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TECHNOLOGY
PWM GENERATION
SUBMITTED BY:
PREET BATRA
SRUSHTI AVLANI
BT13EEE078
AVANTI SAPRE
BT13EEE090
BT13EEE091
RUTUJA MOHARIL
BT13EEE093
Op-amp as Multivibrator
The op amp as multivibrator is an astable oscillator circuit that generates a
rectangular output waveform using an RC timing network connected to the
inverting input of the operational amplifier and a voltage divider network
connected to the other non-inverting input.
Unlike the monostable or bistable, the astable multivibrator has two states,
neither of which are stable as it is constantly switching between these two
states with the time spent in each state controlled by the charging or
discharging of the capacitor through a resistor.
Working:
Initially the capacitor is uncharged condition, and we can expect 0V at the
inverting pin of the op-amp. In this condition the output is high, and the noninverting pin of the op-amp is getting a voltage, which is the output voltage
divided by the two resistors. The capacitor starts charging to the high
voltage of the output pin through the variable resistor RV1. While it is
charging the potential at the inverting pin gradually increases. Eventually at
some point of time, the voltage at the inverting pin reaches slightly above
the voltage at the non-inverting pin. At this point of time the output of the
op-amp goes low (negative) abruptly.
When the output pin becomes negative, the capacitor suddenly discharges
to zero and then starts charging in the negative direction. While it charges in
the negative direction, the output remains low since the non-inverting pin is
getting a low voltage divided from the output pin. At some point of time the
voltage at the inverting pin reaches below the voltage of the non-inverting
pin and the output goes high (positive) abruptly.
Op-amp as Integrator
When a step voltage, Vin is firstly applied to the input of an integrating
amplifier, the uncharged capacitor C has very little resistance and acts a bit
like a short circuit allowing maximum current to flow via the input
resistor, Rin as potential difference exists between the two plates. No current
flows into the amplifiers input and point X is a virtual earth resulting in zero
output. As the impedance of the capacitor at this point is very low, the gain
ratio of Xc/Rin is also very small giving an overall voltage gain of less than
one, ( voltage follower circuit ).
As the feedback capacitor, C begins to charge up due to the influence of the
input voltage, its impedance Xc slowly increase in proportion to its rate of
charge. The capacitor charges up at a rate determined by the RC time
constant, ( ) of the series RC network. Negative feedback forces the opamp to produce an output voltage that maintains a virtual earth at the opamps inverting input.
Since the capacitor is connected between the op-amps inverting input
(which is at earth potential) and the op-amps output (which is negative), the
potential voltage, Vc developed across the capacitor slowly increases
causing the charging current to decrease as the impedance of the capacitor
Op-amp as Comparator
In the inverting configuration, the reference voltage is connected to the noninverting input of the operational amplifier while the input signal is
connected to the inverting input. Then when VIN is less than VREF the op-amp
comparators output will saturate towards the positive supply rail, Vcc.
Likewise the reverse is true, when VIN is greater than VREF, the op-amp
comparators output will change state and saturate towards the negative
supply rail, 0v.
Then depending upon which op-amp inputs we use for the signal and the
reference voltage, we can produce an inverting or non-inverting output.
Circuit Diagram
COMPONENTS:
NAME
Number
op amp ic 741
Resistors: 1k,10k
5,1
Capacitors: 0.2uF,0.01uF
1,1
Pot: 1M
Buzzer
Connecting wires
Now varying the reference voltage level we can vary the on and off
period of the pwm signal. This can be seen by the different intensity of
the buzzer sound with varying duty ratio.
PROCEDURE
CONCLUSION
1. Thus a pwm generator can be constructed using ic 741.
2. The duty ratio can be varied by varying the reference voltage level.
3. Intensity of the sound of a buzzer is varied due to varying duty ratio.