TRANSIENT CREEP :

This is the first stage of the creep which represents a region of decreasing
creep rate. In this region the rate at which the material deforms decreases
with time until it reaches a constant value. The creep rate goes on reducing
because as the metal deforms it undergoes strain hardening and offers more
and more resistance to further elongation.

Transient creep:
The principle characteristic of transient creep is the decreasing rate in
deformation. Deformation is rapid at first but gradually becomes slower and
slower as the rate approaches some fixed value. Transient creep in metals is
observed at all temp, even near absolute zero. Hence it is some times
referred to as cold creep.

Secondary creep: [steady state creep] :

Nearly constant creep rate, because strain-hardening and recovery effects
balance each other. Creep in this region takes place by the viscous flow in
the materials.

Viscous creep: SECONDARY CREEP]

It is characterized by the viscous flow of the material means that there is a
constant or a steady increase in deformation at constant stress. Although
strain hardening is present, its effect is just balanced by the recovery
process which has the opposite effect i.e softening the metal. viscous creep
is stopped when there is considerable reduction in cross sectional area and
enters the tertiary stage . The rate of deformation increases rapidly in this
3rd stage and fracture occurs at the end of this stage. Viscous creep also
known as hot creep', since it is observed only at higher temperature.

Tertiary creep :
This stage is period of increasing strain rate. Tertiary creep occurs when
there is an effective reduction in cross-sectional area due to necking or
internal void formation. If the stress is kept constant of the load or if true
strain is taken into consideration then the resulting fracture due to creep
would be at B.

Effect of low temperature :

Temperature below Tm/4
are called as LOWER TEMP. lower temp have an
effect of decreasing the creep rate. This is because strain hardening effects
will be more and recovery process is negligible. Creep occurring at lower
temp is known as logarithmic creep

= ln t

where - strain ,
a constant , t time .

Effect of high temperature:

structural changes takes place.
Mobility of atoms increases
with temp and occupy lower energy positions.
Mobility of dislocation also increases
and they overcome the obstacles
by the mechanism of climb. The concentration of vacancies increases with
temp and the rate of diffusion increases. Recrystallization takes place as a
result of increased rate of diffusion.
At Higher temp. the creep rate increases.

Brittle Fracture:
Brittle fracture is a breakage or cracking of a material into discernible parts,
from which no deformation can be identified (a clean break). It is
characterized by rapid crack propagation with low energy release and
without significant plastic deformation. The fracture may have a bright

granular appearance. The fractures are generally of the flat type and chevron
patterns may be present.
In brittle crystalline materials, fracture can occur by cleavage as the result of
tensile stress acting normal to crystallographic planes with low bonding
(cleavage planes). In amorphous solids, by contrast, the lack of a crystalline
structure results in a conchoidal fracture, with cracks proceeding normal to
the applied tension. In brittle fracture, cracks run close to perpendicular to
the applied stress. This perpendicular fracture leaves a relatively flat surface
at the break. Besides having a nearly flat fracture surface, brittle materials
usually contain a pattern on their fracture surfaces. Some brittle materials
have lines and ridges beginning at the origin of the crack and spreading out
across the crack surface. Since there is very little plastic deformation before
failure occurs, in most cases this is the worst type of fracture because the
visible damage cannot be repaired in a part or structure before it breaks.
Brittle fractures display either transgranular or intergranular fracture. This
depends upon whether the grain boundaries are stronger or weaker than the
grains:

Transgranular fracture : The fracture travels through the grain of the

material. Cracks choose the path of least resistance. Intergranular fracture The crack travels along the grain boundaries, and not through the actual
grains. This usually occurs when the phase in the grain boundary is weak and
brittle.

Intergranular Fracture:
Intergranular fracture is the propagation of cracks along the grain boundaries
of a metal or alloy. It is a fracture that follows the grains of the material.
Intergranular fractures travel along the grain boundaries, rather than through
the actual grains. This usually occurs when the phase in the grain boundary
is weak and brittle (such as cementite in iron's grain boundaries). This can be
visualized as a 3-D puzzle: Transgranular fracture cuts through the puzzle
pieces, while intergranular fracture travels along the precut edges of the
puzzle pieces.
Crack initiation and propagation accompany fracture. The manner in which
the crack propagates through the material provides great insight into the
mode of fracture. In this fracture, cracks spread very rapidly with little or no
plastic deformation. Once initiated, the cracks that propagate in a brittle
material continue to grow and increase in magnitude.

2.

STRAIN ROSETTES:

Definition:

A strain gauge rosette is, by definition, an arrangement of

two or more closely positioned gauge grids, separately oriented to measure
the normal strains along different directions in the underlying surface of the
test part.
Rosettes are designed to perform a very practical and important function
inexperimental stress analysis. It can be shown that for the not-uncommon
case of the general biaxial stress state, with the principal directions
unknown, three independent strain measurements (in different directions)
are required to determine the principal strains and stresses. And even when
the principal directions are known in advance, two independent strain
measurements are needed to obtain the principal strains and stresses. In
common with single-element strain gauges, rosettes are manufactured from
different combinations of grid alloy and backing material to meet varying
application requirements. They are also offered in a number of gauge
lengths, noting that the gauge length specified for a rosette refers to the
active length of each individual grid within the rosette.

Types Of Strain Rosette:

To meet the foregoing requirements, the Micro-Measurements Division
manufacturesthree basic types of strain gauge rosettes (each in a variety of
forms):

1. Tee (0-90 degree):

Two mutually perpendicular grids.

As shown in figure below:

Rectangular Rosette (0-45-90 degree):

Three grids, with the second and third grids angularly displaced from the first
grid by45 degrees and 90 degrees, respectively.
It is shown below:

3.Delta Rosette (0-60-120 degree):

Three grids, with the second and third grids 60 degrees and 120 degrees
away,respectively, from the first grid.

4.Stacked
Co-location of the gauges requires mounting each individual gauge on top of
the others in what is called a stacked rosette, but this leads to a
complicated and often inaccurate type of gauge.

3. Shear Flow and Shear Centre:

Shear Flow:
The topic of shear flow frequently occurs when dealing with built-up
beams. These are beams fabricated with several pieces joined by glue, nails,
bolts, or welds. These fasteners must be sufficiently strong to withstand the
lateral (transverse) or longitudinal shear. It is common to describe the load
by the term, shear flow given by the following relation:

q = VQ/I
where ,

q is the shear flow in (lb/in), (lb/ft), (N/mm), (N/m)

V is the value of the shear force at the section

Q is the first moment of the area between the location where

the shear stress is being calculated and the location where the shear stress
is zero about the neutral (centroidal) axis;
The shear flow may be used to calculate the shear stress (in the case of
continuous joints)
by dividing by the width of the beam supporting the stress.

= VQ/It
where
t is the width of the cross-section at the location where the
shear stress is
being calculated

If the joints are not continuous such as in nails, screws, and bolts, then it is
more convenient
to use q as force per unit length along the beam.
In such a case q (lb/in) = F(lb/nail) / s(in/nail)

Here

F = s q and F is the force across one nail and s is the nail

spacing.

Shear center:
Shear center is defined as the point about which the external load has to be
applied so that it produces no twisting moment.
the torsional moment due to the shear force xy and xz about the origin is,

(8.210)

Mx

[xzy

xyz]dydz.

Since, axzdydz = V z and axydydz = V y , the moment about

some other point (ysc,zsc) would be,

M sc=
(8.211)

[xzy - xyz]dydz - Vzysc + Vyzsc. x

If this point (ysc,zsc) is the shear center, then Mxsc = 0. Thus, we have to
find y sc and zsc such that,

[ y - z]dydz - V y + V z = 0,

a
xz
(8.212)

xy

sc

sc

holds. We have two unknowns but only one equation. Hence, we cannot find
ysc and zsc uniquely, in general. If the loading is such that only shear force V
y is present, then

-1-zsc = V
(8.213)

[xyz - xzy ]dydz.

Similarly, if V y = 0,
1 ysc
(8.214)

---

[xzy

xyz

]dydz.

Vz

Equations (8.213) and (8.214) are used to find the coordinates of the shear
center with respect to the chosen origin of the coordinate system, which for
homogeneous sections is usually taken as the centroid of the cross section.
Thus, the point that (ysc,zsc) are the coordinates of the shear center from
the origin of the chosen coordinate system which in many cases would be
the centroid of the section cannot be overemphasized. In the case of thin
walled sections which develop shear stresses tangential to the cross section,
xy = - sin() and xz = cos(), where is the magnitude of the shear
stress and is the angle the tangent to the cross section makes with the z
direction.
By virtue of the shear stress depending linearly on the shear force (see
equations (8.43) and (8.207)), it can be seen that the coordinates of the
shear center is a geometric property of the section.

Q2: What do you understand by stresses due

to unsymmetrical bending and give at least
two examples?
Unsymmetrical Bending :
in strength of materials, a type of deformation characterized by distortion
(change of curvature) of a bar under the influence of external forces that
pass through its axis and do not coincide with any of its principal planes (for
example, passing through the axis of symmetry of the cross section).
Unsymmetrical bending is a special case of resistance to combined stress.
Unsymmetric beam bending is really just two problems added together using
the principle of superposition. Normally, a beam is loaded in the y-direction

causing a moment about the z axis. But the beam can also be loaded in the
z-direction causing a moment about the y axis. Both y-First, consider a beam
that is loaded only in the y-direction as shown at the left. These loads cause
a bending moment about the z axes. This has been analyzed previously in
the Bending Stress section. At any given location a-a, the bending stress will
be

where Mz is the internal moment and Iz is the moment of inertia, both about
the z axis.
Notice that a positive y produces a negative stress which indicates a
compression stress. Also, the double-headed arrow represents a moment
rotating about the vector direction. Using the right-hand rule, the thumb
points in the direction of the double-headed arrow and the fingers are in the
direction of the moment. solved separately for bending stress, and then add
the results together.
If the load is at an angle to the beam, but is in the y-z plane, then the load
can be reduced into two forces in the direction of the y and z axes. In this
section, all loads are assumed to act through the beam shear center
(generally the centroid) so that there is no rotation or twisting about the xaxes. This helps simplify the calculations.
The two bending stresses, b-z and b-y can be added together using the
principle of superposition. This gives the final unsymmetric bending stress as
,The maximum tension and compression bending stress is not obvious. As
shown in the diagram at the left, the bending stress is a tetrahedral shape
and increases as the distance from the neutral increases.

Problem 1 : A cantilever beam carries the force and couple

shown in Fig. P-552. Determine the maximum tensile and

compressive bending stresses developed in the beam.

Solution:

R= 5kps
M=5(8)-30= 10Kips-ft
Fb= My/I
At, M=+10Kip-ft of moment diagarm

Fbc= 10(6)(12)=8Ksiupper fiber

Fbt= 10(2)(12)/90 = 2.67Ksi.lower fiber
At, M= -20Kip-ft of moment diagram,
Fbc= 20(2)(12)/90 =5.33Ksi.lower fiber
Fbt=20(6)(12)/90 = 1.6Ksiupper fiber
Maximum bending stress:
Fbc=8Ksi,

Fbt=16Ksi

Answer

Problem 2: A steel wire of 5mm diameter is bent to a

circular shape of 5m radius, determine the maximum
bending stress in wire, Take E=20GPa.
Data:
D=5mm
R=5M=5000mm
E=20GPa=200*10^5N/mm2
P(Stress)B=?
P(Stress)B=E/R* y
Y= d/2 =5/2 mm =2.5mm
Now, P(Stress) B = 200*10^5 * 2.5/ 5000
, P(Stress) B= 100MPa

Answer

Q3: Explain theories of Plastic and elastic bending , give

at least one example of each:
Theory of Plastic Bending Of Beams :
As the load on a particular beam is gradually increased, the greatest Stresses
will occur at the extreme fibres of the "weakest" section (Note : In some
Steels when the elastic limit is reached there is a marked reduction in Stress
and in any calculations the lower Yield Stress is taken - See graph). These
outer fibres are said to be in the plastic state, and any increase in loading will
result in a considerable increase in Strain and hence deflection at that
section of the Beam. There will also be a redistribution of Stress. With Mild
Steel this increase in Strain can take place without the Stress rising above
the yield point (i.e. any Strain Hardening effects can be neglected and the
plastic Strain at yield is in the order of 10 - 20 times the Elastic Strain). It can
therefore be assumed that the Stress in the plastic region is Constant. When
the whole cross section at any point in a structure becomes Plastic, no
further increase in the moment of resistance is possible without excessive
Strain (equivalent to an increase in the Curvature at that section) and a
plastic hinge has been developed; one or more such hinges are required for a
complete collapse. The number depends upon the type of structure and
whether it is, for example, a simply supported beam, a built-in beam or a
rigid frame. The value of the load required to produce this state is called the
Collapse Load, and the ratio of the Collapse Load to the Working Load is
called the Load Factor. In plastic design this factor is used instead of the
normal Factor of Safety.Assumptions In The Plastic Theory:
The requirement is to calculate the Bending Moment needed to form a Plastic
hinge in any particular cross section, and to determine the distribution of
Bending Moment along the beam at the Collapse Load. To do this it is normal

to

make

the

following

assumptions:-

1.

That the material exhibits a marked yield and can undergo

considerable Strain at Yield without any further increase in Stress. In
effect this limits the theory to applications using Mild Steels as the
material has a drop in Stress at Yield. The lower yield stress is used in
calculations.
2. The Yield Stress is the same in Tension and Compression.
3. Transverse cross-sections remain plane so that the Strain is
proportional to the distance from the Neutral Axis. However, in the
Plastic region the Stress will remain Constant and is not proportional to
the Strain.
4. Once a Plastic Hinge has developed at any cross section, the Moment
of Resistance at that point will remain Constant until the collapse of the
whole structure has taken effect. This will only happen when the
required number of Plastic Hinges at other points have developed.

Theory Of Elastic Bending:

When a beam having an arbitrary cross section is subjected to a transverse
loads the beam will bend. In addition to bending the other effects such as
twisting and buckling may occur, and to investigate a problem that includes
all the combined effects of bending, twisting and buckling could become a
complicated one. Thus we are interested to investigate the bending effects
alone, in order to do so, we have to put certain constraints on the geometry
of the beam and the manner of loading.

Assumptions:
The constraints put on the geometry would form the assumptions:
1. Beam is initially straight , and has a constant cross-section.
2. Beam is made of homogeneous material and the beam has a
longitudinal plane of symmetry.
3. Resultant of the applied loads lies in the plane of symmetry.
4. The geometry of the overall member is such that bending not
buckling is the primary cause of failure.
5. Elastic limit is nowhere exceeded and E' is same in tension and
compression.
6. Plane cross - sections remains plane before and after bending..

Derivation Of Elastic Theory Of Bending:

In order to compute the value of bending stresses developed in a loaded beam, let
us consider the two cross-sections of a beam HE and GF , originally parallel as
shown in fig 1(a).when the beam is to bend it is assumed that these sections remain
parallel i.e. H'E' and G'F' , the final position of the sections, are still straight lines,
they then subtend some angle q.
Consider now fiber AB in the material, at adistance y from the N.A, when the beam
bends this will stretch to A'B'

Since CD and C'D' are on the neutral axis and it is assumed that the Stress
on the neutral axis zero. Therefore, there won't be any strain on the neutral
axis.

Now the termis the property of the material and is called as a second
moment of area of the cross-section and is denoted by a symbol I.
therefore

This equation is known as the Bending Theory Equation.The above proof has
involved the assumption of pure bending without any shear force being
present. Therefore this termed as the pure bending equation. This equation
gives distribution of stresses which are normal to cross-section i.e. in xdirection.